Transliteration from Arabic The transliteration indicated in the table as "English" is usually used in English-language scientific publications. Several digraphs (such as th or sh) are included in this system. In some publications these digraphs are united by the line

On the territory of the Arabian Peninsula already in the 2nd millennium BC. lived Arab tribes that were part of the Semitic group of peoples. In the V-VI centuries. AD Arab tribes dominated the Arabian Peninsula. Part of the population of this peninsula lived in cities, oases, and was engaged in crafts and trade.

The other part roamed the deserts and steppes and was engaged in cattle breeding. Trade caravan routes between Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Judea passed through the Arabian Peninsula. The intersection of these paths was the Meccan oasis near the Red Sea. In this oasis lived the Arab tribe Quraysh, whose tribal nobility, using the geographical location of Mecca, received income from the transit of goods through their territory.

In addition, Mecca became the religious center of Western Arabia. The ancient pre-Islamic temple of the Kaaba was located here. According to legend, this temple was erected by the biblical patriarch Abraham (Ibrahim) with his son Ismail. This temple is associated with a sacred stone that fell to the ground, which has been worshiped since ancient times, and with the cult of the god of the Quraysh tribe, Allah (from Arabic: ilah - master).

In the VI century. n, e. in Arabia due to displacement trade routes Trade in Iran is declining. The population, having lost income from the caravan trade, was forced to seek sources of livelihood in agriculture. But there was little land suitable for agriculture. They had to be conquered.

This required strength and, therefore, the unification of fragmented tribes, who also worshiped different gods. The need to introduce monotheism and unite the Arab tribes on this basis became increasingly clear.

This idea was preached by adherents of the Hanif sect, one of whom was Muhammad (c. 570-632 or 633), who became the founder of a new religion for the Arabs - Islam. This religion is based on the tenets of Judaism and Christianity: belief in one God and his prophet, doomsday, reward after death, unconditional submission to the will of God (Arabic: Islam - submission).

The Jewish and Christian roots of Islam are evidenced by the names of prophets and other biblical characters common to these religions: biblical Abraham (Islamic Ibrahim), Aaron (Harun), David (Daud), Isaac (Ishak), Solomon (Suleiman), Ilya (Ilyas), Jacob (Yakub), Christian Jesus (Isa), Mary (Maryam), etc. Islam shares common customs and prohibitions with Judaism. Both religions prescribe the circumcision of boys, prohibit depicting God and living beings, eating pork, drinking wine, etc.

At the first stage of development, new religious worldview Islam was not supported by the majority of Muhammad's fellow tribesmen, and primarily by the nobility, as they feared that the new religion would lead to the cessation of the cult of the Kaaba as a religious center, and thereby deprive them of income. In 622, Muhammad and his followers had to flee persecution from Mecca to the city of Yathrib (Medina).

This year is considered the beginning of the Muslim calendar. The agricultural population of Yathrib (Medina), competing with the merchants from Mecca, supported Muhammad. However, only in 630, having gathered the necessary number of supporters, he was able to form military forces and capture Mecca, the local nobility of which was forced to submit new religion, especially since they were satisfied that Muhammad proclaimed the Kaaba the shrine of all Muslims.

Much later (c. 650) after the death of Muhammad, his sermons and sayings were collected in single book The Koran (translated from Arabic means reading), which has become sacred to Muslims. The book includes 114 suras (chapters), which set out the main tenets of Islam, prescriptions and prohibitions.

Later Islamic religious literature is called Sunnah. It contains legends about Muhammad. Muslims who recognized the Koran and the Sunnah began to be called Sunnis, and those who recognized only one Koran - Shiites. Shiites recognize only his relatives as the legitimate caliphs (viceroys, deputies) of Muhammad, the spiritual and secular heads of Muslims.

The economic crisis of Western Arabia in the 7th century, caused by the movement of trade routes, the lack of land suitable for agriculture, and high population growth, pushed the leaders of the Arab tribes to seek a way out of the crisis by seizing foreign lands. This is reflected in the Koran, which says that Islam should be the religion of all peoples, but for this it is necessary to fight the infidels, exterminate them and take their property (Koran, 2: 186-189; 4: 76-78, 86).

Guided by this specific task and the ideology of Islam, Muhammad's successors, the caliphs, began a series of conquests. They conquered Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia. Already in 638 they captured Jerusalem. Until the end of the 7th century. The countries of the Middle East, Persia, the Caucasus, Egypt and Tunisia came under Arab rule. In the 8th century Central Asia, Afghanistan, Western India, and North-West Africa were captured.

In 711, Arab troops under the leadership of Tariq sailed from Africa to the Iberian Peninsula (from Tariq’s name came the name Gibraltar - Mount Tariq). Having quickly conquered the Pyrenees, they rushed to Gaul. However, in 732, at the Battle of Poitiers, they were defeated by the Frankish king Charles Martel.

By the middle of the 9th century. Sicily, Sardinia were captured by the Arabs, southern regions Italy, Crete island. At this point, the Arab conquests stopped, but a long-term war was waged with the Byzantine Empire. The Arabs besieged Constantinople twice.

The main Arab conquests were carried out under the caliphs Abu Bekr (632-634), Omar (634-644), Osman (644-656) and the Umayyad caliphs (661-750). Under the Umayyads, the capital of the caliphate was moved to Syria to the city of Damascus.

The victories of the Arabs and their seizure of vast areas were facilitated by many years of mutually exhausting war between Byzantium and Persia, disunity and constant hostility between other states that were attacked by the Arabs. It should also be noted that the population of the countries captured by the Arabs, suffering from the oppression of Byzantium and Persia, saw the Arabs as liberators who reduced the tax burden primarily for those who converted to Islam.

The unification of many formerly separate and warring states into single state contributed to the development of economic and cultural communication between the peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe. Crafts and trade developed, cities grew. Within the Arab Caliphate, a culture quickly developed, incorporating Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian heritage.

Through the Arabs, Europe became acquainted with the cultural achievements of the eastern peoples, primarily with achievements in the field exact sciences– mathematics, astronomy, geography, etc.

In 750, the Umayyad dynasty in the eastern part of the caliphate was overthrown. The Abbasids, descendants of the Prophet Muhammad's uncle, Abbas, became caliphs. They moved the capital of the state to Baghdad.

In the western part of the caliphate, Spain continued to be ruled by the Umayyads, who did not recognize the Abbasids and founded the Cordoba Caliphate with its capital in the city of Cordoba.

The division of the Arab Caliphate into two parts was the beginning of the creation of smaller Arab states, the heads of which were provincial rulers - emirs.

The Abbasid Caliphate waged constant wars with Byzantium. In 1258, after the Mongols defeated the Arab army and captured Baghdad, the Abbasid state ceased to exist.

The Spanish Umayyad Caliphate also gradually shrank. In the 11th century As a result of internecine struggle, the Cordoba Caliphate broke up into a number of states. The Christian states that arose in the northern part of Spain took advantage of this: the Leono-Castilian, Aragonese, and Portuguese kingdoms, which began to fight the Arabs for the liberation of the peninsula - the reconquista.

In 1085 they recaptured the city of Toledo, in 1147 Lisbon, and in 1236 Cordoba fell. The last Arab state on the Iberian Peninsula - the Emirate of Granada - existed until 1492. With its fall, the history of the Arab caliphate as a state ended.

The caliphate as an institution for the spiritual leadership of the Arabs and all Muslims continued to exist until 1517, when this function passed to the Turkish Sultan, who captured Egypt, where the last caliphate, the spiritual head of all Muslims, lived.

The history of the Arab Caliphate, dating back only six centuries, was complex, controversial and at the same time left a significant mark on the evolution human society planets.

Difficult economic situation population of the Arabian Peninsula in the VI-VII centuries. in connection with the movement of trade routes to another zone, it became necessary to search for sources of livelihood. To solve this problem, the tribes living here took the path of establishing a new religion - Islam, which was supposed to become not only the religion of all peoples, but also called for the fight against infidels (non-believers).

Guided by the ideology of Islam, the caliphs carried out a broad policy of conquest, turning the Arab Caliphate into an empire. The unification of formerly scattered tribes into a single state gave impetus to economic and cultural communication between the peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe.

Being one of the youngest in the east, occupying the most offensive position among them, having absorbed Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian cultural heritage, Arab (Islamic) civilization had a huge impact on the spiritual life of Western Europe, posing a significant military threat throughout the Middle Ages.

Before the formation of the Arab Caliphate, the vast majority of the population of Arabia were nomadic pastoralists who were at the stage of tribal relations. They inhabited vast areas Arabian steppes and semi-deserts known as “Badawi”. This word turned into European languages in the Arabic plural form - Bedouin. The Bedouins were engaged in cattle breeding, mainly camel breeding.
Each tribe (depending on its size and the size of the territory it occupied) consisted of a large or small number of clans and clans.
At the head of each tribe was its leader - the seyid (lord); in a time closer to us, they began to call him a sheikh.
Separate clans and large groups nomads also had their sayyids. In peacetime, the seiyid was in charge of migrations, chose a place for the camp, was a representative of his tribe and negotiated on its behalf with other tribes. If there was no judge in the tribe, he would sort out the disputes and lawsuits of his fellow tribesmen, in special cases could perform the duties of a minister of religious worship. In raids and war, the Sayyid commanded the armed detachment of his tribe; then he was called rais (leader).
Each tribe, or even a large clan, was a completely independent organization, independent of anyone.
The main reason Since the emergence of the state, the Arabs had a class stratification. In addition, it was of considerable importance economic crisis, associated with overpopulation and the need to increase the area of ​​pastures. The Arabs needed new territories and sought to invade Iran and Byzantium. The crisis contributed to the unification of Arab tribes into alliances and the creation of a single Arab state throughout Arabia.
The desire for unification found its ideological expression in the teachings of the Hanifs, who preached faith in one god - Allah, and in Islam (“submission”) - a Mohammedan religious teaching, the founder of which is considered to be Muhammad, who lived from approximately 570 to 632.
Islam originated in Central Arabia. Its main center is Mecca, where the founder of Islam, Muhammad, was born and lived. The city of Mecca stood in the way of large trade caravans that were heading from Yemen and Ethiopia to Mesopotamia and Palestine. This point, which grew into a city large by Arabian standards, acquired ever-increasing religious significance in ancient times.

Muhammad belonged to the Hayshim family, which did not possess wealth and did not enjoy influence. Consequently, he and his inner circle could well be imbued with the interests and needs of the middle and small Meccan trading people.
The activities of the first Muslims in Mecca ended in complete failure. Having received no support either from the population of the city or from the Bedouins from the surrounding areas, the first Muslims decided to move to Yathrib Medina. There the Meccan settlers began to be called Muhajirs. They had to commit a formal act of voluntary dissolution of family ties with their fellow tribesmen.
Further, a special organization was formed in Medina - the ummah (community of believers). The Muslim Ummah, which united fellow believers, was a theocratic organization. The believers who entered it were convinced that they were ruled by Allah through his messenger. A few years later, the entire Arab population of Medina had already become part of the Muslim community, and Jewish tribes were evicted and partially exterminated. As a religious teacher who constantly communicated with Allah, Muhammad served as the ruler of Medina, judge and military leader.
On January 13, 624, the first battle of Muslims led by Muhammad with the Meccans took place. The battle lasted only a few hours. The Muslims were victorious and captured rich booty. Muhammad acted wisely with the prisoners: he released the captive women and children. Muhammad's generosity did its job. A recent opponent, Malik Ibn Auf, who commanded a Bedouin tribe in a battle with Muhammad, himself converted to Islam. The Bedouin tribes under his control followed his example. So Muhammad expanded his influence step by step.
After this, Muhammad decided to push back the Jews. The latter could not withstand the siege and, starved to death, surrendered. They had to leave Arabia and settle in Syria. Over time, other tribes of Central Arabia surrendered to Muhammad, and he became the most powerful ruler in the region.
Muhammad died in Medina in 632. The death of Muhammad raised the question of his successor as the supreme head of the Muslims. By this time, Muhammad's closest relatives and associates (tribal and merchant nobility) had consolidated into a privileged group. From among them they began to choose individual Muslim leaders.
Abu Bekr, Muhammad's closest ally, was proclaimed the head of the community. In accordance with the gradually developing Islamic law, the appointment of Abu Bekr as heir was made through elections and legitimized by an oath taken by shaking hands, with those present giving a solemn ceremony
a promise for those who were absent. Abu Bekr took the title of caliph, which means “deputy”, “successor”.
The caliphs Abu Bekr (632-634), Omar (634-644), Osman (644-656) and Ali (656-661) were called “righteous.” Their accession to the throne was still elective. During their reign, numerous territories in Asia and Africa were conquered, which were part of the Byzantine Empire and the Iranian kingdom. As a result of these conquests, the vast state of the Arab Caliphate was formed.

Arab Empire

The history of the Arab Caliphate can be represented by the following main periods: period - the decomposition of the tribal system and the formation of the state (VI-VII centuries); The period is Damascus, or the period of Umayyad rule, during which the heyday of the state falls. The Caliphate becomes a feudal state (661-750); The period is Baghdad, or the period of Abbasid rule. The creation of a vast Arab empire, its further feudalization and the collapse of the state (750-1258) are associated with it.
The collapse of the Caliphate began in the 8th century. In 756, the Emirate of Cordoba in Spain separated from it, which in 929 became an independent caliphate. Later, Tunisia and Morocco, and then other parts of the empire, seceded from the Caliphate. In the middle of the 9th century. Egypt separated. The power of the caliph was preserved by the middle of the 10th century. only in Arabia and part of Mesopotamia adjacent to Baghdad.

In 1055, after the Seljuk Turks captured Baghdad, the Arab Caliphate lost its independence.
In 1257-1258 as a result of the invasion of Genghis Khan, the remains of the once powerful state- Arab Caliphate.

Along with Byzantium, the most prosperous state in the Mediterranean throughout the Middle Ages was the Arab Caliphate, created by the Prophet Mohammed (Muhammad, Mohammed) and his successors. In Asia, as in Europe, military-feudal and military-bureaucratic state formations arose sporadically, as a rule, as a result of military conquests and annexations. This is how the Mughal empire arose in India, the empire of the Tang dynasty in China, etc. The Christian religion played a strong integrating role in Europe, and the Buddhist religion in the states South-East Asia, Islamic in the Arabian Peninsula.

The coexistence of domestic and state slavery with feudal-dependent and tribal relations continued in some Asian countries during this historical period.

The Arabian Peninsula, where the first Islamic state arose, is located between Iran and Northeast Africa. During the time of the Prophet Mohammed, born around 570, it was sparsely populated. The Arabs were then a nomadic people and, with the help of camels and other beasts of burden, provided trade and caravan connections between India and Syria, and then North African and European countries. The Arab tribes were also responsible for ensuring the safety of trade routes with oriental spices and handicrafts, and this circumstance served as a favorable factor in the formation of the Arab state.

1. State and law in the early period of the Arab Caliphate

Arab tribes of nomads and farmers have inhabited the territory of the Arabian Peninsula since ancient times. Based on agricultural civilizations in southern Arabia already in the 1st millennium BC. arose early states, similar to the ancient eastern monarchies: the Sabaean kingdom (VII-II centuries BC), Nabati (VI-I centuries). In large trading cities, urban self-government was formed according to the type of the Asia Minor polis. One of the last early South Arab states, the Himyarite kingdom, fell under the blows of Ethiopia and then Iranian rulers at the beginning of the 6th century.

By the VI–VII centuries. the bulk of the Arab tribes were at the stage of supra-communal administration. Nomads, traders, farmers of oases (mainly around sanctuaries) united family by family into large clans, clans - into tribes. The head of such a tribe was considered an elder - a seid (sheikh). He was the supreme judge, the military leader, and the general leader of the clan assembly. There was also a meeting of elders - the Majlis. Arab tribes also settled outside Arabia - in Syria, Mesopotamia, on the borders of Byzantium, forming temporary tribal unions.

The development of agriculture and livestock breeding leads to property differentiation of society and to the use of slave labor. Leaders of clans and tribes (sheikhs, seids) base their power not only on customs, authority and respect, but also on economic power. Among the Bedouins (inhabitants of the steppes and semi-deserts) there are Salukhi who have no means of subsistence (animals) and even Taridi (robbers) who were expelled from the tribe.

The religious ideas of the Arabs were not united into any ideological system. Fetishism, totemism and animism were combined. Christianity and Judaism were widespread.

In the VI Art. On the Arabian Peninsula there were several independent pre-feudal states. The elders of the clans and tribal nobility concentrated many animals, especially camels. In areas where agriculture was developed, a process of feudalization took place. This process engulfed the city-states, particularly Mecca. On this basis, a religious and political movement arose - the caliphate. This movement was directed against tribal cults for the creation of a common religion with one deity.

The Caliphic movement was directed against the tribal nobility, in whose hands there was power in the Arab pre-feudal states. It arose in those centers of Arabia where feudal system acquired greater development and significance - in Yemen and the city of Yathrib, and also covered Mecca, where Muhammad was one of its representatives.

The Mecca nobility opposed Muhammad, and in 622 he was forced to flee to Medina, where he found support from the local nobility, who were dissatisfied with competition from the Mecca nobility.

A few years later, the Arab population of Medina became part of the Muslim community, led by Muhammad. He performed not only the functions of the ruler of Medina, but also was a military leader.

The essence of the new religion was to recognize Allah as one deity, and Muhammad as his prophet. It is recommended to pray every day, count out a fortieth part of your income for the benefit of the poor, and fast. Muslims must take part in the holy war against the infidels. The previous division of the population into clans and tribes, from which almost every state formation began, was undermined.

Muhammad proclaimed the need for a new order that excluded inter-tribal strife. All Arabs, regardless of their tribal origin, were called upon to form a single nation. Their head was to be the prophet-messenger of God on earth. The only conditions for joining this community were recognition of the new religion and strict compliance with its instructions.

Mohammed quickly gathered a significant number of followers and already in 630 he managed to settle in Mecca, whose inhabitants by that time had become imbued with his faith and teachings. The new religion was called Islam (peace with God, submission to the will of Allah) and quickly spread throughout the peninsula and beyond. In communicating with representatives of other religions - Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians - Mohammed's followers maintained religious tolerance. In the first centuries of the spread of Islam, a saying from the Koran (Sura 9.33 and Sura 61.9) about the prophet Mohammed, whose name means “gift of God”, was minted on Umayyad and Abbasid coins: “Mohammed is the messenger of God, whom God sent with instructions to the right path and with true faith, in order to elevate it above all faiths, even if the polytheists are dissatisfied with this.”

New ideas found ardent supporters among the poor. They converted to Islam because they had long ago lost faith in the power of tribal gods, who did not protect them from disasters and devastation.

Initially the movement was popular in nature, which scared off the rich, but this did not last long. The actions of the adherents of Islam convinced the nobility that the new religion did not threaten their fundamental interests. Soon, representatives of the tribal and trading elites became part of the Muslim ruling elite.

By this time (20–30 years of the 7th century) the organizational formation of the Muslim religious community, headed by Muhammad, was completed. The military units she created fought for the unification of the country under the banner of Islam. The activities of this military-religious organization gradually acquired a political character.

Having first united the tribes of two rival cities - Mecca and Yathrib (Medina) - under his rule, Muhammad led the struggle to unite all Arabs into a new semi-state-semi-religious community (umma). In the early 630s. a significant part of the Arabian Peninsula recognized the power and authority of Muhammad. Under his leadership, a kind of proto-state emerged with the spiritual and political power of the prophet at the same time, relying on the military and administrative powers of new supporters - the Muhajirs.

By the time of the death of the prophet, almost all of Arabia had fallen under his rule, his first successors - Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman, Ali, nicknamed the righteous caliphs (from "caliph" - successor, deputy) - remained with him on friendly terms and family ties. Already under Caliph Omar (634 - 644), Damascus, Syria, Palestine and Phenicia, and then Egypt, were annexed to this state. In the east Arab state expanded into the territories of Mesopotamia and Persia. Over the next century, the Arabs conquered North Africa and Spain, but twice fail to conquer Constantinople, and later in France they are defeated at Poitiers (732), but retain their dominance in Spain for another seven centuries.

30 years after the death of the prophet, Islam was divided into three large sects, or movements - the Sunnis (who relied in theological and legal issues on the Sunna - a collection of legends about the words and deeds of the prophet), the Shiites (considered themselves more accurate followers and exponents of the views of the prophet, as well as more accurate executors of the instructions of the Koran) and the Kharijites (who took as a model the policies and practices of the first two caliphs - Abu Bakr and Omar).

With the expansion of the borders of the state, Islamic theological and legal structures were influenced by more educated foreigners and people of other faiths. This affected the interpretation of the Sunnah and the closely related fiqh (legislation).

The Umayyad dynasty (from 661), which carried out the conquest of Spain, moved the capital to Damascus, and the Abbasid dynasty that followed them (from the descendants of the prophet named Abba, from 750) ruled from Baghdad for 500 years. By the end of the 10th century. The Arab state, which had previously united peoples from the Pyrenees and Morocco to Fergana and Persia, was divided into three caliphates - the Abbasids in Baghdad, the Fatimids in Cairo and the Umayyads in Spain.

The emerging state decided one of most important tasks, facing the country - overcoming tribal separatism. By the middle of the 7th century. the unification of Arabia was largely completed.

Muhammad's death raised the question of his successors as supreme leader of the Muslims. By this time, his closest relatives and associates (tribal and merchant nobility) had consolidated into a privileged group. From among her, they began to choose new individual leaders of Muslims - caliphs (“deputies of the prophet”).

After the death of Muhammad, the unification of the Arab tribes continued. Power in the tribal union was transferred to the spiritual heir of the prophet - the caliph. Internal conflicts were suppressed. During the reign of the first four caliphs (“righteous”), the Arab proto-state, relying on the general armament of the nomads, began to rapidly expand at the expense of neighboring states.

State of the Arab Caliphate

Ancient Arabia did not have favorable conditions For economic development. The main part of the Arabian Peninsula is occupied by the Najd plateau, whose land is little suitable for cultivation. In ancient times, the population here was mainly engaged in raising livestock (camels, sheep, goats). Only in the west of the peninsula, along the shores of the Red Sea, in the so-called Hijaz(Arabic “barrier”), and in the southwest, in Yemen, there were oases suitable for agriculture. Caravan routes ran through the Hijaz, which contributed to the creation of large trading centers here. One of them was Mecca.

In pre-Islamic Arabia, nomadic Arabs (Bedouins) and sedentary Arabs (farmers) lived in a tribal system. This system carried strong remnants of matriarchy. Thus, kinship was counted on the maternal side, cases of polyandry (polyandry) were known, although polygamy was also practiced at the same time. Arab marriages were dissolved quite freely, including on the initiative of the wife. The tribes existed autonomously from each other. From time to time they could enter into alliances with each other, but stable political entities didn't appear for a long time. The tribe was led by Sayyid(lit. “speaker”), later the Sayyids began to be called sheikhs. The power of the sayyid was of a potestar nature and was not inherited, but the sayyids usually came from the same family. Such a leader supervised the economic work of the tribe, and he also headed the militia in case of hostilities. During the campaign, the seyid could count on receiving a fourth part spoils of war. As for the activities of popular assemblies among the Arabs, science has no information about this.

At the turn of the VI–VII centuries. Arabia was going through a serious crisis. The country was devastated as a result of the wars waged in this region by the Persians and Ethiopians. The Persians moved transport routes to the east, to the Persian Gulf region, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. This led to the decline of the Hijaz's role as a transport and trade hub. In addition, population growth caused land hunger: there was not enough land suitable for farming. As a result, social tension increased among Arab population. In the wake of this crisis, a new religion arose, designed to restore harmony and unite all Arabs. She got the name Islam(“submission”) Its creation is associated with the name of the prophet Muhammad(570–632 ). He came from the Quraysh tribe, which dominated Mecca. Until he was forty years old, he remained an ordinary person; his transformation took place in 610 miraculously (through the appearance of the Archangel Jebrail). From that time on, Muhammad began to transmit heavenly messages to the world in the form of suras (chapters) of the Koran (al-Qur'an means “reading”, since the prophet had to read the heavenly scroll on the orders of the archangel). Muhammad preached a new creed in Mecca. It was based on the idea of ​​one God – Allah. This was the name of the tribal deity of the Quraish, but Muhammad gave it the meaning of the universal God, the Creator of all things. The new religion absorbed a lot from other monotheistic cults - Christianity and Judaism. Prophets Old Testament and Jesus Christ were declared prophets of Islam. Initially, the preaching of monotheism met with fierce resistance from the Quraish nobility, who did not want to part with pagan beliefs. Clashes began in Mecca, which led to the relocation of Muhammad and his supporters to the neighboring city of Yathrib (later called Medina an-nabi - “city of the prophet”). The migration (hijra) took place in 622, this date was then recognized as the beginning of the Muslim chronology. This significance of the hijra is due to the fact that it was in Medina that the prophet managed to create ummu- a Muslim community that became the embryo of the first Islamic state. Relying on the forces of the Medinians, the prophet was able to conquer Mecca by military means. In 630 Muhammad entered into hometown winner: Mecca recognized Islam.

After the death of Muhammad in 632, the Muslim community began to elect his deputies - caliphs(“the one who comes after, the successor”). The name of the Muslim state, the Caliphate, is connected with this. The first four caliphs were called “righteous” (in contrast to the subsequent “godless” Umayyad caliphs). Rightly Guided Caliphs: Abu Bakr (632–634); Omar (634–644); Osman (644–656); Ali (656–661). The name Ali is associated with a split in Islam and the emergence of two main movements: Sunnis and Shiites. The Shiites were adherents and followers of Ali (“Ali’s party”). Already under the first caliphs, the conquest of the Arabs began, and the territory of the Muslim state expanded significantly. The Arabs seize Iran, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa, they penetrate into the Transcaucasus and Central Asia, subjugate Afghanistan and northwestern India to the river. Ind. In 711, the Arabs crossed to Spain and in a short time captured the entire Iberian Peninsula. They advanced further into Gaul, but were stopped by Frankish troops under the leadership of the majordomo Charles Martel. The Arabs also invaded Italy. As a result, it was created huge empire, surpassing in scale both the empire of Alexander the Great and the Roman Empire. Important role Religious doctrines played a role in Arab victories. Faith in one God united the Arabs: Islam preached equality between all adherents of the new religion. It smoothed over for a while social contradictions. The doctrine of religious tolerance also played a role. During jihad(holy “war in the path of Allah”), the warriors of Islam were supposed to show tolerance towards the “People of the Book” - Christians and Jews, but only if they accepted the status Zimmiev. Dhimmiyas are those non-Muslims (Christians and Jews, in the 9th century Zoroastrians were also counted among them) who recognize Muslim authority over themselves and pay a special poll tax - jizya. If they resist with arms in their hands or refuse to pay the tax, they should be fought as with other “infidels.” (Muslims were also not supposed to show tolerance towards pagans and apostates.) The doctrine of toleration turned out to be quite attractive to many Christians and Jews in countries conquered by the Arabs. It is known that in Spain and in the south of Gaul the local population preferred the softer Muslim power to the harsh rule of the Germans - the Visigoths and Franks.

Political system. According to the form of government, the Caliphate was theocratic monarchy. The head of state, the caliph, was both a spiritual leader and a secular ruler. Spiritual power was denoted by the word imamat, secular – emirate. Thus, the caliph was both the supreme imam and the main emir of the country. In the Sunni and Shiite traditions there was a different understanding of the role of the ruler in the state. For Sunnis, the caliph was the successor of the prophet, and through the prophet, the executor of the will of Allah himself. In this capacity, the caliph had absolute power, but in the legislative sphere his powers were limited. The Caliph had no right of interpretation supreme law contained in the main sources of Islamic law. The right of interpretation belonged to Muslim theologians, who had high authority in the community - mujtahids. Moreover, the decision had to be made by them in an agreed form, and not individually. The Caliph cannot create new legislation, he only ensures the implementation of an existing law. The Shiites defined the powers of the imam-caliph more broadly. The imam, like a prophet, receives revelation from Allah himself, therefore he is endowed with the right to interpret sacred texts. The Shiites recognized the right of the ruler to make laws.

The idea of ​​the succession of power of the caliph was also different. The Shiites recognized the right to supreme power only for the descendants of Caliph Ali and his wife Fatima, the daughter of the prophet (i.e., the Alids). Sunnis adhered to the principle of election. At the same time, two methods were recognized as legal: 1) election of the caliph by the Muslim community - in fact, only by the mujtahids; 2) the appointment as caliph of his successor during his lifetime, but with his obligatory approval in the ummah - by the mujtahids, their concurring opinion. The first caliphs were usually elected by the community. But the second method was also used: the first precedent was given by Caliph Abu Bakr, who appointed Omar as his successor.

After the death of Caliph Ali in 661, power was seized by a relative of the third Caliph Osman and Ali's enemy, Muawiyah. Mu'awiyah was a governor in Syria, he moved the capital of the Caliphate to Damascus and founded the first dynasty of caliphs - the dynasty Umayyads (661–750 ). Under the Umayyads, the power of the caliph began to acquire a more secular character. Unlike the first caliphs, who led a simple lifestyle, the Umayyads started their own court and lived in luxury. The creation of a huge power required the introduction of a large bureaucracy and increased taxation. Taxes were imposed not only on dhimmiyyas, but also on Muslims, who were previously exempt from paying taxes to the treasury.
In a multinational empire, the Umayyads tried to pursue a pro-Arab policy, which caused discontent among non-Arab Muslims. A widespread movement to restore equality in the Muslim community led to the fall of the dynasty. Power in the Caliphate was seized by the descendant of the uncle of the prophet (al-Abbas) Abul-Abbas the Bloody. He ordered the destruction of all the Umayyad princes. (One of them escaped death and founded an independent state in Spain.)

Abul Abbas laid the foundation for a new dynasty of caliphs - Abbasid (750–1258 ). Under the next caliph Mansur, it was rebuilt new capital Baghdad on the river Tiger (in 762). Since the Abbasids came to power, relying on the support of the population of the eastern regions of the Caliphate, primarily the Iranians, a strong Iranian influence began to be felt during their reign. Much was borrowed from the Sassanid dynasty of Persian kings (III–VII centuries).

Central authorities power and management. Initially, the caliph himself directed and coordinated the activities of various departments and services. Over time, he began to share these functions with his assistant - wazir. At first, the wazir was only the personal secretary of the caliph, who conducted his correspondence, looked after his property, and also trained the heir to the throne. Then the wazir turned into the caliph's chief adviser, guardian state seal and the head of the entire bureaucracy of the Caliphate. All the central institutions of the empire were under his control. It should be borne in mind that the wazir had only the power that the caliph delegated to him. So the caliph had the right to limit his powers. In addition, the wazir did not have actual power over the army: the emir-military leader was at the head of the army. This undermined the influence of the wazir in the state. Usually, the Abbasids appointed educated Persians to the position of wazir; the position could be inherited. The central departments were called sofas. At first, this was the designation for registers of persons receiving salaries and pensions from the treasury, then for the departments where these registers were kept. The main departments were: the office, the treasury and the administration of the army. The main postal department (Diwan al-barid) was also allocated. It was in charge of managing roads and post offices and creating communications facilities. Diwan officials, among other things, were engaged in illustrating letters and performed the functions of the secret police in the state.

At the head of each sofa was sahib- chief, he had subordinates katiby- scribes. They were passing special training and formed a special social group with its own hierarchy. This hierarchy was headed by a wazir.

Local government . The Umayyad Caliphate was characterized by strong decentralization of power. When new regions were conquered, a governor was sent there, who was supposed to keep the local population in obedience and send part of the military booty to the center. At the same time, the governor could act practically uncontrollably. The Abbasids borrowed the experience of organizing the Sassanid Persian state. The entire territory of the Arab Empire was divided into large counties on the model of the Persian satrapies. In each such province, the caliph appointed his own official - emir, who bore full responsibility to him for his actions. His important difference from the governor of the Umayyad era was that he performed not only military and police functions, but also carried out civil administration in the province. The emirs created specialized departments similar to the capital's divans and exercised control over their work. The emirs' assistants were naibs.

Judicial system. Initially, the court was not separated from the administration. The highest judges were the caliphs, from the caliphs judicial branch delegated to regional governors. From the end of the 7th century. there is a separation of the court from the administration. The Caliph and his governors began to appoint special judges called cadi(“the one who decides”) A qadi is a professional judge, an expert in Islamic law (Sharia). At first, the qadi was not independent in his actions and depended on the caliph and his governor. The qadi could appoint a deputy subordinate to him, and the deputy had assistants in the districts. This extensive system was headed qadi al-kudat(“judge of judges”), appointed by the caliph. Under the Abbasids, the qadi became independent from local authorities, but his subordination to the center remained. The appointment of new qadis began to be carried out by a special divan, similar to the Ministry of Justice.

The qadi could conduct both criminal and civil cases (differences in trial did not yet exist in the Arab Caliphate). He also monitored the condition public buildings, prisons, roads, monitored the execution of wills, was in charge of the division of property, established guardianship and even married off single women deprived of a guardian.

Some criminal cases were removed from the jurisdiction of the qadi. Security cases and murder cases were handled by the police - shurta. Shurta carried them out final decision. It was also a preliminary investigation body and a court execution body. Headed the police - sahib-ash-shurta. Cases of adultery and alcohol consumption were also removed from the jurisdiction of the qadi and were considered by the mayor, Sahib al-Madina.

The highest court of appeal was the caliph. The Wazir was also endowed with judicial powers: he could consider cases of “civil offenses.” The wazir's court complemented the sharia court of the qadi and often acted more effectively.

Further fate Caliphate. Already in the 8th century. The Arab Empire begins to disintegrate. Provincial emirs, relying on their troops, achieve independence. By the middle of the 10th century. Only Arabia and part of Mesopotamia adjacent to Baghdad remain under the control of the caliph.
In 1055, Baghdad was captured by the Seljuk Turks. Only religious power remained in the hands of the caliph; secular power passed to to the Sultan(literally "lord") of the Seljuks. As spiritual leaders of Sunni Muslims, the Baghdad caliphs retained their importance until 1258, when Baghdad was captured by the Mongols and the last Baghdad caliph was killed on the orders of Hulagu Khan. The Caliphate was soon restored in Cairo (Egypt), where it existed until 1517. Then the last Cairo caliph was taken to Istanbul and was forced to renounce his powers in favor of Ottoman Sultan. Secular and spiritual power were again united in the hands of one person.
In 1922, the last Turkish Sultan, Mehmed VI, was deposed, and the duties of caliph were entrusted to Abdulmecid II. He became last caliph in history. In 1924 Great national assembly Turkey passed a law on the liquidation of the Caliphate. It's more than thousand-year history ended.