The history of Istanbul goes back about 2,500 years. In 330, the capital of the Roman Empire was moved to Byzantium (this is what the city of Istanbul was originally called) by Emperor Constantine the Great. Constantine, who converted to Christianity, helped strengthen christian church, which actually took a dominant position under him and the formation Byzantine Empire, as the successor of Rimskaya. For his deeds he was canonized as Equal-to-the-Apostles saints in the Orthodox Church.
Emperor Constantine the Great receives the sign of the Cross of God
Constantine the Great biography
The biography of Constantine the Great is quite well studied, thanks to numerous surviving testimonies. The future emperor was born approximately in 272 in the territory of modern Serbia. His father was Constantius I Chlorus (who later became Caesar), and his mother was Helena (the daughter of a simple innkeeper). She played a very important role both in the life of her son and in the establishment of Christianity as the state religion of the Byzantine Empire. Helen, mother of Constantine the Great, was considered Orthodox Church to the rank of Equal-to-the-Apostles saints for his pilgrimage to the Holy Land, during which many churches were founded and parts of the Holy Cross and other Christian shrines were discovered.
Constantius, Constantine's father was forced to divorce Helen and marry the stepdaughter of Emperor Augustus Maximilian Herculius Theodora, from this marriage Constantine had half-sisters and brothers.
Life of Constantine the Great (Byzantine)
As a result of the political struggle, the father of Constantine the First, Constantius came to power as Caesar, and then as the full-fledged emperor of the western part of the Roman Empire, along with Emperor Galerius, who ruled then eastern part. Constantius was already weak and old. Anticipating imminent death, he invited his son, Konstantin, to his place. After the death of Constantius, the army of the western part of the empire proclaimed Constantine as their emperor, which in turn did not please Galerius, who did not officially recognize this fact.
Constantine the Great - the first Christian emperor
At the beginning of the 4th century, the Roman Empire was a politically fragmented state. In fact, there were up to 5 rulers in power, who called themselves both Augusti (senior emperors) and Caesars (junior emperors).
In 312, Constantine defeated the troops of Emperor Maxentius in Rome, in honor of which a statue was installed there. Triumphal Arch Konstantin. In 313, Constantine's main competitor, Emperor Licinius, defeated all his opponents and consolidated most of the Roman Empire in his hands. Gaul, Italy, the African possessions and Spain were now subordinate to Constantine, and all of Asia, Egypt and the Balkans to Licinius. Over the next 11 years, Constantine gained power throughout the empire, defeating Licinius and on September 18, 324 he was declared sole emperor.
After Constantine the Great became emperor, he first of all changed the administrative structure of the empire and, as they would say today, strengthened the vertical of power, since the country, which had experienced 20 years of civil wars, needed stability.
Coins of Constantine the Great can still be found in fairly good condition at international auctions.
Golden solidus of Emperor Constantine, 314
Constantine the Great and Christianity
During his reign, Emperor Constantine the First, in fact, made Christianity state religion. He actively led the reunion various parts churches, allowing everything internal contradictions, in particular, convening the famous Council of Nicaea in 325, which condemned the Arians and eliminated the emerging schism within the church.
Throughout the empire, Christian churches were actively built; for their construction, pagan temples were often destroyed. The church was gradually freed from all taxes and duties. In fact, Constantine gave Christianity a special status, which put rapid development this religion, and made Byzantium the future center of the Orthodox world.
Founding of Constantinople by Emperor Constantine the Great
The Empire, under the leadership of the newly proclaimed Emperor Constantine, needed a new capital, both for the reason external threats, and due to the removal of the problem of internal political struggle. In 324, Constantine's choice fell on the city of Byzantium, which had an excellent strategic position on the banks of the Bosporus Strait. Active construction begins this year new capital, various cultural treasures from all over the empire are delivered to it by order of the emperor. Palaces, temples, a hippodrome, and defensive walls are being built. It was under Constantine that the famous one was founded. On May 6, 330, the emperor officially moved the capital to Byzantium, and named it New Rome, which almost immediately began to be called Constantinople in his honor, since the population of the city did not accept the official name.
Constantine the Great presents the city of Constantinople as a gift to the Mother of God. Fresco of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul
Death and canonization of the Holy Equal-to-the-Apostles King Constantine
Emperor Constantine the Great died on May 22, 337 in what is now Turkey. Just before his death, he was baptized. It so happened that the great helper and associate of the Church of Christ, who made Christianity the state religion of the largest country in the world at that time, was himself baptized in last days own life. This did not prevent him, for all his deeds aimed at strengthening the power of the Christian Church, from being canonized as saints in the rank of equal to the apostles - equal to the Apostles of Christ themselves (St. Equal to the Apostles King Konstantin). The canonization of Constantine occurred after the division of churches into Orthodox and Catholic, which is why Roman Catholic Church did not include him in the list of her saints.
It is absolutely clear that both Emperor Constantine the Great himself and his mother Helen made a huge contribution to the formation of the Byzantine civilization, the cultural heirs of which are a number of modern states.
Exaltation of the Holy Cross. Emperor Constantine and his mother Helen
Film Constantine the Great
In 1961, the film Constantine the Great (Costantino il grande ital.) was shot in Italy. The picture tells the story of the youth of Emperor Constantine. The film takes place before famous battle at the Milvian Bridge. Filming took place in Italy and Yugoslavia. Directed by Lionello De Felice, starring Cornel Wilde as Constantine, Belinda Lee as Fausta, and Massimo Serato as Maxentius. Duration – 120 minutes.
Constantine XI Palaiologos- the last Byzantine emperor who met his death in the battle for Constantinople. After his death, he became a legendary figure in Greek folklore as the emperor who must awaken, restore the empire and rid Constantinople from the Turks. His death ended Roman Empire, which dominated the East for 977 years after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
Constantine was born in Constantinople. He was the eighth of ten children Manuel II Palaiologos and Helena Dragas, daughter of Serbian tycoon Konstantin Dragas. He spent most of his childhood in Constantinople under the care of his parents. Constantine became despot of the Morea (the medieval name for the Peloponnese) in October 1443. While Mystras, a fortified city, was a center of culture and art rivaling Constantinople.
After ascending as despot, Constantine began work to strengthen the defenses of the Morea, including reconstructing the wall across Isthmus of Corinth.
Despite foreign and domestic difficulties during his reign, which ended with the fall of Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire, modern historians generally view Emperor Constantine's reign with respect.
Died in 1451 Turkish Sultan Murad. He was succeeded by his 19 year old son Mehmed II. Soon after this, Mehmed II began to incite the Turkish nobility to conquer Constantinople. In 1451-52, Mehmed built Rumelihisar, a hill-fortress on the European side of the Bosphorus. Then everything became clear to Konstantin, and he immediately began organizing the defense of the city.
He managed to raise funds to create food supplies for the upcoming siege and repair the old walls of Theodosius, but bad condition The Byzantine economy did not allow him to raise the necessary army to defend the city from the large Ottoman horde. Desperate, Constantine XI turned to the West. He confirmed the union of the Eastern and Roman churches, which was signed at the Council of Ferraro-Florence.
The siege of Constantinople began in the winter of 1452. On the last day of the siege, May 29, 1453, the Byzantine emperor said: “The city has fallen, but I am still alive.” Then he tore off royal regalia so that no one could distinguish him from an ordinary soldier and led the rest of his subjects into last Stand, where he was killed.
Legend has it that when the Turks entered the city, an angel of God rescued the emperor, turned him into marble and placed him in a cave near the Golden Gate, where he waits to rise up and take back his city.
Today the emperor is considered national hero Greece. The legacy of Constantine Palaiologos continues to be a popular topic in Greek culture. Some Orthodox and Greek Catholics consider Constantine XI a saint. However, he was not officially canonized by the Church, partly due to controversy surrounding his personal religious beliefs, and because death in battle is not considered martyrdom in Orthodox Church.
Disaster in Crete
Monasteries of Holy Mount Athos. Lavra of St. Athanasius.
The Great Lavra or Lavra of St. Athanasius is the largest and most important Orthodox monastery on Holy Mount Athos. It is located in the southeastern part of the peninsula, half an hour away from the coast at the very foot of Mount Athos. The patronal feast of the monastery is the day of memory of St. Athanasius, who founded it, celebrated on July 5 according to the old style.
Religion and sects in Greece
Islands of Greece, which one to choose?
There are more than 2 thousand islands in Greece. Picturesque rocks and exotic grottoes provide ample opportunities for recreation and tourism. When traveling around Crete, you can’t help but look at Elafonisi beach, with its pink sand. It is here that the waters of three seas merge: the Aegean, Libyan and Ionian. Warm water in the first, cold - in the second, and in the third... Come and find out. They say that Greece has everything! Almost 300 sunny days a year, 4 seas, many islands. Yes, Greece has everything a tourist needs.
A trip to Greece - how to make it as safe as possible.
Greece is considered one of the safest European countries. It has a well-deserved reputation as the “most honest” country European Union, and the crime rate in Greece is very low. Serious crimes, especially robbery and theft, are very rare. A common thing that no one is surprised by is the situation of almost 100% return of an item forgotten in a public place. For example, you forgot your wallet or purse in a cafe, and a day later you returned, and it was lying in the same place or with the owner in the cafe in a separate signed bag.
Justinian I the Great
(lat. Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus) ruled Byzantium from 527 to 565. Under Justinian the Great, the territory of Byzantium almost doubled. Historians believe that Justinian was one of the greatest monarchs of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages.
Justinian was born around 483.
V peasant family provincial village in the mountain Macedonia, near Skupi
. For a long time the prevailing opinion was that he was Slavic origin and originally wore the name of the Manager,
this legend was very common among the Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula.
Justinian was distinguished by strict Orthodoxy , was a reformer and military strategist who made the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages. Coming from the dark mass of the provincial peasantry, Justinian managed to firmly and firmly assimilate two grandiose ideas: the Roman idea of a universal monarchy and the Christian idea of the kingdom of God. Combining both ideas and putting them into action with the help of power in a secular state that accepted these two ideas as political doctrine of the Byzantine Empire.
Under Emperor Justinian, the Byzantine Empire reached its peak, after a long period of decline, the monarch tried to restore the empire and return it to its former greatness. It is believed that Justinian was influenced by the strong character of his wife Theodora, whom he solemnly crowned in 527.
Historians believe that main goal Justinian's foreign policy was the revival of the Roman Empire within its former borders; the empire was to turn into a single Christian state. As a result, all the wars waged by the emperor were aimed at expanding his territories, especially to the west, into the territory of the fallen Western Roman Empire.
The main commander of Justinian, who dreamed of the revival of the Roman Empire, was Belisarius,
became a commander at the age of 30. 
In 533 Justinian sent Belisarius's army to northern Africa to conquering the kingdom of the Vandals. The war with the Vandals was successful for Byzantium, and already in 534 the commander of Justinian won a decisive victory. As in the African campaign, the commander Belisarius kept many mercenaries - wild barbarians - in the Byzantine army.
Even sworn enemies could help the Byzantine Empire - it was enough to pay them. So, Huns formed a significant part of the army Belisarius , which sailed from Constantinople to North Africa on 500 ships.Huns Cavalry , who served as mercenaries in the Byzantine army of Belisarius, played a decisive role in the war against Vandal kingdom in northern Africa. During the general battle, the opponents fled from the wild horde of the Huns and disappeared into the Numidian desert. Then the commander Belisarius occupied Carthage.
After joining North Africa in Byzantine Constantinople turned their attention to Italy, on whose territory there existed kingdom of the Ostrogoths. Emperor Justinian the Great decided to declare war German kingdoms , who waged constant wars among themselves and were weakened on the eve of the invasion of the Byzantine army.
The war with the Ostrogoths was successful, and the king of the Ostrogoths had to turn to Persia for help. Justinian protected himself in the East from attack from the rear by making peace with Persia and launched a campaign to invade Western Europe.
First thing General Belisarius occupied Sicily, where he met little resistance. Italian cities also surrendered one after another until the Byzantines approached Naples.
Belisarius (505-565), Byzantine general under Justinian I, 540 (1830). Belasarius refusing the crown of their kingdom in Italy offered to him by the Goths in 540. Belasarius was a brilliant general who defeated a range of enemies of the Byzantine Empire, virtually doubling its territory in the process. (Photo by Ann Ronan Pictures/Print Collector/Getty Images)
After the fall of Naples, Pope Silverius invited Belisarius to enter the holy city. The Goths left Rome , and soon Belisarius occupied Rome, the capital of the empire. The Byzantine military leader Belisarius, however, understood that the enemy was just gathering strength, so he immediately began to strengthen the walls of Rome. What followed The siege of Rome by the Goths lasted one year and nine days (537 - 538). Byzantine army, which defended Rome, not only withstood the attacks of the Goths, but also continued its offensive deep into the Apennine Peninsula.
Belisarius' victories allowed the Byzantine Empire to establish control over the northeastern part of Italy. After the death of Belisarius, it was created exarchate (province) with its capital in Ravenna . Although Rome was subsequently lost to Byzantium, since Rome actually fell under the control of the pope, Byzantium retained possessions in Italy until the middle of the 8th century.
Under Justinian, the territory of the Byzantine Empire reached its largest size for the entire existence of the empire. Justinian managed to almost completely restore the former borders of the Roman Empire.
Byzantine Emperor Justinian captured all of Italy and almost the entire coast of North Africa, and southeastern part Spain. Thus, the territory of Byzantium doubles, but does not reach the former borders of the Roman Empire.
Already in 540 New Persian
the Sassanid kingdom dissolved the peaceful
agreement with Byzantium and actively prepared for war. Justinian found himself in a difficult position, because Byzantium could not withstand a war on two fronts. 
Domestic policy of Justinian the Great
In addition to an active foreign policy, Justinian also pursued a reasonable domestic policy. Under him, the Roman system of government was abolished, which was replaced by a new one - the Byzantine one. Justinian actively began to strengthen state apparatus and also tried improve taxation . Under the emperor they were united civil and military positions, attempts have been made reduce corruption by increasing pay to officials.
Justinian was popularly nicknamed the “sleepless emperor,” as he worked day and night to reform the state.
Historians believe that Justinian’s military successes were his main merit, however domestic politics, especially in the second half of his reign, devastated the state treasury.
Emperor Justinian the Great left behind a famous architectural monument, which still exists today - Saint Sophie Cathedral . This building is considered a symbol of the “golden age” in the Byzantine Empire. This cathedral is the second largest Christian church in the world and second only to St. Paul's Cathedral in the Vatican . With the construction of the Hagia Sophia, Emperor Justinian achieved the favor of the Pope and the entire Christian world.
During the reign of Justinian, the world's first plague pandemic broke out and spread throughout the Byzantine Empire. Largest quantity casualties were recorded in the capital of the empire, Constantinople, where 40% of the total population died. According to historians, total number Plague victims reached about 30 million people, and possibly more.
Achievements of the Byzantine Empire under Justinian
The greatest achievement of Justinian the Great is considered to be his active foreign policy, which expanded the territory of Byzantium twice, almost regaining all lost lands after the fall of Rome in 476.
Due to numerous wars, the state treasury was depleted, and this led to popular riots and uprisings. However, the revolt prompted Justinian to issue new laws for citizens throughout the empire. The Emperor abolished Roman law, abolished outdated Roman laws and introduced new laws. The set of these laws was called "Code of Civil Law".
The reign of Justinian the Great was indeed called the “golden age”; he himself said: “Never before the time of our reign did God grant the Romans such victories... Give thanks to heaven, inhabitants of the whole world: in your days a great deed was accomplished, which God recognized as unworthy of the entire ancient world.” A commemoration of the greatness of Christianity, it was built Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.
A huge breakthrough occurred in military affairs. Justinian managed to create the largest professional mercenary army of that period. The Byzantine army led by Belisarius brought many victories to the Byzantine emperor and expanded the borders of the Byzantine Empire. However, the maintenance of a huge mercenary army and endless warriors depleted the state treasury of the Byzantine Empire.
The first half of the reign of Emperor Justinian is called the “golden age of Byzantium,” while the second only caused discontent on the part of the people. The outskirts of the empire covered revolt of the Moors and Goths. A in 548 During the second Italian campaign, Justinian the Great could no longer respond to Belisarius' requests to send money for the army and to pay the mercenaries.
IN last time commander Belisarius led the troops in 559, when the Kotrigur tribe invaded Thrace. The commander won the battle and could have completely destroyed the attackers, but Justinian at the last moment decided to pay off his restless neighbors. However, the most surprising thing was that the creator of the Byzantine victory was not even invited to the festive celebrations. After this episode, the commander Belisarius finally fell out of favor and ceased to play a significant role at court.
In 562, several noble residents of Constantinople accused the famous commander Belisarius of preparing a conspiracy against Emperor Justinian. For several months Belisarius was deprived of his property and position. Soon Justinian was convinced of the innocence of the accused and made peace with him. Belisarius died in peace and solitude in 565 AD That same year, Emperor Justinian the Great breathed his last.
The last conflict between the emperor and the commander served as the source legends about the poor, weak and blind military leader Belisarius, begging for alms at the walls of the temple. This is how he is portrayed - falling out of favor in his famous painting by the French artist Jacques Louis David.
A world state created by the will of an autocratic sovereign - such was the dream that Emperor Justinian cherished from the very beginning of his reign. By force of arms he returned the lost old Roman territories, then gave them a general civil law that ensured the well-being of the inhabitants, and finally - he asserted a single Christian faith, called to unite all peoples in the worship of the one true Christian God. These are the three unshakable foundations on which Justinian built the power of his empire. Justinian the Great believed that “there is nothing higher and holier than the imperial majesty”; “The creators of the law themselves said that the will of the monarch has the force of law«; « he alone is able to spend days and nights in work and wakefulness, so that think about the good of the people«.
Justinian the Great argued that the grace of the emperor's power, as the “anointed one of God,” standing above the state and above the church, was received directly from God. The emperor is “equal to the apostles” (Greek ίσαπόστολος), God helps him defeat his enemies and make fair laws. Justinian's wars gained character crusades - wherever the Byzantine emperor will be master, the Orthodox faith will shine forth. His piety turned into religious intolerance and was embodied in cruel persecution for deviating from his recognized faith. Any legislative act Justinian puts "under the patronage of the Holy Trinity."
Porphyrogenitus was born in 905. He was the son of Leo VI and came from the Macedonian dynasty. His figure is of particular interest to historians. The fact is that this ruler, during his time on the throne, was not so much involved in politics as he devoted his time to science and the study of books. He was a writer and left behind a rich literary heritage.
Heir to the throne
The only son of Leo VI the Philosopher, Constantine Porphyrogenitus, was born from his marriage to his fourth wife. Because of this, according to Christian rules, he could not occupy the throne. Nevertheless, Leo wanted to see his son as emperor and therefore made him his co-ruler during his lifetime. With his death in 912, the younger brother of the deceased, Alexander, began to come to power. He removed the young Konstantin from managing affairs, and also deprived all of his nephew’s supporters of influence. It seemed that the new emperor had firmly taken power into his own hands. However, already in 913, Alexander, not yet old, died from a long illness.
Loss of real power
Now Constantine finally became emperor. However, he was only 8 years old. Because of this, a regency council was established, headed by Patriarch Nicholas the Mystic. has always been characterized by instability of power, which was passed from hand to hand through conspiracies and military coups. The precarious position of the regency council allowed naval commander Roman Lekapin to become head of state.
In 920 he declared himself emperor. At the same time, at first the new autocrat declared himself only as the defender of the legitimate child emperor. However, Lekapin managed to paralyze the will of Constantine without much difficulty, who was not at all interested in power and treated it as a burden.
Under Roman Lekapin
The new ruler did not belong to the previously reigning dynasty, so he decided to legitimize himself by marrying Constantine to his daughter Helen. The young man was removed from real power. He devoted his youth to science and reading books. At this time, Constantinople was one of the world centers of education. Thousands of unique tomes dedicated to various disciplines and cultures were stored here. It was they who captivated the young man for the rest of his life.
At this time, Roman Lekapin surrounded Constantine with people loyal to himself, who followed the legitimate monarch. As the real ruler increasingly usurped power, conspiracies began to emerge among the aristocracy against him. Almost every year new traitors were identified and dealt with without much ceremony. Any methods were used: intimidation, confiscation of property, tonsure as a monk and, of course, executions.
Return of the imperial title
Constantine Porphyrogenitus received his nickname in honor of the name of the hall in the imperial palace in which he was born. This epithet emphasized his legitimacy, which Father Leo VI so wanted.
For most of his life, Constantine Porphyrogenitus was content to only attend formal ceremonies. He was not trained to lead an army, so military career he was not interested. Instead, Konstantin was engaged in science. Thanks to his works, modern historians can form the most complete picture of the life of Byzantium in the 10th century.
In 944, the usurper Roman Lecapinus was overthrown by his own sons. Riots began in the capital. Ordinary residents did not like the chaos in power. Everyone wanted to see the legitimate heir of Constantine Porphyrogenitus at the head of the state, and not the children of the usurper. Finally, the son of Leo VI finally became emperor. He remained so until 959, when he died unexpectedly. Some historians are supporters of the theory that the ruler was poisoned by his son Roman.
Literary works of Constantine
The main book that Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus left behind was the treatise “On the Administration of the Empire.” This document was drawn up by the ruler for his predecessors. hoped that his advice on government would help future autocrats avoid conflicts within the country. The book was not intended for the general public. It was published after the fall of Byzantium, when several copies miraculously reached Europe. The title was also given by the German publisher (Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus did not give the title to the secret treatise).
In his book, the author examined in detail the life and foundations of the state. It has 53 chapters. Many of them are dedicated to the peoples who inhabited the empire or neighboring it. Foreign culture has always been an area in which Konstantin Porphyrogenitus was interested. He left unique essays about the Slavs, which are no longer found in any source of that era. It is curious that the emperor even described the visit of the Kyiv princess Olga to Constantinople. As you know, in Constantinople the Slavic ruler accepted Christian baptism when her people still professed the pagan faith.
In addition, the author examined the administrative and economic structure Ancient Rus'. IN different chapters There are descriptions of Slavic cities: Novgorod, Smolensk, Vyshgorod, Chernigov, as well as Kyiv. The Emperor paid attention to others neighboring peoples: Bulgarians, Hungarians, Arabs, Khazars, etc. The original treatise was written in Greek. Later the book was translated into Latin, and after that into other languages. European languages. This work contains the most different genres narratives that were skillfully used by Constantine Porphyrogenitus. “On the Administration of an Empire” is a unique example of medieval literature.
"About Ceremonies"
Another important book written by the emperor was the collection “On Ceremonies.” In it, the autocrat described all the rituals accepted in the Byzantine court. The collection also includes an interesting appendix on military tactics. According to Constantine, these notes were to become teaching aid for future rulers of a huge state.
Philanthropist and educator
Constantine not only wrote books, but also patronized various authors and institutions. Having matured, he first of all began to process the huge literary corpus that Orthodox Byzantium had accumulated. These were various lives of saints kept in the libraries of monasteries. Many of them existed in a single copy, and rare books were damaged from antiquity and poor storage conditions.
In this enterprise, the emperor was assisted by the logothete and master Simeon Metaphrastus. It was in his processing that many Christian literary artifacts have reached our times. The master received money from the emperor, with which he purchased rare copies of books, and also maintained an office with a large staff of clerks, librarians, etc.
Encyclopedia of Constantine
The emperor became the inspirer and sponsor of other similar educational events. Thanks to him, an encyclopedia consisting of more than fifty volumes was published in Constantinople. This collection included knowledge from a wide variety of fields, both humanities and natural sciences. The main merit of the encyclopedia of the era of Constantine was the codification and organization of a huge array of disparate information.
Much knowledge was also necessary for practical purposes. For example, Konstantin financed the compilation of a collection of articles on agriculture. The knowledge contained in these documents has helped for several generations to achieve the greatest harvest in the open spaces
Constantine XI - the last Byzantine emperor, from 1449. Born on February 8, 1405, died on May 29, 1453 in Constantinople. Son Manuel II Palaiologos and Serbian princess Jelena Dragash, brother of the emperor John VIII. From 1428 he was a despot Moray together with his brothers. In 1429 or 1430 he occupied Patras, the main city of the Latin Achai Principality. Having become emperor, he tried to organize resistance to the Turks, looked for help in the West. In December 1452 he recognized the union with Catholic Church. He died in a battle with Turkish troops while defending Constantinople. In 1992, he was canonized as a martyr king by the Greek Orthodox Church; A monument to this emperor was erected in the Greek city of Mystras in the Peloponnese. In a number of historical studies he is listed not as Constantine XI, but as Constantine XII. They consider Constantine XI Konstantin Laskar, proclaimed emperor in 1204, however, apparently not crowned and certainly not reigning.
Byzantine dictionary: in 2 volumes / [comp. General Ed. K.A. Filatov]. SPb.: Amphora. TID Amphora: RKhGA: Oleg Abyshko Publishing House, 2011, vol. 1, p. 506.
Constantine XI (according to the German historian B. Zinogovitz, Constantine XII) Palaiologos (Palaiologos); according to his mother, the Serbian princess Elena - Dragas (1403 - 29.V.1453), - the last Byzantine emperor (since 1449). Despot of the Morea (along with his brothers) since 1428, Constantine XI had subjugated almost all Latin possessions in the Peloponnese by 1432. During John VIII's stay at the Council of Florence, he was regent of the empire. In 1444 he successfully acted against the Sultan's allies in Boeotia and Thessaly, but in 1446 he was defeated by the Turks. Having become emperor, he sought an alliance with the West at the cost of church union. Led the defense of Constantinople in 1453; died in battle.
Soviet historical encyclopedia. In 16 volumes. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1973-1982. Volume 7. KARAKEEV - KOSHAKER. 1965.
The body was found under a pile of corpses
Constantine XI Palaiologos Dragash - Byzantine emperor who reigned from 1449-1453. Son of Manuel II. Born February 8, 1405 + May 29, 1453
Before his accession to the throne, Constantine gained the respect of the Romans as a brave despot of the Seas. He did not shine with education, preferring military exercises to books, was quick-tempered, but had a common sense and the gift of convincing listeners. He also had such qualities as honesty and nobility of soul. When John VIII died, Constantine was in Mystras. His younger brother Dmitry was the first to arrive in Constantinople in the hope that the throne would go to him, but no one supported him. Constantine himself was proclaimed emperor in early January in Mystras. In March he arrived in the capital and took power. The following years, the emperor did the same as his three predecessors: prepared the city for defense in case of a siege, sought help from the Turks in the west, and tried to reconcile the church unrest caused by the union with the Catholics. In all this he succeeded only partly, but it was difficult to expect more in his position (Dashkov: “Konstantin Dragash”).
Sultan Mehmed, who had vowed to take Constantinople, also carefully prepared for the siege, knowing full well that he would have to deal with a first-class fortress, from which the conquering armies had already retreated more than once with losses. He paid special attention to artillery. In the fall of 1452, the Turks invaded the Peloponnese and began military operations against the despots, the brothers of the emperor, so that they would not come to the aid of Constantinople (Sfran-disi: 3; 3). In March 1453, the Turks took Mesemvria, Achelon and other fortifications on Pontus. Silimvria was besieged. The Romans could not leave the city. But from the sea they devastated the Turkish coast on their ships and took many prisoners. At the beginning of March, the Turks pitched tents near the walls of the capital, and in April the city was besieged (Dukas: 37-38).
Due to the scarcity of funds, many of the capital's fortifications fell into disrepair. So, on the land side the city was protected by two walls: one large, reliable, and the other smaller. There was a moat on the outside of the fortifications. But the wall on the bay side was not very strong. The emperor decided to defend himself by building defenders on the outer wall. The severe population decline was making itself felt in the most disastrous way. Since the city occupied a large space and people were placed along all the walls, there were not enough soldiers to repel the assaults.
The first half of April passed in minor contractions. Then the Turks brought up two huge bombards, throwing heavy stone cannonballs weighing more than 2 talents. One was installed opposite the palace, the other - opposite the Roman gate. In addition to them, the Sultan had many other smaller cannons (Halcondil: 8). On April 22, the Turks dragged their ships by land through the Gadat Hill, bypassing the chain blocking the bay and let them into the harbor. Then a floating bridge was built; artillery was placed on it, and thus the siege ring was closed. For forty days the besiegers vigorously attacked the walls day and night and caused great anxiety to the defenders with all kinds of fighting vehicles, shooting and attacks. Having destroyed the walls in some places with throwing weapons and cannons, the Turks proceeded to the fortifications themselves and began to fill up the ditches. At night, the Romans cleared the ditches, and strengthened the collapsed towers with logs and baskets of earth. On May 18, having destroyed the tower near the gate of St. Roman to the ground, the enemies dragged a siege engine there and placed it over the ditch. After this, according to Sphrandisi, a disastrous and terrible battle began. Having repelled all attacks, the besieged cleared the ditches at night, restored the tower, and burned the siege engine. The Turks began to make a tunnel, but on May 23 the defenders placed a mine under it and blew it up (Sfrandizi: 3; 3). On May 28, as evening fell, the Sultan began a general assault and did not give the Romans rest all night. Constantine himself repelled the onslaught behind the fallen walls near the gate of St. Romanus (Dukas: 39). But the Turks entered the city in another place - through Kerkoporta - a small gate in the wall, which was left open after one of the attacks (Dashkov: “Konstantin Dragash”). Finally climbing the wall, they scattered the defenders and, leaving the outer fortifications, burst into the city through the gates of the inner wall (Sphrandisi: 3; 5). After this, the army surrounding the emperor fled. Konstantin was abandoned by everyone. One of the Turks hit him in the face with a sword and wounded him, and the other struck him from behind death blow. The Turks did not recognize the emperor and, having killed him, left him lying like a simple warrior (Dukas: 39). After the last defenders had laid down their arms in the evening, the emperor’s body was found under a pile of corpses over the royal boots. The Sultan ordered Constantine's head to be displayed at the hippodrome and his body to be buried with royal honors (Sphrandisi: 3; 9). It was the last Emperor Romeev. With his death the empire ceased to exist.
All the monarchs of the world. Ancient Greece. Ancient Rome. Byzantium. Konstantin Ryzhov. Moscow, 2001
Still the Twelfth
The last autocrat of Byzantium, Constantine XII (born February 8, 1405), son of Manuel II and the Serbian princess Elena Dragash, ascended the throne ancient empire in January 1449, Constantine was already ruling the country - during the departure of John VIII for the Council of Ferraro-Florence, and before that he had gained a certain respect among the Greeks as a brave despot of the Morea. He did not shine with education, preferring military exercises to books, was quick-tempered, but had a common sense and the gift of convincing listeners. In addition, Konstantin Dragash was characterized by such rare qualities for rulers as honesty and nobility of soul.
When John VIII died, the despot Constantine was in Mystras. The restless Dmitry Paleologus tried to get ahead of his brother and reached Constantinople by sea, hoping that the throne would go to him. The government managed to reject the claims of Dmitry, who had a reputation as an adventurer. On January 6, 1449, in Mystras, Constantine XII Palaiologos Dragash was proclaimed emperor, and at the beginning of March he arrived in the capital.
God did not protect the Roman Empire well - in fact, the last Byzantine basileus inherited the capital with its surroundings, several islands in the Aegean Sea and the Morea, bloodless by the war with the Turks, from where the Sultan took many prisoners in 1446. Travelers who visited Constantinople were surprised at the desolation of the great city. The population of the capital since antiquity has decreased by 10 - 12 times and amounted to 35 - 50 thousand people. Many quarters were uninhabited, most of the palaces lay in ruins since the civil war of 1341 - 1347. The majestic Great Imperial Palace was no exception, for the restoration of which the Palaiologos did not have enough money - the basileus lived in Blachernae.
But Byzantium, and especially its capital, favorably located and well protected, still attracted the Ottoman conquerors. And not only them - in the West, the descendants of the rulers of the Latin power continued to declare their rights to her throne.
The internal situation of the empire was very difficult. The Italians controlled trade, the Greeks - from day laborers to monarchs - were tormented by poverty 1) . The confrontation between the Latinophile and Turkophile parties intensified. The first stood for union and the salvation of the country at the cost of subjugation to the pope, the second (mainly the merchants who suffered from Catholics) declared that only the Turks could restore order in the state and throw out the greedy Catholics from it. And there were still people who still considered Constantinople with its surrounding gardens to be a world empire. Closely aligned with such views was the largest group, the Orthodox, which, unlike the first two, had no clear program of action other than slogans.
Standing on the threshold of a centuries-old national tragedy, Greek people was disunited political struggle. Attempts by Constantine XII to force the Orthodox Church to recognize the union, without which Western help would have been impossible, ran into stubborn resistance from the hierarchs and ordinary citizens. The supporter of the union of Patriarch Gregory III Mammu was recognized only by an insignificant part of the clergy, and a council held in the fall of 1450 with the participation of the patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem deposed Mammu from the patriarchate and the latter fled to Italy. Due to Uniatism (that is, non-Orthodoxy, according to the majority of the Romans) Constantine XII himself never received his official church consecration. The last emperor of Byzantium ruled and died without being crowned king. To top it all off, quarrels reached the point of internecine wars younger brothers Basileus, despots Thomas and Dmitry.
While Murad II ruled in Adrianople, Byzantium enjoyed a reprieve. But in February 1451 the Sultan died, and Ottoman throne his twenty-year-old side son Mehmed II Fatih - the “conqueror”, a highly amazing personality, took over. In addition to Turkish, he spoke four languages, including Latin and Greek, and knew philosophy and astronomy. At the same time, Mehmed was pathologically cruel, cunning, deceitful and treacherous. It was he who ordered the beheading of a man so that the Italian painter Bellini, who worked at his court, could see how different the grimace of the facial muscles of a severed head was from those depicted in the paintings. It was he who ordered the bellies of fourteen servants to be ripped open, wanting to find the thief of the melon from the Sultan's garden. Bisexual, he had two harems - women and beautiful boys. And if the goal of Konstantin Dragash was the salvation of Byzantium, then Fatih, dreaming of military exploits in the name of the Prophet and the laurels of Timur, vowed to destroy it. Secretive, like all sovereigns of the East, the Sultan kept his plans secret and recruited troops, trying to lull the vigilance of the Greeks with false assurances of friendship and patronage.
At that time, Prince Urhan lived in Constantinople, one of the Sultan’s relatives and a possible contender for the Ottoman throne, whom Mehmed for some reason was in no hurry to execute, but sent him away from the court, to the Christians. The emperor announced the need to increase the payment for the maintenance of Urhan; Fatih considered the demand offensive and a reason to break the peace agreements with Byzantium. No one doubted that the Sultan simply used, as in famous fable Aesop about the wolf and the lamb, the first pretext that came up.
From April to August 1452, Ottoman engineers with amazing speed built the powerful fortress of Rumeli Hissar on the European coast of the Bosphorus, in one of the narrowest places. On the other side, the strait was already guarded by the citadel of Anatoli-Hissar, built under Bayazid I. Now the Turkish batteries held the entire Bosphorus at gunpoint, and not a single ship could pass to Constantinople from the Black Sea without the knowledge of the Sultan, while the Hellespont was guarded by the Muslim fleet. The Emperor, protesting against the construction of a fortress on Greek territory, sent an embassy to Mehmed, but in vain. “I can do whatever I want,” Fatih answered the Greeks with obvious contempt. - Both banks of the Bosphorus belong to me, the eastern one - because the Ottomans live on it, and this western one - because you do not know how to defend it. Tell your sovereign that if he decides to send me a similar question again, I will order the ambassador to be flayed alive.”
The first to feel the power of the Rumeli-Hissar guns was the Italian squadron, which did not want to obey the order to lower the sails. Some of the ships broke through, but the largest Venetian galley, having received several stone cannonballs, sank, all the surviving sailors, led by the captain, were executed.
The Sultan could interrupt the supply of food to the Greek capital at any moment. At the end of August he personally examined its magnificent fortifications and began to equip his army for the campaign planned for the following spring.
Constantinople was preparing to repel the invaders. The city stocked up on bread, firewood and weapons, and walls and towers were hastily repaired.
In the fall of 1452, the basileus began negotiations with Pope Nicholas V. The papal envoy, the clever Cardinal Isidore the Russian, came to the emperor, but without soldiers, only with his small guard. The West was in no hurry to really help Byzantium, once again not wanting to spend money. The thought of the possible fall of Constantinople seemed absurd in Rome, Paris, London or Venice, so accustomed were everyone to its inviolability. Of course, they were preparing to send help, but a little later. In fact, she was not ready even when the city was taken. The Morean despots also did not allocate troops to their brother. Only the desperate Genoese Giovanni Giustiniani Long brought seven hundred volunteers in two galleys, and Constantine XII promised him the island of Lemnos if the capital could be defended.
On December 12, 1452, Cardinal Isidore celebrated a Mass in St. Sophia according to the Uniate rite. The residents noisily expressed their dissatisfaction: “We do not need the help of the Latins, nor unity with them.” The head of the Megaduk Turkophiles, Luca Notara, uttered a prophetic phrase in those days: “It is better to see a Turkish turban reigning in the city than a Latin tiara!”
Preparations for the assault were in full swing in Thrace Greek capital. In a workshop near Adrianople, a Hungarian named Urban, who had not agreed to remain in the service of the beggar Dragash, was making cannons for the Sultan. At the beginning of 1453, the largest was ready, capable of firing stone cannonballs weighing 1,200 pounds (approx. 400 kg). 2) ! To move this monster, two hundred people and sixty pairs of oxen were required.
By mid-March, the huge (according to various historians, from eighty to three hundred thousand people) Turkish army was ready. A squadron of several hundred military and auxiliary ships was just waiting for the order to go to sea. Mesemvria, Anchial and Viza were conquered by the Sultan without much difficulty; of the Thracian cities, Silim-vria and Epivates remained under the rule of Palaiologos. Secretary and friend of the emperor George Sfrandzi, who later left vivid memories about the siege of Constantinople, carried out, at the direction of the sovereign, a census of all men in the city capable of bearing arms. The results of the calculations are 4973 Greeks and about two thousand foreigners 3) - turned out to be so depressing that Constantine ordered them to be kept secret.
On the roadstead of the capital, minus several who fled on the eve of the Turkish siege, there were twenty-six ships left: five each Venetian and Genoese, three from Crete, one each from Ancona, Catalonia and Provence, and ten imperial. Their teams vowed not to abandon the city of Constantine in trouble and to stand until the end. All able-bodied residents enthusiastically tidied up ditches littered with various rubbish and patched up ancient walls. And only the population of Galata maintained neutrality that bordered on treason. However, by the end of the siege, the Galatians were already openly helping Mehmed.
At the end of March 1453, the first patrols of the Sultan's cavalry appeared on the surrounding hills, and soon units of the light Turkish infantry. The Ottomans believed that the Greeks would hide in their homes in fear of them, but they miscalculated. On the morning of April 2, the Christians, led by their brave emperor, launched a sortie, killed several dozen enemies and returned to the city, rejoicing. The spirits of the besieged rose, and when on Thursday, April 5, the main Turkish forces, who had filled the outskirts, approached the walls of the city, the thoughts of the defenders were not gloomy.
The hopes of the besieged were well founded. Firstly, all of Dragash's soldiers, both Greek and Latin, were excellently armed and more or less trained in combat. Secondly, the city had powerful double walls with cannons (albeit old ones) and throwing machines. Christians also had reserves of “Greek fire” at their disposal. The capital was pre-supplied with everything necessary - from bread to crossbow arrows, sails and saltpeter. Thirdly, the majority of the population was determined to die rather than surrender. And finally, fourthly, the emperor was counting on the troops promised by the pope and the Venetians. The Sultan offered Constantine XII to leave Constantinople in exchange for an inheritance in the Morea, for the inviolability of which the Muslim ruler swore an oath, but the basileus rejected Mehmed’s plan.
On April 7, the Turkish guns began to speak - the long bombardment of Constantinople began. Mehmed II positioned his army along the entire line of walls - from Pigi to the Golden Horn. In the center, in the most vulnerable area opposite the gate of St. Roman, on the hills, the Sultan’s headquarters was defeated, surrounded by ten thousand Janissaries. Fourteen batteries operated against the fortifications of the Theodosian and Irakli walls, and near Mehmed’s headquarters Urban installed super artillery - a kind of monster and two other guns, slightly smaller.
At first, the shelling did not have the desired effect. Urban's bombard - Fatih's hope - could only fire three or four times a day, and the gunners for this and other guns were poor. Most of the cannonballs did not reach the walls, moving the batteries closer to the city was dangerous due to possible undermining and attacks by Christians, and the Turks were afraid to increase the charge - the barrels could not withstand it. The Ottomans only managed to take by storm two small castles on the outskirts - Ferapii and Studios. The Sultan ordered several dozen prisoners left from their garrisons to be impaled. The Greeks launched frequent attacks on the unwary Turkish troops, and these attacks, often carried out with the participation of the basileus himself, brought considerable concern to the Ottomans.
However, the forays soon stopped - there were sorely not enough soldiers even to repel frequent attacks along the entire line of fortifications. “The Turks were fighting all the places without resting, not giving the least amount of peace to the Greeks, but they would make it difficult for them, before I was preparing for the attack...” - wrote the Russian chronicler Nestor Iskander, in those days a soldier of the Turkish auxiliary army.
On April 18, Mehmed made the first attempt at an organized assault. The Turks going on the attack, expecting an easy victory, swaggered and bawled songs, “and when the guns rolled and many squealed, they began to beat the hail, and also shoot from the handguns 4) and from numbered bows; The citizens, from the countless shootings, could not stand on the walls, but in the west I waited for the attack, and then they fired from cannons and arquebuses... and killed many Turks.” The Ottomans fled, leaving hundreds of corpses to rot in the ditch and perihairs. Other attacks ended in the same way; the defenders with enviable consistency threw the attackers into the ditch. “It was amazing,” recalled Sfrandzi, “that, having no military experience, they [the Greeks] won victories, because when they met the enemy, they did what was beyond human strength.” And indeed, one has to be surprised. The siege of Constantinople was the largest event of the 15th century; in terms of the scale of application of the latest methods of warfare associated with gunpowder artillery, it had no equal, the superiority of Turkish forces was tenfold or more, and on the city walls, built back in the 5th century, under the command Constantine XII and his courtiers fought mainly not even professional warriors, but armored townspeople - merchants and their servants, artisans, monks and even scientists. After the battle, the few soldiers of Palaeologus collapsed from fatigue, and the Sea Walls stood without guards, since there were not enough people on them at all.
On April 20, four ships with crosses on their masts appeared among the waves of the Propontis, three Genoese and a Greek, loaded with food and with several hundred volunteers on board 5) . The Ottomans lined up one and a half hundred ships in front of them, and the unequal battle dragged on for almost a whole day. A shower of arrows and stones fell on the Christians, who were making their way meter by meter to the entrance to the Golden Horn, partitioned off with steel and wooden floats with a chain. However, the ability to lead naval battle among the Romans and Italians it turned out to be disproportionately higher, and in technical terms their galleys were far superior to the Turkish ones. One after another, the Ottoman ships, receiving damage, rolled away from the battle line, and fires raged on some of them. Mech-med II, watching his captains' clumsy actions from the shore, became enraged. Without remembering himself, he directed his horse into the sea and woke up only when the water came to the saddle. In the evening, all four Christian ships, choosing the moment, slipped into the bay, and the chain was wound up again. The rejoicing of the city residents, who witnessed the brilliant victory, knew no bounds. The Byzantines and Genoese lost only a few people, the Muslims disproportionately more, and the Sultan's admiral was saved from inevitable execution only by the severe wounds he received in battle.
A day later, having built a land portage, the Turks dragged eighty of their ships into the Golden Horn at night, which the defenders saw with horror at dawn on April 22. The Genoese of Galata, past the walls and towers of which the Muslims moved ships, made no attempt to prevent them. When, a week later, the brave captain Trevisano tried to burn the Turkish fleet at night with several volunteers, the Galatians, who became aware of this plan, handed him over to the Sultan. The Ottomans aimed their cannons in advance and shot the brave men at point-blank range at night. Trevisano's galley sank off the coast, and the Turks executed the captured sailors in the morning in front of the emperor. In response, the enraged Dragash ordered to behead two and a half hundred Muslim prisoners and put their heads on the walls.
In the Golden Horn, Mehmed II ordered the construction of floating batteries. However, shooting from water, like land shooting, went poorly. The cannonballs flew past their targets, the guns were torn off and thrown into the bay during recoil. But at the beginning of May, Hungarian ambassadors arrived at Fatih’s camp. One of them, knowledgeable in artillery, was bribed by the Turks and taught their gunners the art of proper aiming. These were difficult times for the Greeks. Stone cannonballs destroyed the masonry of walls and towers, and boulders fired from three large-caliber guns collapsed entire sections of the walls. At night, warriors and townspeople filled up the breaches with stones, earth and logs. In the morning the wall turned out to be in good condition, and the enemy, who attacked almost every day, was again met by arrows, bullets, stones and streams of “Greek fire”. The most terrible consequences of the Turkish shooting were human losses. They seemed insignificant in comparison with the damage suffered by the besiegers, but there were too few defenders...
Despite the difficult situation, Dragash was not going to surrender the city. The barbarians still covered the perihairs and the ditch with their bodies. The emperor's soldiers, clad in strong armor, fearlessly withstood arrows and bullets. On May 7, a bloody assault was repulsed at Mesotikhion, and on May 12 at Blachernae. “Padahu corpses of both countries, like sheaves, from a fence 6) and their blood flowed like rivers along the walls; from the screaming and grunting of both Lyutsky and from the crying and from the sobbing of the Gratsky, and from the sound of the klakol and from the knocking of weapons and the brilliance, the whole city seemed to be transformed from the foundation; and the ditches were filled to the top with human corpses, as if a Turk were walking through them, like in degrees, and fighting: they were dead, for they had lost the bridge and the staircase to the city... and had it not been for the Lord who had stopped that day [the city would have perished. - S.D.], all the citizens are already exhausted” (Iskander, ).
On May 18, the Greeks blew up and burned a huge mobile siege tower - the heleopola, built by Turkish specialists according to all the rules of military science. Five days later, on May 23, Christians discovered and blew up a tunnel going under the city walls. Dozens of diggers and the Sultan's engineers found death underground. Mehmed II's rage gave way to despondency. For a month and a half, his gigantic army had been at the Byzantine capital, and there was no end in sight. As it turned out later, the Sultan had no idea about the true number of his opponents. Wanting to intimidate the emperor, Fatih sent him and the townspeople a message, offering a choice of surrender or a saber, and the basileus - death or conversion to Islam. Some people suggested accepting these conditions. Oddly enough, among the supporters of capitulation were even such irreconcilable opponents as the megaduca Notara and Cardinal Isidore.
The clergy, dissatisfied with Isidore and the confiscation of clergy funds for the needs of the siege, grumbled, clashes between the Venetians and the Genoese became more frequent, and the emperor had to work hard to keep his allies from bloodshed. The Military Council rejected the Sultan's ultimatum. On the fortifications of the dying capital, a minority thought about surrender. Not only men fought bravely, but also their wives and children, who were able to hold a spear or crossbow.
On May 23, the ship, previously sent by Palaiologos in search of the long-awaited Venetian-Papal fleet, returned to the city. The captain informed the basileus that he was not in the Aegean Sea, and it was unlikely that he would be. The West betrayed its brothers in faith. While watchmen from the towers of bloodless Constantinople vainly looked for the sails of Christian galleys in the haze of the Sea of Marmara, the Venetians bickered with the pope, quarreling over every ducat spent on preparing the expedition.
On May 26, the Turks, accompanied by the roar of trumpets, the roar of drums and the fiery howls of the dervishes, marched on the walls with their entire army. A fierce battle raged for three hours. Forgetting about infighting, the Greeks, Genoese, Venetians, Catalans, French, and even the Turks, servants of Prince Urhan, who offered their services to the emperor, fought side by side. “... the filth... the preacher called out his filthy prayer, screamed the whole army as he galloped towards the city, and rolled up the guns and squeaks, and the tours, and the forest, and the wooden cities, and other machinations of wall-beating, they had no numbers, ships also moved across the sea... they began to beat the city from everywhere, and build bridges on ditches, and as if all the citizens had already been knocked off the walls, soon the wooden cities and tall towers and forests of dense numbers were brought forward, I needed to climb the walls by force, without giving They are the Greeks, but I fought with them hard... and the slaughter was very dark, beyond their arrows [Turks. - S.D.] darken the light” (Iskander, ). Hundreds of dead bodies were piled up along the perimeter of the land walls, and the screams of Muslims dying from wounds and fatal burns were heard in the air. Mehmed II spent the rest of the night in thought. The next morning, the Sultan toured the troops and promised to give them the city to plunder for three days. The soldiers greeted the message with enthusiastic shouts. At night, the Ottoman camp fell silent - preparations were underway.
At dawn on May 28, 1453, the Roman autocrat Constantine XII Palaiologos convened the last military council. Speaking before the commanders, the emperor begged them not to disgrace the banner of Constantine the Great, not to hand over holy objects and defenseless women and children into the cruel hands of the Ishmaelites. Having finished his speech, Palaeologus slowly walked around the line of wounded, exhausted knights and quietly asked each one for forgiveness - if he had offended him in any way. Many were crying. In the evening, a solemn prayer service took place in the Church of St. Sophia. For the first time in the long weeks of the siege, all the priests - both Catholic and Orthodox - performed services, yesterday's disputants and opponents prayed together. According to Stephen Runciman, the author of an excellent monograph on the capture of Constantinople, only then, on the threshold of the terrible, there was a real reconciliation of the two churches. The emperor and, following his example, many other soldiers took communion and put on best clothes, preparing for death.
From the church, Constantine XII went to the Blachernae Palace and said goodbye to his loved ones. In every house, men parted with their wives and children, and almost all of them were no longer destined to see each other. Friends and strangers hugged on the streets, not expecting to see the dawn...
After sunset, the defenders stood at the fortifications of the outer wall. Bonfires lit up in the Turkish camp, music and shouts began to flow from there - the Ottomans were having dinner, raising their spirits with songs. The city fell into silence. In the dim light of the night, Constantine surveyed the plain from the outermost tower of the wall at Blachernae...
At one o'clock in the morning, filling the area with wild screams, with fascines and ladders on their shoulders, detachments of bashi-bazouks - irregular infantry - armed with anything, rushed forward. The task of this least valuable part of the Sultan's army (the bashi-bazouks were recruited from all sorts of rabble, criminals, vagabonds, among them there were many Christian renegades) was to wear down the besiegers, and Mehmed II without hesitation sent half-dressed robbers against the heavily armed men-at-arms of Dragash. The Bashi-Bazouk attack, which lasted two hours, was drowned in blood. Arrows and stones rushed from the towers, finding their target in the light of the moon and stars, the Turks were chopped with swords and stabbed with spears, they fell in dozens from multi-meter stairs. Streams of “Greek fire” pouring down with a loud roar filled the hair with flames, finishing off the wounded and maimed. The shots of heavy arquebuses crackled on both sides. An alarming roar of bells floated over the doomed city - the alarm of St. Sophia struck...
The surviving bashi-bazouks retreated from the walls. After several volleys of batteries, a second wave of attackers appeared on the hillsides. Now, with their armor gleaming, detachments of Anatolian Turks were attacking. The Greeks and Catholics, without having time to rest, took up arms again.
The battle raged along the entire wall, but Mehmed organized the most persistent onslaught between the gates of St. Roman and Polyandrov. The emperor and his squad covered the weakest area - Mesotikhion (where the Lykos stream flowed into the city), Giustiniani's mercenaries fought on his right, on his left - the Genoese and a detachment of the emperor's relative, the mathematician Theophilus Palaiologos, who converted to Catholicism. A fierce battle also took place in Blachernae, where the Venetians were holding out.
An hour before dawn, a cannonball collapsed a large section of the wall near the gate of St. Roman. About three hundred Turks broke through to Paratychion, but the basileus and his Greeks drove them out of there. In the light rising sun arrows and bullets flying from above began to hit more accurately, the Sultan’s soldiers ran back, but the steel sticks of the officers again and again drove them onto the walls. After four hours of battle, when the Greeks and their allies were exhausted from fatigue and wounds, the best Turkish units - the Janissaries - moved to the gates of St. Roman. Mehmed II personally led their column to the ditch.
This third attack became the most violent. Within an hour, the Janissaries suffered heavy losses, and it seemed that this time the assault would end in failure. Fatih, realizing that after this the only way out There will only be lifting of the siege, again he drove and drove his people forward, under bullets, stones and arrows. And then Long Giustiniani fell, wounded. The condottiere ordered himself to be carried to the galley.
Finding themselves without a leader, the Italians began to abandon their posts and go into the city. The huge Janissary Hasan climbed the wall, fighting off the Greeks; his comrades arrived in time and secured themselves at the top.
Even before the assault, for some of the attacks, the defenders used Kerkoporta - a small gate in the wall. It remained unlocked, and a detachment of fifty Janissaries entered through it. Having climbed the wall from the rear, the Turks ran along it, throwing down the exhausted Christians. A green banner fluttered on the tower of St. Roman. With shouts of “The city is ours!” the Ottomans rushed forward. The Italians were the first to falter and run. The emperor ordered the others to retreat behind the inner wall. But many of its gates were locked, and in the ensuing panic, traffic jams arose, people fell into holes, from which they took earth to seal the gaps. No one defended the inner wall; after the last Greeks, the Turks burst into the city...
Constantine XII, Theophilus Palaiologos and two other knights fought at the gate of St. Roman (according to another version - at the Golden Gate). When the crowd of Janissaries fell right on them, the basileus shouted to his relative: “Let's go, let's fight these barbarians!” Theophilus replied that he wanted to die rather than retreat and, waving his sword, rushed towards the enemies. A landfill formed around the mathematician, and Dragash had the opportunity to escape. But the last ruler of Byzantium chose to share the fate of his empire. Following Theophilus, he stepped into the thick of the battle, and no one saw him alive again...
Skirmishes broke out in the streets, in which the Ottomans dealt with the surviving defenders of the city. At the same time, robbery began, accompanied by all the horrors suffered by the brutal soldiers.
Hundreds of children, women and old people fled to St. Sophia, believing that God would not abandon them in this terrible hour. “Oh, unfortunate Romans! - recalled Georgy Sfrandzi. - Oh, pathetic ones: the temple, which yesterday and the day before yesterday you called a den and an altar of heretics and into which not a single person among you entered, so as not to be desecrated, because inside it those who kissed the church union performed sacred acts - now, due to the manifested wrath of God, you are looking for saving deliverance in him...” People, praying, waited for the appearance of a guardian angel with a fiery sword. The Janissaries broke down the doors with axes and, with ropes in their hands, rushed inside, each seizing his captives, “for there was no one who objected and did not betray himself like a sheep. Who will tell about what happened there? Who will tell about the crying and screams of children, about the screams and tears of mothers, about the sobs of fathers - who will tell? The Turk is looking for a more pleasant one; So one found himself a beautiful nun, but another, stronger one, pulled her out and already knitted her... Then they knitted the slave with the mistress, the master with the slave, the archimandrite with the gatekeeper, the gentle young men with the maidens. The maidens whom the sun had not seen, the maidens whom the parent had scarcely seen, were dragged along by robbers; and if they forcefully pushed them away, they were beaten. For the robber wanted to take them quickly to the place and, having given them away in safety for safekeeping, return and capture both the second victim and the third... “. In the Golden Horn, people distraught with horror, crushing and pushing each other into the water, tried to escape on the surviving ships. The Turks, busy with robbery, did not interfere with the escape, and the ships were able to sail away, leaving those who did not have enough space on the piers.
By evening, Mehmed II entered the blood-drenched city. The Sultan ordered officers to monitor the safety of the buildings that became his property. From St. Sophia, the Sultan, amazed by her greatness, himself drove out the fanatics who were destroying her. Fatih visited the empty Blachernae Palace. Looking at the blood stains in his chambers, he chanted a Persian verse:
The spider serves as a guard in the king's chambers,
An owl sings a war song in the palace of Afrasiab...
Byzantium fell on Tuesday, May 29, 1453. In the evening, Constantine Palaiologos was identified in a huge pile of corpses by small golden double-headed eagles on purple boots. The Sultan ordered the king's head to be cut off and displayed at the hippodrome, and his body to be buried with imperial honors. This grave (or what was taken for it) at least until the beginning of the 20th century. was kept in Vefa Square in Istanbul by the treasury. The Last Paleologus- Prince Giovanni Lascaris Palaiologos - died in 1874 in Turin. The city, founded by Constantine I, the son of Helen, was forever enslaved by the barbarians under Constantine XII, the son of Helen. In this, Rome Second repeated the fate of Rome First.
Notes
1) Despite the poverty of the state as a whole, individual Greeks possessed extensive wealth.
2) Urban's cannon (more precisely, bombard) was superior in caliber to the famous Tsar Cannon. Its length was 40 spans, the diameter of the barrel at the breech was 4, the muzzle was 9, the thickness of the walls was 1 span (span - 17 - 20 cm, Roman pound - 327.45 g).
3) . According to another report by Sfrandzi, 4,773 Greeks and 200 “foreign men.”
4) Ruchnitsa is a short-barreled weapon, a prototype of a pistol; sometimes this was the name given to a hand-held arquebus.
5) As in the case of the number of defenders, the number of ships is also determined differently: in a number of works they talk about five to four Genoese and one Greek ships.
6) Fence - wooden panels installed on the crest of the walls.
Book materials used: Dashkov S.B. Emperors of Byzantium. M., 1997, p. 26-30.
Read further:
Patriarchs of Constantinople(biographical reference book).
Literature:
Drialt J. E., Le basileus Constantin XII, héros et martyr, P., 1936;
Guilland R., Études Byzantines, P., 1959, p. 135-75.