The prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state were the collapse of tribal ties and the development of a new method of production. The Old Russian state took shape in the process of the development of feudal relations, the emergence of class contradictions and coercion.
Among the Slavs, a dominant layer gradually formed, the basis of which was the military Nobility of the Kyiv princes - the squad. Already in the 9th century, strengthening the position of their princes, the warriors firmly occupied leading positions in society.
It was in the 9th century. In Eastern Europe, two ethnopolitical associations were formed, which ultimately became the basis of the state. It was formed as a result of the unification of the glades with the center in Kyiv.
Slavs, Krivichi and Finnish-speaking tribes united in the area of Lake Ilmen (center in Novgorod). In the middle of the 9th century. this association began to be ruled by a native of Scandinavia, Rurik (862-879). Therefore, the year 862 is considered the year of formation of the ancient Russian state.
The presence of Scandinavians (Varangians) on the territory of Rus' is confirmed by archaeological excavations and records in chronicles. In the 18th century German scientists G.F. Miller and G.Z. Bayer proved the Scandinavian theory of the formation of the ancient Russian state (Rus).
M.V. Lomonosov, denying the Norman (Varangian) origin of statehood, associated the word “Rus” with the Sarmatians-Roxolans, the Ros River, flowing in the south.
Lomonosov, relying on “The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir,” argued that Rurik, being a native of Prussia, belonged to the Slavs, which were the Prussians. It was this “southern” anti-Norman theory of the formation of the ancient Russian state that was supported and developed in the 19th and 20th centuries. historians.
The first mentions of Rus' are attested in the “Bavarian Chronograph” and date back to the period 811-821. In it, the Russians are mentioned as a people within the Khazars inhabiting Eastern Europe. In the 9th century Rus' was perceived as an ethnopolitical entity on the territory of the glades and northerners.
Rurik, who took control of Novgorod, sent his squad led by Askold and Dir to rule Kiev. Rurik's successor, Varangian Prince Oleg(879-912), who took possession of Smolensk and Lyubech, subjugated all the Krivichi to his power, and in 882 he fraudulently lured Askold and Dir out of Kyiv and killed them. Having captured Kyiv, he managed to unite by force of his power the two most important centers of the Eastern Slavs - Kyiv and Novgorod. Oleg subjugated the Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichi.
In 907, Oleg, having gathered a huge army of Slavs and Finns, launched a campaign against Constantinople (Constantinople), the capital of the Byzantine Empire. The Russian squad devastated the surrounding area and forced the Greeks to ask Oleg for peace and pay a huge tribute. The result of this campaign was peace treaties with Byzantium that were very beneficial for Rus', concluded in 907 and 911.
Oleg died in 912, and his successor was Igor(912-945), son of Rurik. In 941 he attacked Byzantium, which violated the previous treaty. Igor's army plundered the shores of Asia Minor, but was defeated in a naval battle. Then in 945, in alliance with the Pechenegs, he launched a new campaign against Constantinople and forced the Greeks to once again conclude a peace treaty. In 945, while trying to collect a second tribute from the Drevlyans, Igor was killed.
Igor's widow Duchess Olga(945-957) ruled due to the childhood of his son Svyatoslav. She brutally took revenge for the murder of her husband by ravaging the lands of the Drevlyans. Olga organized the sizes and places of collecting tribute. In 955 she visited Constantinople and was baptized into Orthodoxy.
Svyatoslav(957-972) - the bravest and most influential of the princes, who subjugated the Vyatichi to his power. In 965 he inflicted a number of heavy defeats on the Khazars. Svyatoslav defeated the North Caucasian tribes, as well as the Volga Bulgarians, and plundered their capital, the Bulgars. The Byzantine government sought an alliance with him to fight external enemies.
Kyiv and Novgorod became the center of formation of the ancient Russian state, and the East Slavic tribes, northern and southern, united around them. In the 9th century both of these groups united into a single ancient Russian state, which went down in history as Rus'.
causes: economic development of the East Slavic territories, their involvement in international transit trade (Kievan Rus was formed on the “route from the Varangians to the Greeks” - a trade water-land route that functioned in the 8th-11th centuries and connected the basins of the Baltic and Black Seas), the need for protection from external enemies, property and social stratification of society.Prerequisites formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs: the transition from a tribal community to a neighboring one, the formation of intertribal alliances, the development of trades, crafts and trade, the need for unification to repel an external threat.
The tribal reigns of the Slavs had signs of emerging statehood. Tribal principalities often united into large super-unions, revealing features of early statehood. One of these associations was union of tribes led by Kiy(known from the end of the 5th century). At the end of the VI-VII centuries. existed, according to Byzantine and Arabic sources, "Power of the Volynians" , which was an ally of Byzantium.
The Novgorod chronicle reports about the elder Gostomysl , who headed in the 9th century. Slavic unification around Novgorod. Eastern sources suggest the existence on the eve of the formation of the Old Russian state three large associations Slavic tribes: Cuiaba, Slavia and Artania. Cuyaba (or Kuyava), apparently, was located around Kyiv. Slavia occupied the territory in the area of Lake Ilmen, its center was Novgorod. The location of Artania is determined differently by different researchers (Ryazan, Chernigov).
In the 18th century have developed theories of formation of the Old Russian state . According to Norman theory the state of Rus' was created by Norman (Varangian, Russian name for the Scandinavian peoples) princes who came at the invitation of the Eastern Slavs (authors G. Bayer, G. Miller, A. Shletser). Supporters anti-Norman theory believed that the determining factor in the process of formation of any state is objective internal conditions, without which it is impossible to create it by any external forces (author M.V. Lomonosov).
Norman theory
The Russian chronicler of the early 12th century, trying to explain the origin of the Old Russian state, in accordance with medieval tradition, included in the chronicle a legend about the calling of three Varangian brothers as princes Rurik, Sineus and Truvor. Many historians believe that the Varangians were Norman (Scandinavian) warriors who were hired for service and swore an oath of allegiance to the ruler. A number of historians, on the contrary, consider the Varangians to be a Russian tribe that lived on the southern shore of the Baltic Sea and on the island of Rügen.
According to this legend, on the eve of the formation of Kievan Rus, the northern tribes of the Slavs and their neighbors (Ilmen Slovenes, Chud, Vse) paid tribute to the Varangians, and the southern tribes (Polyans and their neighbors) were dependent on the Khazars. In 859, the Novgorodians “expelled the Varangians overseas,” which led to civil strife. Under these conditions, the Novgorodians who gathered for the council sent for the Varangian princes: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order (order - Author) in it. Come reign and rule over us.” Power over Novgorod and the surrounding Slavic lands passed into the hands of the Varangian princes, the eldest of whom Rurik laid, as the chronicler believed, the beginning of the princely dynasty. After the death of Rurik, another Varangian prince, Oleg(there is information that he was a relative of Rurik), who ruled in Novgorod, united Novgorod and Kyiv in 882. This is how it happened, according to the chronicler, the state Rus(also called Kievan Rus by modern historians).
The legendary chronicle story about the calling of the Varangians served as the basis for the emergence of the so-called Norman theory of the emergence of the Old Russian state. It was first formulated German scientists G.F. Miller and G.Z. Bayer, invited to work in Russia in the 18th century. M.V. Lomonosov was an ardent opponent of this theory.
The very fact of the presence of the Varangian squads, by which, as a rule, the Scandinavians are understood, in the service of the Slavic princes, their participation in the life of Rus' is beyond doubt, as are the constant mutual ties between the Scandinavians and Russia. However, there are no traces of any noticeable influence of the Varangians on the economic and socio-political institutions of the Slavs, as well as on their language and culture. In the Scandinavian sagas, Rus' is a country of untold riches, and service to Russian princes is the surest way to gain fame and power. Archaeologists note that the number of Varangians in Rus' was small. No data has been found on the colonization of Rus' by the Varangians. The version about the foreign origin of this or that dynasty is typical of antiquity and the Middle Ages. It is enough to recall the stories about the calling of the Anglo-Saxons by the Britons and the creation of the English state, about the founding of Rome by the brothers Romulus and Remus, etc.
Other theories ( Slavic and centrist)
In the modern era it is quite the scientific inconsistency of the Norman theory has been proven, explaining the emergence of the Old Russian state as a result of foreign initiative. However, its political meaning is still dangerous today. The “Normanists” proceed from the position of the supposedly primordial backwardness of the Russian people, who, in their opinion, are incapable of independent historical creativity. It is possible, as they believe, only under foreign leadership and according to foreign models.
Historians have convincing evidence that there is every reason to assert: the Eastern Slavs had strong traditions of statehood long before the calling of the Varangians. State institutions arise as a result of the development of society. The actions of individual major individuals, conquests or other external circumstances determine the specific manifestations of this process. Consequently, the fact of the calling of the Varangians, if it really took place, speaks not so much about the emergence of Russian statehood as about the origin of the princely dynasty. If Rurik was a real historical figure, then his calling to Rus' should be considered as a response to the real need for princely power in Russian society of that time. In historical literature the question of Rurik’s place in our history remains controversial . Some historians share the opinion that the Russian dynasty is of Scandinavian origin, like the name “Rus” itself (“Russians” were the Finns’ name for the inhabitants of Northern Sweden). Their opponents are of the opinion that the legend about the calling of the Varangians is the fruit of tendentious writing, a later insertion caused by political reasons. There is also a point of view that the Varangians were Slavs, originating either from the southern coast of the Baltic (Rügen Island) or from the area of the Neman River. It should be noted that the term “Rus” is repeatedly found in relation to various associations both in the north and in the south of the East Slavic world.
State formation Rus or, as it is called after the capital, Kievan Rus) - the natural completion of a long process of decomposition of the primitive communal system among one and a half dozen Slavic tribal unions that lived on the way “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” The established state was at the very beginning of its journey: primitive communal traditions retained their place in all spheres of life of East Slavic society for a long time.
Centers of the Old Russian state
Rus' was based on two centers: southern folded around Kyiv(founders brothers Kiy, Shchek, Khoriv and sister Lybid) in the middle of the 9th century. The northern center formed around Novgorod.
The first prince of Novgorod was Rurik(862-879) with brothers Sineus and Truvor. From 879-912 rules Oleg, who united Novgorod and Kyiv in 882 and created a single state of Rus'. Oleg carried out campaigns against Byzantium (907, 911), concluded an agreement in 911 with the Byzantine emperor Leo VI on the right to duty-free trade.
In 912, power inherits Igor(son of Rurik). He repelled the invasion of the Pechenegs, made campaigns against Byzantium: in 941 he was defeated and in 944 he concluded the first written agreement with the Byzantine emperor Roman I Lacapin. In 945, as a result of an uprising of the Drevlyan tribe, Igor was killed while trying to re-assemble polyudye - an annual tour of the subject lands by the prince and his squad to collect tribute.
The history of the emergence of the state uniting the tribes of the Eastern Slavs still causes a lot of controversy. There are two theories of the formation of the Old Russian state: Norman and anti-Roman. We will talk about them, as well as the reasons for the emergence and development of the state in Rus' today.
Two theories
The date of formation of the Old Russian state is considered to be 862, when the Slavs, due to strife between tribes, invited a “third” party - the Scandinavian princes Rurik to restore order. However, in historical science there are discrepancies regarding the origin of the first state in Rus'. There are two main theories:
- Norman theory(G. Miller, G. Bayer, M. M. Shcherbatov, N. M. Karamzin): referring to the chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years,” the creation of which belongs to the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor, scientists came to the conclusion that statehood in Rus' - the work of the Normans Rurik and his brothers;
- Anti-Norman theory(M.V. Lomonosov, M.S. Grushevsky, I.E. Zabelin): followers of this concept do not deny the participation of the invited Varangian princes in the formation of the state, but believe that the Ruriks did not come to an “empty” place and this form of government has already existed among the ancient Slavs long before the events described in the chronicle.
Once, at a meeting of the Academy of Sciences, Mikhailo Vasilyevich Lomonosov beat Miller for a “false” interpretation of the history of Rus'. After the death of the great Russian scientist, his research in the field of the history of the Old Russian state mysteriously disappeared. After some time, they were discovered and were published under the editorship of the same Miller. It is interesting to note that modern research has shown that the published works do not belong to the hand of Lomonosov.
Rice. 1. Collection of tribute from Slavic tribes
Reasons for the formation of the Old Russian state
Nothing in this world happens for nothing. For this or that event to happen, reasons are needed. There were prerequisites for the formation of a state among the Slavs:
- Uniting Slavic tribes to confront more powerful neighbors: At the beginning of the 9th century, the Slavic tribes were surrounded by stronger states. In the south there was a large medieval state - the Khazar Khaganate, to which the northerners, Polans and Vyatichi were forced to pay tribute. In the north, the hardy and warlike Normans demanded ransom from the Krivichi, Ilmen Slovenes, Chud and Merya. Only the unification of the tribes could change the existing injustice.
- Destruction of the clan system and clan ties: Military campaigns, the development of new lands and trade led to the fact that in tribal communities based on property equality and joint farming, stronger and richer families appeared - the tribal nobility;
- Social stratification: The destruction of the tribal and communal system among the Slavs led to the emergence of new layers of the population. This is how a layer of tribal nobility and warriors was formed. The first included the descendants of the elders who managed to accumulate more wealth. The second, the warriors, were young warriors who, after military campaigns, did not return to agriculture, but became professional warriors who defended rulers and the community. A layer of ordinary community members, as a sign of gratitude for the protection of the soldiers and princes, presented gifts, which later turned into obligatory tribute. In addition, a layer of artisans emerged who moved away from agriculture and exchanged their “fruits” of labor for products. There were also people who lived exclusively through trade - a layer of merchants.
- Urban development: In the 9th century, trade routes (land and river) played a major role in the development of society. All new layers of population - nobility, warriors, artisans, merchants and farmers sought to settle in villages located on trade routes. Thus, the number of residents increased, the social system changed, new orders emerged: the power of princes turned into state power, tribute into a mandatory state tax, small cities into large centers.
Rice. 2. Gifts to vigilantes for protection from enemies
Two centers
All of the above main stages in the development of statehood in Rus' naturally led in the first half of the 9th century to the formation of two centers on the map of modern Russia - two early ancient Russian states:
- in the north- Novgorod Union of Tribes;
- on South- merger with the center in Kyiv.
By the middle of the 9th century, the princes of the Kyiv Union - Askold and Dir achieved the liberation of their tribes from the “offerings” of tribute to the Khazar Kaganate. Events in Novgorod developed differently: in 862, due to strife, the residents of the city invited the Norman prince Rurik to reign and own the lands. He accepted the offer and settled in the Slavic lands. After his death, his close associate Oleg took control into his own hands. It was he who went on a campaign against Kyiv in 882. Thus, he united the two centers into one state - Rus or Kievan Rus.
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After Oleg’s death, the title “Grand Duke” was taken by Igor (912 -945), the son of Rurik. For excessive extortions, he was killed by people from the Drevlyan tribe.
Rice. 3. Monument to Prince Rurik - the founder of the Old Russian state
What have we learned?
Today the following questions on history (6th grade) were briefly discussed: to what century did the formation of the Old Russian state date back (9th century), what events became the prerequisites for the emergence of statehood in Rus' and who were the first Russian princes (Rurik, Oleg, Igor). These theses can be used as a cheat sheet for preparing for history exams.
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1. Formation of the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus
The state of Kievan Rus was created at the end of the 9th century.
The emergence of a state among the Eastern Slavs is reported in the chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” (XIIV.). It tells that the Slavs paid tribute to the Varangians. Then they drove the Varangians overseas and the question arose: who will rule in Novgorod? None of the tribes wanted to establish the power of a representative of a neighboring tribe. Then they decided to invite a stranger and turned to the Varangians. Three brothers responded to the invitation: Rurik, Truvor and Sineus. Rurik began to reign in Novgorod, Sineus in Beloozero, and Truvor in the city of Izborsk. Two years later, Sineus and Truvor died, and all power passed to Rurik. Two of Rurik’s squad, Askold and Dir, went south and began to reign in Kyiv. They killed the rulers there, Kiya, Shchek, Khoriv and their sister Lybid. In 879 Rurik died. His relative Oleg began to rule, since Rurik’s son Igor was still a minor. After 3 years (in 882), Oleg and his squad seized power in Kyiv. Thus, Kyiv and Novgorod united under the rule of one prince. This is what the chronicle says. Were there really two brothers - Sineus and Truvor? Today historians believe that there were none. “Rurik sine hus truvor” means, translated from ancient Swedish, “Rurik with house and squad.” The chronicler mistook the incomprehensible-sounding words for personal names, and wrote that Rurik came with two brothers.
Exists two theories of the origin of the ancient Russian state: Norman and anti-Norman. Both of these theories appeared in the XYIII century, 900 years after the formation of Kievan Rus. The fact is that Peter I - from the Romanov dynasty, was very interested in where the previous dynasty - the Rurikovichs - came from, who created the state of Kievan Rus and where this name came from. Peter I signed a decree on the creation of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. German scientists were invited to work at the Academy of Sciences.
Norman theory . Its founders are the German scientists Bayer, Miller, Schletser, who were invited back under Peter I to work at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. They confirmed the calling of the Varangians and made the assumption that the name of the Russian Empire was of Scandinavian origin, and that the state of Kievan Rus itself was created by the Varangians. “Rus” is translated from ancient Swedish as the verb “to row”; the Rus are rowers. Perhaps “Rus” is the name of the Varangian tribe from which Rurik came. At first, the Varangian warriors were called Rus, and then this word gradually passed on to the Slavs.
The calling of the Varangians was confirmed at a later time by data from archaeological excavations of mounds near Yaroslavl, near Smolensk. Scandinavian burials in a boat were discovered there. Many Scandinavian objects were clearly made by local – Slavic craftsmen. This means that the Varangians lived among the local residents.
But German scientists exaggerated the role of the Varangians in the formation of the ancient Russian state. As a result, these scientists agreed to such an extent that supposedly the Varangians were immigrants from the West, which means that it was they - the Germans - who created the state of Kievan Rus.
Anti-Norman theory. It also appeared in the 18th century, under the daughter of Peter I, Elizaveta Petrovna. She did not like the statement of German scientists that the Russian state was created by Westerners. In addition, during her reign there was a 7-year war with Prussia. She asked Lomonosov to look into this issue. Lomonosov M.V. did not deny the fact of the existence of Rurik, but began to deny his Scandinavian origin.
The anti-Norman theory intensified in the 30s of the twentieth century. When the Nazis came to power in Germany in 1933, they tried to prove the inferiority of the Eastern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks), that they were not able to create states, that the Varangians were Germans. Stalin gave the task to refute the Norman theory. This is how a theory emerged according to which the Ros (Ross) tribe lived south of Kyiv on the Ros River. The Ros River flows into the Dnieper and this is where the name of Rus' comes from, since the Russians supposedly occupied a leading place among the Slavic tribes. The possibility of a Scandinavian origin for the name of Rus' was completely rejected. The anti-Norman theory tries to prove that the state of Kievan Rus was created by the Slavs themselves. This theory penetrated into textbooks on the history of the USSR, and was prevalent there until the end of “perestroika.”
The state appears there and then when opposing interests and classes appear in society, hostile to each other. The state regulates relations between people, relying on armed force. The Varangians were invited to reign, therefore, this form of power (princeship) was already known to the Slavs. It was not the Varangians who brought property inequality and the division of society into classes to Rus'. The ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus - arose as a result of the long, independent development of Slavic society, not thanks to the Varangians, but with their active participation. The Varangians themselves quickly became glorified and did not impose their language. The son of Igor, the grandson of Rurik, already bore the Slavic name - Svyatoslav. Today, some historians believe that the name of the Russian Empire is of Scandinavian origin and the princely dynasty begins with Rurik, and was called the Rurikovichs.
The ancient Russian state was called Kievan Rus.
2 . Socio-economic and political system of Kievan Rus
Kievan Rus was an early feudal state. It existed from the end of the 9th to the beginning of the 12th century (approximately 250 years).
The head of state was the Grand Duke. He was the highest military leader, judge, legislator, and recipient of tribute. He led foreign policy, declared war, made peace. Appointed officials. The power of the Grand Duke was limited:
Council under the prince, which included military nobility, city elders, clergy (since 988)
Veche - a national assembly in which all free people could take part. The veche could discuss and resolve any issue that interested it.
Appanage princes - local tribal nobility.
The first rulers of Kievan Rus were: Oleg (882-912), Igor (913-945), Olga - Igor’s wife (945-964).
The unification of all East Slavic and part of the Finnish tribes under the rule of the Grand Duke of Kyiv.
Acquisition of overseas markets for Russian trade and protection of trade routes that led to these markets.
Protection of the borders of the Russian land from attacks by steppe nomads (Khazars, Pechenegs, Polovtsians).
The most important source of income for the prince and his squad was the tribute paid by the conquered tribes. Olga organized the collection of tribute and established its size.
The son of Igor and Olga, Prince Svyatoslav (964-972), made campaigns against Danube Bulgaria and Byzantium, and also defeated the Khazar Kaganate.
Under Svyatoslav’s son, Vladimir the Holy (980-1015), Christianity was adopted in Rus' in 988.
Socio-economic system:
The main branch of the economy is arable farming and cattle breeding. Additional industries: fishing, hunting. Rus' was a country of cities (more than 300) - in the 12th century.
Kievan Rus reached its peak under Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054). He became related and became friends with the most prominent states of Europe. In 1036, he defeated the Pechenegs near Kiev and ensured the security of the eastern and southern borders of the state for a long time. In the Baltic states, he founded the city of Yuryev (Tartu) and established the position of Rus' there. Under him, writing and literacy spread in Rus', schools were opened for the children of the boyars. The higher school was located in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. The largest library was in St. Sophia Cathedral, also built under Yaroslav the Wise.
Under Yaroslav the Wise appeared the first set of laws in Rus' - “Russian Truth”, which operated throughout the XI-XIII centuries. There are 3 known editions of “Russian Truth”:
1. Brief truth of Yaroslav the Wise
2. Extensive (grandchildren of Yar. the Wise - Vl. Monomakh)
3. Abbreviated
“Russian Truth” consolidated the feudal property that was emerging in Rus', established harsh punishments for attempts to encroach on it, and defended the lives and privileges of members of the ruling class. According to “Russian Truth” one can trace the contradictions in society and the class struggle. “Russian Truth” of Yaroslav the Wise allowed blood feud, but the article on blood feud was limited to defining the exact circle of close relatives who have the right to take revenge: father, son, brother, cousin, nephew. This put an end to the endless chain of murders exterminating entire families.
In the Pravda of the Yaroslavichs (under the children of Yar. the Wise), blood feud is already prohibited, and instead a fine for murder has been introduced, depending on the social status of the person killed, from 5 to 80 hryvnia.
There are quite a lot theories regarding the formation of the Old Russian state. In short, the main one is:
The northern territory of settlement of the Slavs was obliged to pay tribute to the Varangians, the southern - to the Khazars. In 859, the Slavs freed themselves from the oppression of the Varangians. But due to the fact that they could not decide who would rule them, civil strife began among the Slavs. To resolve the situation, they invited the Varangians to reign over them. As the Tale of Bygone Years says, the Slavs turned to the Varangians with a request: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order (order) in it. Come reign and rule over us.” Three brothers came to reign on Russian soil: Rurik, Sineus and Truvor. Rurik settled in Novgorod, and the rest in other parts of the Russian land.
This was in 862, which is considered the year of the founding of the Old Russian state.
Exists Norman theory the emergence of Rus', according to which the main role in the formation of the state was played not by the Slavs, but by the Varangians. The inconsistency of this theory is proven by the following fact: until 862, the Slavs developed relationships that led them to the formation of a state.
1. The Slavs had a squad that protected them. The presence of an army is one of the signs of a state.
2. Slavic tribes united into super-unions, which also speaks of their ability to independently create a state.
3. The economy of the Slavs was quite developed for those times. They traded among themselves and with other states, they had a division of labor (peasants, artisans, warriors).
So it cannot be said that the formation of Rus' is the work of foreigners, it is the work of the entire people. But still, this theory still exists in the minds of Europeans. From this theory, foreigners conclude that Russians are an inherently backward people. But, as scientists have already proven, this is not so: the Russians are capable of creating a state, and the fact that they called the Varangians to rule over them speaks only about the origin of the Russian princes.
Prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state began the collapse of tribal ties and the development of a new method of production. The Old Russian state took shape in the process of the development of feudal relations, the emergence of class contradictions and coercion.
Among the Slavs, a dominant layer gradually formed, the basis of which was the military Nobility of the Kyiv princes - the squad. Already in the 9th century, strengthening the position of their princes, the warriors firmly occupied leading positions in society.
It was in the 9th century that two ethnopolitical associations were formed in Eastern Europe, which ultimately became the basis of the state. It was formed as a result of the unification of the glades with the center in Kyiv.
Slavs, Krivichi and Finnish-speaking tribes united in the area of Lake Ilmen (the center is in the city of Novgorod). In the middle of the 9th century, this association began to be ruled by a native of Scandinavia, Rurik (862-879). Therefore, the year of formation of the Old Russian state is considered to be 862.
The presence of Scandinavians (Varangians) on the territory of Rus' is confirmed by archaeological excavations and records in chronicles. In the 18th century, German scientists G.F. Miller and G.Z. Bayer proved the Scandinavian theory of the formation of the Old Russian state (Rus).
M.V. Lomonosov, denying the Norman (Varangian) origin of statehood, associated the word “Rus” with the Sarmatians-Roxolans, the Ros River, flowing in the south.
Lomonosov, relying on “The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir,” argued that Rurik, being a native of Prussia, belonged to the Slavs, which were the Prussians. It was this “southern” anti-Norman theory of the formation of the Old Russian state that was supported and developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by historians.
The first mentions of Rus' are attested in the “Bavarian Chronograph” and date back to the period 811-821. In it, the Russians are mentioned as a people within the Khazars inhabiting Eastern Europe. In the 9th century, Rus' was perceived as an ethnopolitical entity on the territory of the glades and northerners.
Rurik, who took control of Novgorod, sent his squad led by Askold and Dir to rule Kiev. Rurik's successor, the Varangian prince Oleg (879-912), who took possession of Smolensk and Lyubech, subjugated all the Krivichs to his power, and in 882 he fraudulently lured Askold and Dir out of Kyiv and killed them. Having captured Kyiv, he managed to unite the two most important centers by force of his power Eastern Slavs– Kyiv and Novgorod. Oleg subjugated the Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichi.
In 907, Oleg, having gathered a huge army of Slavs and Finns, launched a campaign against Constantinople (Constantinople), the capital of the Byzantine Empire. The Russian squad devastated the surrounding area, and forced the Greeks to ask Oleg for peace and pay a huge tribute. The result of this campaign was peace treaties with Byzantium, very beneficial for Rus', concluded in 907 and 911.
Oleg died in 912 and was succeeded by Igor (912-945), the son of Rurik. In 941 he attacked Byzantium, which violated the previous treaty. Igor's army plundered the shores of Asia Minor, but was defeated in a naval battle. Then, in 945, in alliance with the Pechenegs, he launched a new campaign against Constantinople and forced the Greeks to once again conclude a peace treaty. In 945, while trying to collect a second tribute from the Drevlyans, Igor was killed.
Igor's widow, Princess Olga (945-957), ruled during the childhood of her son Svyatoslav. She brutally took revenge for the murder of her husband by ravaging the lands of the Drevlyans. Olga organized the sizes and places of collecting tribute. In 955 she visited Constantinople and was baptized into Orthodoxy.
Svyatoslav (957-972) is the bravest and most influential of the princes, who subjugated the Vyatichi to his power. In 965 he inflicted a series of heavy defeats on the Khazars. Svyatoslav defeated the North Caucasian tribes, as well as the Volga Bulgarians, and plundered their capital, the Bulgars. The Byzantine government sought an alliance with him to fight external enemies.
Kyiv and Novgorod became the center of formation of the Old Russian state, and the East Slavic tribes, northern and southern, united around them. In the 9th century, both of these groups united into a single Old Russian state, which went down in history as Rus'.