Assessing the consequences of the Tatar-Mongol yoke and its influence on the subsequent development of the Russian state, one should recognize its ambiguous nature. Therefore, it makes sense to consider each area of ​​public life separately.

Economy.

Destruction of cities - 49 cities were destroyed. 15 of them became villages, 14 were never restored.

Slowdown in the development of crafts - many artisans, like city residents, died during the storming of the city or were taken captive to the Horde; some technologies were lost forever (cloisonne enamel, stone carving); artisans worked not for the market, but for the khans and the princely court.

The payment of tribute placed a heavy burden on the state. There was a leak of silver, the main monetary metal of Rus', which hampered the development of commodity-money relations.

Policy.

Appointment of princes with the help of special letters - labels (But! They only confirmed or rejected the candidacy of the prince, without affecting the selection procedure, while the right of inheritance was preserved).

They did not create their own ruling dynasty.

They created the institution of governors - baskaks - leaders of military detachments who monitored the activities of the princes and collected tribute. The denunciation of the Baskak led either to the summoning of the prince to the Horde, or to a punitive campaign. (But! In the 13th century, the collection of tribute was transferred to the hands of the Russian princes)

The withering away of veche traditions and the formation of a political course towards establishing the unlimited power of the ruler according to the Eastern model.

The Mongols artificially maintained territorial and political fragmentation, which became the basis for subsequent centralization from above.

Social structure.

· Almost complete destruction of the old Varangian nobility.

· Formation of a new nobility with a strong Tatar element - Sheremetevs, Derzhavins, Tolstoys, Akhmatovs.

Religion

The Horde did not destroy the Orthodox faith and imposed its religion.

· The destruction and looting of churches occurred only for the purpose of profit, and not for ideological reasons.

· The church was exempt from taxation, its possessions were declared inviolable.

· During the yoke, the number of monasteries increased, and their land ownership expanded significantly.

· Strengthening the position of the church more as a political institution than as a spiritual one.

· Protection of the Orthodox Church from Western influence.

Social consciousness.

· A change in the consciousness of the rulers - the princes were forced to demonstrate servility. Those who disobeyed were humiliatingly punished or destroyed.

· Establishment of the eastern model of government - cruel and despotic, with unlimited power of the sovereign.

There are three main points of view on this problem in Russian historiography.

1. S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky and most historians - The Yoke was a great disaster for Rus'

Yoke is a system of relations between the conquerors (Mongols) and the vanquished (Russians), which manifested itself in:

The political dependence of the Russian princes on the khans of the Golden Horde, who issued labels (letters) for the right to reign in Russian lands;

Tributary dependence of Rus' on the Horde. Rus' paid tribute to the Golden Horde (food, handicrafts, money, slaves);

Military dependence - the supply of Russian soldiers to the Mongolian troops.

2. N. M. Karamzin noted that Mongol-Tatar domination in Rus' had one important positive consequence - it accelerated the unification of Russian principalities and the revival of a unified Russian state. This gave rise to some later historians talking about the positive influence of the Mongols.

3. A. Fomenko, V. Nosovsky believe that there was no Mongol-Tatar yoke at all. The interaction of the Russian principalities with the Golden Horde was more reminiscent of allied relations: Rus' paid tribute (and its amount was not so large), and the Horde in return ensured the security of the borders of the weakened and scattered Russian principalities.

5. Modern Russian discussions about Prince Alexander Nevsky

Recently, the prince’s political talents have been increasingly emphasized, since, it turns out, “Alexander Nevsky accomplished his main feat not on the battlefield as a military leader, but in the political field as a statesman.” At the same time, “our great ancestor... selflessly defended Rus' from external enemies and understood the decisive role of the people in this defense.”

Their opponents are not inclined to exaggerate Alexander’s services to the Fatherland. They accuse the prince of collaborationism, of the fact that it was he who “surrendered” Veliky Novgorod and Pskov to the Mongol hordes, which Batu’s hordes did not reach in 1237–1238, and it was he who drowned in blood the first attempts to resist the Horde of the urban “lower classes”, ensured the power of the Horde khans for almost a quarter of a century and thereby consolidated the despotic system of government in Rus', imposing it on his homeland and thereby slowing down its development for several centuries to come. “The shame of Russian historical consciousness, Russian historical memory is that Alexander Nevsky became an indisputable concept of national pride, became a fetish, became the banner not of a sect or party, but of the very people whose historical destiny he cruelly distorted. ...Alexander Nevsky, without a doubt, was a national traitor.”

Speaking about Alexander Nevsky, a professional historian is obliged to distinguish between at least five characters in our history and culture. First of all, this is Grand Duke Alexander Yaroslavich, who lived in the middle of the 13th century. Secondly, the holy noble prince Alexander Yaroslavich, defender of Orthodoxy, canonized forty years after the death of his prototype. Thirdly, somewhat modernized in the 18th century. the image of Saint Alexander Nevsky - a fighter for access to the Baltic Sea (after all, he defeated the Swedes almost on the very spot that Peter I chose for the construction of the capital of the Russian Empire). And finally, fourthly, the image of the great defender of the entire Russian land from German aggression, Alexander Nevsky, created in the late 1930s thanks to the joint efforts of Sergei Eisenstein, Nikolai Cherkasov and Sergei Prokofiev. In recent years, a fifth Alexander has been added to them, for whom, apparently, the majority of TV viewers of the Rossiya TV channel voted: a fair, strong ruler, a defender of the “lower classes” from the boyars-“oligarchs”. the main qualities - justice, strength, the ability to resist moneybags, talent, political insight - all this is not yet there, but society needs it - and is the most acute.

1. The battles for which Prince Alexander became famous were so insignificant that they are not even mentioned in Western chronicles.

This idea was born out of pure ignorance. The Battle of Lake Peipsi is reflected in German sources, in particular in the “Elder Livonian Rhymed Chronicle”. Based on it, some historians talk about the insignificant scale of the battle, because the Chronicle reports the death of only twenty knights. But here it is important to understand that we are talking specifically about “brother knights” who performed the role of senior commanders. Nothing is said about the death of their warriors and representatives of the Baltic tribes recruited into the army, who formed the backbone of the army.
As for the Battle of the Neva, it was not reflected in any way in the Swedish chronicles. But, according to the largest Russian specialist on the history of the Baltic region in the Middle Ages, Igor Shaskolsky, “... this should not be surprising. In medieval Sweden, until the beginning of the 14th century, no major narrative works on the history of the country, such as Russian chronicles and large Western European chronicles, were created.” In other words, the Swedes have nowhere to look for traces of the Battle of the Neva.

2. The West did not pose a threat to Russia at that time, unlike the Horde, which Prince Alexander used exclusively to strengthen his personal power.

Not like that again! It is hardly possible to talk about a “united West” in the 13th century. Perhaps it would be more correct to talk about the world of Catholicism, but it, as a whole, was very colorful, heterogeneous and fragmented. Rus' was really threatened not by the “West”, but by the Teutonic and Livonian Orders, as well as the Swedish conquerors. And for some reason they were defeated on Russian territory, and not at home in Germany or Sweden, and, therefore, the threat posed by them was quite real.
As for the Horde, there is a source (Ustyug Chronicle) that makes it possible to assume the organizing role of Prince Alexander Yaroslavich in the anti-Horde uprising.

3. Prince Alexander did not defend Rus' and the Orthodox faith, he simply fought for power and used the Horde to physically eliminate his own brother.

This is just speculation. Prince Alexander Yaroslavich first of all defended what he inherited from his father and grandfather. In other words, with great skill he performed the task of a guardian, a guardian. As for the death of his brother, it is necessary, before such verdicts, to study the question of how he, in his recklessness and youth, put down the Russian army without benefit and in what way he acquired power in general. This will show: it was not so much Prince Alexander Yaroslavich who was his destroyer, but rather he himself laid claim to the role of the quick destroyer of Rus'...

4. By turning to the east, and not to the west, Prince Alexander laid the foundations for the future rampant despotism in the country. His contacts with the Mongols made Rus' an Asian power.

This is completely groundless journalism. All Russian princes were in contact with the Horde at that time. After 1240, they had a choice: to die themselves and subject Rus' to new devastation, or to survive and prepare the country for new battles and ultimately for liberation. Someone rushed headlong into battle, but 90 percent of our princes of the second half of the 13th century chose a different path. And here Alexander Nevsky is no different from our other sovereigns of that period.
As for the “Asian power”, there are indeed different points of view here today. But as a historian, I believe that Rus' never became one. It was not and is not part of Europe or Asia or some kind of mixture where the European and Asian take on different proportions depending on the circumstances. Rus' represents a cultural and political essence that is sharply different from both Europe and Asia. Just as Orthodoxy is neither Catholicism, nor Islam, nor Buddhism, nor any other confession.

It only remains to say that Alexander Nevsky is neither a villain nor a hero. He is the son of his difficult time, which was not at all oriented toward the “universal human values” of the 20th–21st centuries. He did not make any fateful choice - he himself was chosen by the Horde khans, and he only carried out their will and used their power to solve his immediate problems. He did not fight against crusader aggression, but fought with the Bishop of Dorpat for spheres of influence in the Eastern Baltic and negotiated with the Pope. He was not a traitor to national interests either, if only because these very interests, like the nation, did not yet exist and could not exist. Collaborationism is a concept that did not exist in the 13th century. All these assessments, all the “elections”, all the concepts are from the 20th century. And they have no place in the 13th century - unless, of course, we are talking about a scientific discussion proper.

The problems of the Tatar-Mongol yoke in Russian historical literature have caused and continue to cause different assessments and points of view.
Even N.M. Karamzin noted that the Tatar-Mongol domination in Rus' had one important positive consequence - it accelerated the unification of Russian lands and the revival of a unified Russian state. This gave grounds for some historians of later times to talk about the positive meaning of the yoke.
Another point of view was that Mongol-Tatar domination had extremely dire consequences for Rus', since it threw it back in development 250 years. This approach provided an explanation for all subsequent problems in the development of Russia.
The third point of view is presented in the works of some modern historians, who say that the Tatar-Mongol yoke did not exist at all. They believe that the relations of the Russian principalities with the Golden Horde were more reminiscent of allied relations: Rus' paid tribute (and its size was not so large), and the Horde in return ensured the security of the borders of the weakened and scattered Russian principalities.
It seems that each of these points of view covers only part
Problems.
It is necessary to separate the concepts of “invasion” and “yoke”: in the first case, we are talking about Batu’s invasion, which devastated Rus', and about those actions of intimidation that the khans took from time to time against the rebellious princes; in the second - about the very system of relationships between Russian and Horde authorities and territories.
The Russian lands were considered by the Horde as part of their own territory, which had a certain degree of independence.
Rus' found itself deprived of its former independence: princes could rule only after receiving a “label” to reign; the khans encouraged numerous conflicts and strife between the princes; In an effort to obtain these “labels,” the princes were ready to take any steps, which gradually changed the very atmosphere in the power structures of the Russian lands (which remained even after the fall of the yoke); the principalities were obliged to pay quite a significant tribute to the Horde (even those lands that were not captured by the Horde paid it); many cities were destroyed and were never restored; in preparation for new campaigns, the khans demanded from the Russian princes not only new money, but also soldiers; finally, “living goods” from Russian lands were a valuable commodity in the slave markets of the Horde.
At the same time, the khans did not encroach on the position of the church - they, unlike the German knights of the order, did not prevent the subject population from believing in the gods to which they were accustomed. This made it possible to preserve, despite the most difficult conditions of foreign domination, national customs, traditions, and mentality.

The economic development of Russian lands after the period of complete defeat in the middle of the century recovered quite quickly, and from the beginning XIV V. began to develop rapidly. Since that time, stone construction in cities was revived, and the restoration of temples and fortresses destroyed during the invasion began. The established and fixed tribute soon was no longer a heavy burden for the manufacturer. And since the time of Ivan Kalita, a significant part of the collected funds began to be left for the internal needs of the Russian lands themselves.
After the first persecutions associated with resistance to the invaders, the Russian Orthodox Church was forced to act in new conditions. Its shepherds sought to preserve in the people those traditional features, without which they would have lost their appearance. As the state accumulated strength, the voice of the church sounded more significant. The transfer of the center of Russian Orthodoxy to Moscow largely made it the spiritual capital of all Russian lands.

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9. Discussions about the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus' and its consequences

Key dates and events: 1237-1240 p. - Batu's campaigns on

Rus; 1380 - Battle of Kulikovo; 1480 - standing on the Ugra River, liquidation of Horde rule in Rus'.

Basic terms and concepts: yoke; label; Baskak.

Historical figures: Batu; Ivan Kalita; Dmitry Donskoy; Mamai; Tokhtamysh; Ivan IP.

Working with the map: show the territories of Russian lands that were part of the Golden Horde or that paid tribute to it.

Response Plan: 1). main points of view on the nature of the relationship between Rus' and the Horde in the 11th-15th centuries; 2) features of the economic development of Russian lands under the rule of the Mongol Tatars; 3) changes in the organization of power in Rus'; 4) Russian Orthodox Church under Horde rule; 5) the consequences of the rule of the Golden Horde on Russian lands.

Material for the answer: The problems of Horde rule have caused and continue to cause different assessments and points of view in Russian historical literature.

Even N.M. Karamzin noted that the Mongol-Tatar rule in Rus' had one important positive consequence -

Indeed, it accelerated the unification of the Russian principalities and the revival of a unified Russian state. This gave rise to some historians of later times to talk about the positive influence of the Mongols.

Another point of view is that Mongol-Tatar domination had extremely difficult consequences for Rus', as it set its development back 250 years. This approach allows us to explain all subsequent problems in the history of Russia precisely by the long rule of the Horde.

The third point of view is presented in the works of some modern historians who believe that the Mongol-Tatar yoke did not exist at all. The interaction of the Russian principalities with the Golden Horde was more reminiscent of allied relations: Rus' paid tribute (and its size was not so large), and the Horde in return ensured the security of the borders of the weakened and scattered Russian principalities.

It seems that each of these points of view covers only part of the problem. It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of “invasion” and “yoke”:

In the first case, we are talking about Batu’s invasion, which devastated Rus', and about the measures that the Mongol khans took from time to time in relation to the rebellious princes; in the second - about the very system of relationships between Russian and Horde authorities and territories.

The Russian lands were considered by the Horde as a part of its own territory that had a certain degree of independence. The principalities were obliged to pay quite a significant tribute to the Horde (it was paid even by those lands that were not captured by the Horde); in preparation for new campaigns, the khans demanded from the Russian princes not only money, but also soldiers; finally, “F!fVOY goods” from Russian lands were highly valued in the slave markets of the Horde.

Rus' was deprived of its former independence. The princes could rule only after receiving a label to reign. The Mongol khans encouraged numerous conflicts and strife between the princes. Therefore, in an effort to obtain labels, the princes were ready to take any steps, which gradually changed the very nature of princely power in the Russian lands.

At the same time, the khans did not encroach on the position of the Russian Orthodox Church - they, unlike the German knights in the Baltic states, did not prevent the population under their control from believing in their own God. This, despite the difficult conditions of foreign domination, made it possible to preserve national customs, traditions, and mentality.

The economy of the Russian principalities, after a period of complete ruin, was restored quite quickly, and from the beginning of the 14th century. began to develop rapidly. From the same time, stone construction was revived in cities, and the restoration of temples and fortresses destroyed during the invasion began. The established and fixed tribute was soon no longer considered a heavy burden. And since the time of Ivan Kalita, a significant part of the funds collected has been directed to the internal needs of the Russian lands themselves.

10. Moscow - the center of the unification of Russian lands

Key dates and events: 1276 - formation of the Moscow Principality; 1325-1340 - reign of Ivan Kalita; 1359-1389 P. - reign of Dmitry Donskoy; September 8, 1380 -Battle of Kulikovo.

Historical figures: Daniil Alexandrovich; Ivan Kalita; Dmitry Donskoy; Ivan IP; Vasily IP.

Basic terms and concepts: political center; label for reign; settlement.

Working with the map: show the borders of the Moscow Principality at the time of its creation and the territory of the expansion of the principality in the XIV-XV centuries.

Response Plan: 1) political and socio-economic prerequisites for the rise of Moscow; 2) the main stages of the development of the Moscow Principality; 3) the significance of the rise of Moscow and the unification of BOKpyr over Russian lands.

Material for the answer: The Moscow principality became independent under Alexander Nevsky's son Daniil in 1276. At that time, no one could imagine that Moscow would become the center for the collection of Russian lands. More realistic candidates for this role were Tver, Ryazan, Novgorod. However, already during the reign of Ivan Kalita, the importance of the young Moscow principality increased immeasurably.

The main reasons for the rise of Moscow were: its relative distance from the Horde; skillful policy of the Moscow princes; transfer of the right to collect tribute to Moscow; patronage of the Horde khans; the intersection of trade routes in CebePO-VQSTOCHNOY Rus', etc. However, there were two main prerequisites: the transformation of Moscow into the center of the struggle for liberation from the Horde rule and the transfer of the center of the Russian Orthodox Church to Moscow under Ivan Kalita.

There are several main stages in Moscow’s collection of Russian lands. On the first (from the formation of the Moscow principality to the beginning of the reign Ivana KalYu]>l and his new sons Semyon the Proud and Ivan the Red) were pledged EN05-new economical sky and political power of the principality. IN THE SECOND (the reign of Dmitry Donskoy and his son Vasily 1) a fairly successful military war began. ive battle between Rus' and the Horde. The largest battles of this period were the battles on the Vozha River (1378) and on the Kulikovo Field (1380). At the same time, the territory of the Moscow state is significantly expanding. The international authority of the Moscow princes is growing (for example, Vasily 1 was married to the daughter of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas). The third stage (1425-1462) is characterized by a long feudal war between Grand Duke Vasily 11 and his relatives. The main goal of this struggle was no longer to defend Moscow's leading position, but to seize power in the Moscow state, which was gaining strength and weight. Of great importance was the transformation of the Russian Orthodox Church into the world center of the Orthodox Church.

Orthodoxy after the fall of Byzantium (1453). The final one is this one.

then came the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505) and Vasily and I(1505-1533), when the main Russian principalities united under the rule of Moscow. A unified set of laws was adopted, government bodies were created, economic orders were established, etc.

The formation of a unified Russian state had great historical significance. It contributed to the liberation of Rus' from Horde rule. The formation of a political center strengthened the position of the state in the international arena. The formation of a single economic space began on Russian lands. The awareness of the Russian people as a single whole now formed the basis of the spiritual life of residents of various regions of the state.

11. Golden Horde in XIII-XV centuries

Key dates and events: early 1240s - formation of the Golden Horde; first half of the 14th century - the heyday of the Golden Horde under the khans Uzbek and Janibek, the adoption of Islam; XV century -collapse of the Golden Horde.

Historical figures: Batu; Menry - Timur; Nogai; Uzbek; Janibek; Mamai; Tokhtamysh; EdigeY.

Basic terms and concepts: khan; kurultai; Baskak; sofa; Murza.

Working with the map: show the territory of the Golden Horde, its capital, the territories of the khanates formed on its lands.

Response Plan: 1) the reasons for the formation of the Golden Horde; 2) social and economic system; 3) political system; 4) the rise of the Golden Horde; 5) the causes and consequences of the collapse of the Golden Horde.

Material for the answer: As a result of the Mongol invasion, one of the largest states of that time, the Golden Horde, was formed in the conquered territories. It extended from the Balkans in the west to central Siberia in the east; from Russian lands in the north to Transcaucasia and Turkestan in the south. The capital of the Horde was the city of Sarai-Batu, founded in the lower reaches of the Volga. At the beginning of the 14th century. The capital became the city of New Saray, which arose north of the previous one, on the banks of the Akhtuba River.

The basis of the Horde's economy was nomadic cattle breeding (mainly horses, sheep, and camels). In the cities, crafts were highly developed, mainly focused on the production of horse harness, weapons, and jewelry. The population of the Volga region, which became part of the state, was engaged in farming and fishing, the Siberian peoples were engaged in traditional hunting, and the inhabitants of Central Asia wove carpets. The major cities of the country were Bakhchisarai, Azba (Azov), Khadzhitarkhan (Astrakhan), Kazan, Isker (Siberia), Turkestan, Urgench, Khiva.

The head of state was a khan from the Chingiz clan. The Supreme Council under him (kurultai) included the khan's closest relatives, governors of the subject lands, and military leaders (temniks). The central institutions of the Horde were the divans, which were led by secretaries. The collection of tribute from the subordinate territories was carried out by the Baskaks. The basis of the ruling class were the beks, who owned pastures and herds.

The Golden Horde was a multinational state in which the Mongols made up the majority of the population. Under Khan Uzbek, Islam became the state religion.

The Golden Horde had lively trade relations not only with Asian states, but. also with Europe. After the adoption of Islam, ties with the countries of the Middle East became closer.

The Russian lands were not included in the Horde, but were considered a semi-independent “Russian ulus”. Russian princes had to receive a label to reign from the khan, pay an annual tribute, provide soldiers for the khan's army, and participate in their military campaigns.

The Horde reached its heyday under the khans Uzbek and Jani-bek in the first half of the 14th century, when its influence and international authority, economic power and the strength of the khan’s power reached their apogee. However, later the Golden Horde entered a period of feudal fragmentation, the main reasons for which were the increased level of economic development of the subject territories and the intensified struggle for power. The collapse of the great power began in the 15th century. The first to receive independence from the Horde khan was the Crimean khan Devlet-GireY. He created the Crimean Khanate, which included the territories of Crimea and the steppe regions of the Northern Black Sea region. In 1438, the most economically and militarily developed Kazan Khanate was formed in the middle reaches of the Volga. On the Lower Volga, the Khanate of the Bolly Horde arose, and in the area between the Tobol and Ob rivers - the Siberian Khanate. The steppe regions of the northern Caspian region (up to the Irtysh) became part of the Nogai Horde. There were numerous contradictions between the former parts of the Golden Horde, which resulted in military clashes.

The collapse of the Golden Horde accelerated the liberation of Russian lands from Mongol rule and their unification within a single state.

12. Rus' and Lithuania

Key dates and events: 1385 - Union of Krevo; 1410 -Battle of Grunwald.

Historical figures: Mindovg; Gediminas; Olgierd; Jagiello; Vytautas

Basic terms and concepts: union; dialect.

Working with the map: show the borders of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and their expansion in the XHI-XV centuries.

Response Plan: 1) the prerequisites for the formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania; 2) Lithuania as one of the centers of Russian unification

Sky lands; 3) economic and social structure of the Lithuanian state; 4) political system; 5) Union of Krevo; 6) Battle of Grunwald.

Material for the answer: The collapse of clan communities and the expansion of economic ties between various Lithuanian tribes created the preconditions for the formation in the 16th century. Lithuanian state. The first prince was Mindovg, who managed to quickly include the land into the young principality.

Lithuania, Zhmudi, Yatvingians, as well as part of the Polotsk, Vitebsk, Smolensk lands. When creating the Lithuanian state, the state traditions of the Russian principalities were used. Representatives of the Russian nobility had a strong position in Lithuania. Their greatest influence on the princely power was achieved under Prince Gediminas (1316-1341), married to a Russian princess. At this time, the Russian nobility formed the basis of the army, led embassies, and governed Lithuanian cities. It is not surprising that many Russian principalities represented Lithuania as a force capable of reviving Russian statehood. The annexation of Russian territories to Lithuania began, the official name of which became the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia. The collection of western and southern Russian territories continued under the sons of Gediminas - Olgerd and Keistut. In addition, they managed to stop the German advance into Lithuanian lands. Lithuania turned into a strong center for the unification of Russian lands, which did not cause protest among the Russian population, perceiving-. This process was described as the revival of the Old Russian state. Only attempts to annex Novgorod and Pskov to Lithuania were unsuccessful.

After the death of Olgerd, his son Jagiello married the Polish queen Jadwiga and in 1385 concluded a state-religious union with Poland - the Union of Krevo. According to the agreement, Jagiello became both the Polish king (under the name of Vladislav) and the Grand Duke of Lithuania. He converted to Catholicism and began to convert the entire Lithuanian nobility, and then the population of his country, to the Catholic faith. Lithuanian lands were transferred to Poland “for eternity.” Vytautas, the son of Keistut, who was killed on the orders of Yagailo, began to fight against the subordination of Poland. He sought to break the Krevo Union

And declare himself the King of Lithuania.

Before the conclusion of the Union of Krevo, the political system of Lithuania was similar to the ancient Russian one: local princes, who had their own squads, were subordinate to the Grand Duke. In the cities there was a veche administration, which extended to the rural territories under the control of the cities (inhabited by free farmers - smerds). The Lithuanian prince exercised control with the support of the family nobility united in the Rada. However, after the Union of Krevo, only Catholics could be members of the Rada; it received the right to make any decisions in the absence of the prince. Thus, the power of the prince became less and less significant (following the example of the Polish kings, who depended on the opinion of the lords). After the conclusion of the union, the cities were deprived of veche administration, and in rural areas the dependence of the smerds on the owners of the land was introduced. A new class was formed that served the prince for land grants - the gentry (nobility). They had the right to convene local gentry diets, which resolved issues of local importance. The highest class in the state were the lords (princes), who had huge territorial territories and elected kings.

The joint struggle of Russians, Lithuanians and Poles against the strengthening of German influence led to the defeat of the Germans during the Battle of Grunwald (1410), which marked the beginning of the decline of the Teutonic Order and its dominance in the Baltic states.

The flourishing of the Lithuanian state was associated with the powerful influence of Russian state and cultural traditions. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia became the real center of the unification of Russian lands. However, its merger with Poland and the beginning of Catholicization did not allow the Lithuanian princes to win the struggle for the creation of a unified Russian state. The process of dividing the Old Russian people into Belarusians, Ukrainians and Russians began.

14. Features of cultural development of Russian lands in the XIII-XVcenturies

Key dates and events: 1479 - completion of the construction of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.

Historical figures: Aristotle Fioravanti; Theophanes the Greek; Andrey Rublev; Daniil Cherny; Dionysius; Prokhor from Gorodets.

Basic terms and concepts: Novgorod style in architecture; epic; historical song.

Response Plan: 1) historical conditions for the development of culture rus- ski lands in the XIII-XV centuries; 2) the main achievements of the kulylu-

Ry: folklore, literature, architecture, painting; 3) the significance of Russian culture of this period.

Material for the answer: The main events that determined the development of the kulylura of Russian lands in the XIII-XV centuries were Batu’s invasion and the establishment of Mongol-Tatar rule. The largest monuments of kulylur were destroyed or lost - cathedrals and monasteries, frescoes and mosaics, and handicrafts. The artisans and craftsmen themselves were killed or driven into Horde slavery. Stone construction stopped.

The formation of the Russian nationality and a single state, the struggle for liberation from the Mongols, and the creation of a single language became important factors in the development of the culture of Russian lands in the 13th-15th centuries.

The main theme of oral folk art was the fight against Horde domination. Legends about the Battle of Kalka, about the devastation of Ryazan by Batu, about Evpatiy Kolovrat, the exploits of Alexander Nevsky, and the Battle of Kulikovo have been preserved or have survived to this day in a revised form. All of them make up a heroic epic. In the XIV century. stories were created about Vasily Buslaev and Sadko, reflecting the freedom-loving character of the Novgorodians, the wealth and strength of their land. A new type of oral folk art appeared - a historical song that described in detail events of which the author was a contemporary.

In works of literature, the theme of the fight against invaders was also central. At the end of the 14th century. The general Russian chronicle is being resumed.

From the end of the 13th century. The revival of stone construction began. It developed more actively in the lands that were least affected by the invasion. Novgorod became one of the centers of kulylura in these years, whose architects built the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipna and the Church of Fyodor Stratelates. These temples marked the emergence of a special architectural style, distinguished by a combination of simplicity and majesty, relatively small size of the structures, more modest design of the walls, and the use of limestone slabs and boulders along with brick. In Moscow, stone construction began during the time of Ivan Kalita, when the Assumption Cathedral was founded in the Kremlin, which became the cathedral (main) temple of Rus'. At the same time, the Annunciation Cathedral (which became the palace church of the great princes) and the Archangel Cathedral (the tomb of Moscow rulers) were created. The Faceted Chamber of the Novgorod Kremlin was built. The stone Kremlin, built in 1367, testified to the growing political power of Moscow.

Political motives were also present in church painting - icon painting. A striking example of this was the “King of Kings” icon, in which Jesus Christ was depicted with a crown on his head. This expressed non-recognition of the power of the Horde khans (who called themselves “kings of kings”) and showed the priority of the Christian faith and the power of Orthodox rulers. It is no coincidence that this icon was installed in the Assumption Cathedral after the Battle of Kulikovo.

Along with local masters, foreign painters, mainly from Byzantium, also worked in Rus' at this time. A bright figure among them was Theophanes the Greek, who managed to combine the classical Byzantine style of icon painting with the traditions of Russian masters. The brushes of Feofan, who worked in Novgorod and Moscow at the end of the 14th century, belong to the icons of Our Lady of the Don, Saints Peter and Paul, and the Dormition of the Mother of God. Some of his works decorated the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The Russian artist Andrei Rublev (1360-1430) - a monk of the Trinity-Sergius, and then the Spaso-Andronikov Monastery - became a student and follower of Theophanes. Together with Daniil Cherny, he painted frescoes on the walls of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, and then the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. The most famous of his works was “Trinity”, written for the iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral.

Having suffered during the Mongol invasion, Russian kulylura began its revival at the end XIII century. Literature, architecture, and fine art of this time were permeated with the authors’ desire for high spiritual ideals, the idea of ​​​​the struggle to overthrow the Horde rule, and the formation of the foundations of an all-Russian cultural culture.

15. Ending Rus'’s dependence on the Horde. IvanIII

Key dates and events: 1462-1505 P. - reign of Ivan III; 1478 - Novgorod the Great annexed to Moscow; 1480 - liquidation of Horde rule.

Historical figures; Ivan III; Akhmat.

Basic terms and concepts:“standing on the Ugra”; centralized state.

Working with the map: show the expansion of the borders of the Moscow state, the place of “standing on the Ugra.”

Response Plan: 1) the prerequisites for the overthrow of Horde rule; 2) Ivan IJI; 3) standing on the Ugra River; 4) the significance of the liquidation of Horde rule.

Material for the answer: The main prerequisite for the overthrow of the Horde rule was the desire of the Russian people for independence, which was expressed in the policy of the Moscow princes, who united the Russian lands under their rule.

No less important were the established economic conditions: the transition to a two- and three-field crop rotation system, the use of a plow with an iron plowshare, natural amenities

rhenium - all this led to a significant economic recovery and the formation of the material basis for liberation from foreign domination. The growth of cities and the development of handicraft production in them contributed to the strengthening of the power of Russian lands and made the fight against invaders more effective. (Since 1382, Rus' had its own artillery.) Russian cities, unlike the cities of Western Europe, were not economic centers for the unification of lands - this was hampered by the weak development of commodity-money relations. However, the cities were important strategic centers in which forces were concentrated to fight the Horde.

An important factor in overthrowing Horde rule was support from the Russian Orthodox Church.

Not the least important role was played by the fact that the Golden Horde itself entered a period of political fragmentation and broke up into a number of khanates.

In the process of overthrowing Horde rule, several milestone events in Russian history can be identified. In 1327, Moscow Prince Ivan Kalita received the right to independently collect tribute from the D1IYa Horde. In 1380, with the support of the boyars and Metropolitan Alexei, Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich for the first time gathered an army from all Russian lands to fight Mamai and on September 8, using the tactics of an ambush regiment, he completely defeated the Horde. This victory did not lead to deliverance from Mongol rule, but it showed that the united army of all Russian principalities could defeat the enemy.

It is important to note that the fight against the Mongols and the formation of a unified Russian state were closely interconnected. these processes reached a conclusion under Grand Duke Ivan 111, who managed to transform the Moscow principality into the largest European state. From 1476 he stopped paying tribute to the Horde. Khan Akhmat, who marched against Moscow in the fall of 1480, met the army of Ivan 111 on the banks of the Ugra River, but did not dare to openly clash and after a week-long stand turned back. Horde domination was over.

The overthrow of the yoke was of great importance to D1IYa Rus'. It led to the completion of the formation of a unified Russian state. In 1485, Ivan 111 declared himself “sovereign of all Russia.” Income from economic activity was now entirely directed towards the development of a unified state. Urban growth accelerated. A new stage has emerged in the development of domestic artistic culture. It was the beginning of the formation of a multinational Russian

a centralized state, which already then included representatives of a number of peoples of the Volga region,

Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

Khabarovsk State Pedagogical University

Test No. 1

According to Russian history

topic: Rus' and the Golden Horde in the 13th-15th centuries. Discussions about the influence of the Mongol-Tatar yoke on the development of Russian lands.

Completed by a 1st year student of OZO Fine Arts

Semenikhina Yulia Alexandrovna

Checked by: Romanova V.V.

Khabarovsk

Introduction.

At turning points in history, which has not yet become the past, but represents the turbulent present, appeals to ancient times are quite common - perhaps even traditional. At the same time, not only parallels are drawn, events of different eras are compared, but attempts are also made to discern in the ancient deeds of the ancestors the crops that are growing today. This is exactly the case with the sudden intense interest in the history of Rus' of the 13th-15th centuries, that is, the period well known as the “Tatar yoke”, “Tatar-Mongol yoke”, “Mongol yoke”. A return to a more careful consideration, and sometimes even revision, of the past is usually dictated not by one, but by several reasons. Why did the question of the yoke arise today, and is it being discussed in a very large audience? Firstly, you need to pay attention to the fact that the instigators of its discussion were publicists, writers and the broadest layers of the intelligentsia. Professional historians looked at the discussion that had unfolded since the late 80s of the last century calmly, silently and with some surprise. In their view, the controversial issues on the problem remained only in clarifying some subtleties and minor details, for the solution of which there are clearly insufficient sources. But unexpectedly it turned out that all the interest is not so much in the yoke itself, but in its influence on the entire course of development of our country, even specifically - on its present day, as well as on the formation of the Russian national character, psychological make-up, commitment to certain ideals and the absence of various ( mostly positive) qualities in people. The Russian state, formed on the border of Europe and Asia, which reached its heyday in the 10th - early 11th centuries, at the beginning of the 12th century broke up into many principalities. This collapse occurred under the influence of the feudal mode of production. The external defense of the Russian land was especially weakened. The princes of individual principalities pursued their own separate policies, considering primarily the interests of the local feudal nobility and entered into endless internecine wars. This led to the loss of centralized control and to a severe weakening of the state as a whole.

II . Rus' and the Golden Horde at 13-15.

1. Battle of Kalka.

In the spring of 1223, one of the largest armies ever operating in Eastern Europe gathered at the Dnieper crossings. It included regiments from the Galicia-Volyn, Chernigov and Kyiv principalities, Smolensk squads, “the entire Polovtsian land.” The main forces of the Mongol army remained in Asia with Genghis Khan. The auxiliary army of Jebe and Subedey was far inferior in number to the Russian-Polovtsian army. In addition, it was thoroughly battered during a long hike. The Mongols tried to split the allied army opposing them. They invited the Russian princes to attack the Polovtsians together and take possession of their herds and property. Without entering into negotiations, the Russians killed the ambassadors. The Mongols managed to win over to their side only the “wanderers,” the Orthodox population of the Don, who were mortally at odds with the Polovtsians.

The weakness of the allied army was the lack of a unified command. None of the senior princes wanted to obey the other. The real leader of the campaign was Mstislav Udaloy. But he could only dispose of the Galician and Volyn regiments.

When a Mongol guard detachment appeared on the left bank of the Dnieper, Mstislav Udaloy crossed the river and defeated the enemy. The leader of the detachment was captured and executed. Following the Galician prince, the entire army crossed to the left bank of the Dnieper. After a transition that lasted 8 or 9 days, the allies reached the Kalka River (Kalmius) in the Azov region, where they met the Mongols.

Mstislav Udaloy acted as bravely on Kalka as on the Dnieper. He crossed Kalka and began the battle, but did not warn either the Kyiv or Chernigov princes about his decision. The numerical superiority of the allies was so great that Mstislav decided to defeat the Mongols on his own, without sharing the honor of victory with other princes. On his orders, princes Daniil Volynsky, Oleg Kursky, and Mstislav Nemoy moved into battle. The attack was supported by a Polovtsian guard regiment led by Voivode Yarun. At the beginning of the battle, the Russians pushed back the Mongols, but then came under attack from the main enemy forces and fled. The princes and commanders who led the attack almost all survived, while the greatest losses were suffered by the regiments that remained on Kalka and fled after the unexpected attack of the Mongols. During the retreat, the light Polovtsian cavalry far outstripped the retreating Russian regiments. On the way, the Polovtsians robbed and beat Russian warriors who threw down their weapons.

2. The beginning of the invasion.

Southern Rus' suffered irreparable losses at Kalka and did not recover from the defeat. These circumstances determined the military plans of the Tatar-Mongols.

After the disaster on Kalka, the Russian princes did not think about a major offensive that would save Rus' from the devastating raid of the Asian horde. In Rus', few could appreciate the extent of the danger hanging over the country. Nomads, in the eyes of the Russians, were “non-city-dwellers.” The battle of Kolomna was one of the largest during Batu’s invasion. The Mongols operated in conditions that were unusual for them - in snow-covered forests. Their army slowly advanced into the depths of Rus' along the ice of frozen rivers. The cavalry lost mobility, which threatened the Mongols with disaster. Each warrior had three horses. A herd of one hundred thousand horses, gathered in one place, could not be fed in the absence of pasture. The Tatars had to involuntarily disperse their forces. The chances of success of the resistance increased. But Rus' was gripped by panic.

The Vladimir regiments thinned out significantly after the Battle of Kolomna, and Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich did not dare to defend the capital. Having divided the remaining forces, he fortunately retreated to the north, and left his wife and son Vsevolod with the governor, boyar Peter Oslyadyukovich, in Vladimir.

The Tatars began the siege of Vladimir on February 3, 1238. Hoping to lure the Russians out of the fortress, the Mongols brought the youngest son of Prince Yuri, who was captured by them, to the Golden Gate. Due to the small number of the garrison, the governor rejected the proposal for a sortie. On February 6, the Mongols “increasedly dressed up the forests and vices of the stavish until the evening.” The next day of lunch they broke into the New City and set it on fire. Vsevolod's family locked themselves in the stone Assumption Cathedral, while the prince himself tried to enter into an agreement with the Tatars. According to the South Russian chronicle, Vsevolod left the city with a small squad, carrying with him “many gifts”; the gifts did not soften Mevgu Khan. His soldiers burst into Detinets and set fire to the Assumption Cathedral. The people there died in the fire. The survivors were robbed and taken prisoner. Prince Vsevolod was taken to Batu, who ordered him to be slaughtered “in front of him.”

Prince Yuri fled to the north, sending messengers to different parts of the Suzdal region for help. Brother Svyatoslav and three nephews brought their squads from Rostov. Only Yaroslav did not heed his brother’s call.

The Prince of Vladimir was safely hidden from the Tatars by setting up a camp in a wooded area on the Sit River north of the Volga.

Batu sent governor Burundai in pursuit of Yuri. On March 4, 1238, the Mongols attacked the Russian camp. According to the Novgorod chronicle, the Vladimir prince managed to equip the voivode road with a guard regiment, but did it too late, when nothing could be corrected. The voivode left the camp, but immediately ran back with the news that the headquarters was surrounded. However, South Russian and Novgorod chronicles emphasize that Yuri did not offer resistance to the Tatars. Mongolian sources confirm that there was actually no battle on the City River. The prince of that country, George the Elder, ran away and hid in the forest, he was also captured and killed. Chronicles paint a picture of the total extermination of prisoners in captured cities. In fact, the Mongols spared those who agreed to serve under their banners and formed auxiliary units from them. So, with the help of terror, they replenished their army.

During February, the Mongols defeated 14 Suzdal cities, many settlements and graveyards.

3.Hike to southern Rus'.

In 1239, the Mongols destroyed the Mordovian land, burning Murom and Gorokhovets. At the beginning of 1239 they captured Pereyaslavl, and a few months later they attacked Chernigov.

The strife between the princes made Southern Rus' easy prey for the Mongols. After the flight of Mikhail of Chernigov, the Kiev table was occupied by one of the Smolensk princes, but he was immediately expelled by Daniil of Galitsky. Daniel did not intend to defend Kyiv, but “he buried the city for the thousand-strong boyar Dmitry.” The Tatars began the siege of Vladimir on February 3, 1238. Hoping to lure the Russians out of the fortress, the Mongols brought the youngest son of Prince Yuri, who was captured by them, to the Golden Gate. Due to the small number of the garrison, the governor rejected the proposal for a sortie. On February 6, the Mongols “increasedly dressed up the forests and vices of the stavish until the evening.” The next day of lunch they broke into the New City and set it on fire. The courage of Vladimir’s defenders was testified by Mongolian sources. They fought fiercely, and Meng-Kaan personally performed heroic feats until he defeated them. Prince Vsevolod had the opportunity to defend himself in a stone fort. But he saw the impossibility of single-handedly resisting the main forces of the Mongols and, like other princes, tried to get out of the war as soon as possible. Vsevolod's family locked themselves in the stone Assumption Cathedral, while the prince himself tried to enter into an agreement with the Tatars. According to the South Russian chronicle, Vsevolod left the city with a small squad, carrying with him “many gifts”; the gifts did not soften Mevgu Khan. His soldiers burst into Detinets and set fire to the Assumption Cathedral. The people there died in the fire. The survivors were robbed and taken prisoner. Prince Vsevolod was taken to Batu, who ordered him to be slaughtered “in front of him.”

In 1240, Batu and Kadan, the son of the Mongol emperor, besieged Kyiv. In December 1240 Kyiv fell. Boyar Dmitry, who led the defense, was wounded and captured. Batu spared his life “for his sake.”

The war changed the face of the old boyars. The princely squads suffered catastrophic losses. The nobility of Varangian origin disappeared almost entirely.

The princes who tried to protect Rus', for the most part, folded their heads. Prince Yuri of Vladimir died along with all his sons. His brother Yaroslav and his six sons survived the invasion. One young son of Yaroslav, who was imprisoned in Tver, died. The prince did not participate in the defense of the Russian land and did not defend his capital. As soon as Vatu’s troops left the land, Yaroslav immediately occupied the grand-ducal table in Vladimir. Following this, he attacked the Principality of Kiev.

The defeat of Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars led to the fact that the onslaught of the German crusaders on the Novgorod and Pskov possessions intensified.

When Batu returned from the western campaign, Yaroslav in 1240 went to bow to him in Sarai. The establishment of Mongol rule allowed the prince to achieve his long-standing goal. Batu recognized Yaroslav as the oldest prince of Rus'. In fact, the Horde recognized the claims of the Vladimir prince to the Kiev table as legitimate. However, the southern Russian princes did not want to submit to the will of the Tatars. For three years they stubbornly refused to come to bow to Batu in the Horde.

The forces of Southern Rus' were undermined by the Tatar-Mongol pogrom and internal strife. The Horde imposed tribute on Rus'. In addition to cash payments, the Mongols demanded that the Russian princes constantly send military detachments to serve the khan.

entered the Novgorod land. On February 20, they began the siege of Torzhok. For two weeks, the Tatars tried to destroy the walls of the city with the help of sedimentation machines. The city was taken. The population was slaughtered completely.

Pereyaslavl was the last city that the Mongol princes took together.

4.Rus and the Horde. The reign of Alexander Nevsky .

If on the western borders the Russian people managed to defend their land from the encroachments of their neighbors, then the situation was different in relations with the conquerors from the East. From the Pacific Ocean to the Danube, Mongol conquerors ruled. And in the lower reaches of the Volga, Khan Batu ordered to build the city of Sarai, which became the capital of the new state - the Golden Republic. The Russian princes found themselves subordinate to the Tatar khans, although Rus' was not part of the Golden Horde territory itself. It was considered the “ulus” (possession) of the Sarai rulers. The headquarters of the main Mongol khan was located many thousands of miles away - in Karakorum. But over time, Sarai's dependence on Karakoram decreased. The local khans ruled their country quite independently. In the Horde, a procedure was introduced whereby Russian princes, in order to obtain the right to power in the principalities, had to receive a special khan's charter. It was called a shortcut. Trips for “labels” were accompanied by the presentation of rich gifts not only to the khan, but also to his wives and close officials. At the same time, the princes were required to fulfill conditions alien to their religion, sometimes humiliating. On this basis, dramatic scenes played out in the Horde. Some Russian rulers refused to follow the prescribed order. Prince Mikhail Chernigovsky paid with his life for such a refusal. For the torture he endured in the name of the Orthodox faith, he was canonized by the Russian Church. The stories of the legend about the courageous behavior of Michael in the Horde spread widely throughout Rus' as evidence of the prince’s loyalty to his high moral duty. The Ryazan prince Roman Olegovich was subjected to brutal reprisals. His reluctance to change his faith aroused the ire of the khan and his circle. The prince's tongue was cut off, his fingers and toes were cut off, he was cut at the joints, the skin was ripped off from his head, and he himself was impaled on a spear. In Karakorum, Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodich, the father of Alexander Nevsky, was poisoned.

In 1252, Alexander Nevsky became the Grand Duke of Rus'. He chose Vladimir, not Kyiv, as his capital. He saw the main danger in the Horde, and therefore sought not to aggravate relations with it. The prince understood that Rus' was not able to resist both aggression from the West and the constant threat from the East. There is a legend that Prince Alexander rejected the Pope's proposals to accept Catholicism and the title of king. He remained faithful to Orthodoxy. At one time he said: “God is not in power, but in righteousness.” This did not prevent him from responding to attacks from neighboring Lithuania and the Baltic Germans. The Russian commander did not know defeat. The situation dictated its own laws. The proud Russian ruler also had to go to bow to the Horde rulers. But Alexander was in no hurry. Only after a notification from Batu, in which the conqueror of many lands noted the exploits of Alexander Nevsky, did the Grand Duke of Rus' go to the Horde. He was the only Russian ruler who had not yet been to the Horde. Batu made it clear that otherwise the Russian land would face new devastation from the Tatars. “Are you the only one who will not submit to my power?” - Khan Alexander Nevsky asked menacingly. There was no choice. In the Horde, Alexander Nevsky was given a worthy reception. Later, the Grand Duke was forced to visit distant Karakorum. Otherwise, Prince Alexander would not have been able to keep his land unharmed. The Horde khans imposed a heavy tribute on Rus', which had to be paid in silver every year. Tatar tribute collectors (Baskaks) with military detachments settled in Russian cities. The population groaned from extortions and violence. The Sarai authorities conducted a population census to count taxpayers (this was called “number”, and those included in the census were “numerical people”). Benefits were provided only to clergy. But the rulers of the Horde still failed to win over the Russian Orthodox Church to their side. The Khans of the Horde drove away many thousands of Russian people. They were forced to build cities, palaces and fortifications and do other work. Archaeologists have discovered several Russian settlements on the territory of the Golden Horde. The things found showed that these involuntary residents kept the memory of their abandoned homeland, continued to be Christians, and built a church. The Horde authorities established a special Saraisko-Podonsk diocese for the Orthodox population. Despite the frightening events, the Russian people did not always come to terms with their situation. Discontent in the country grew and resulted in open protests against the Horde. The khans sent punitive troops to Rus', which found it difficult to resist scattered pockets of resistance. Alexander Nevsky saw and understood all this. The time has not yet come when I could stand up for myself. Therefore, the Grand Duke tried to keep his fellow tribesmen from military action against the Horde. Saving Novgorod as an island of unravaged Russian land, he forced the Novgorodians to let Tatar census takers into the city.

The threat of invasion by the Vladimir “tumens” and Tatars took effect. Novgorod agreed to accept the Tatar “chislenniks” for the census (chislenniks were the Tatar officials who conducted the population census and determined the size of the Horde tribute. It is believed that the Horde tried to streamline the collection of tribute in Rus'. However, there is there is reason to believe that the rulers of Sarai tried to spread the Mongol military system to Rus'). But as soon as the Tatar scribes arrived in the city and began the census, the smaller people - the “rabble” - became agitated again. Gathering on the Sofia side, the veche decided that it was better to lay down their heads than to recognize the power of the infidel conquerors. Alexander and the Tatar ambassadors who fled under his protection immediately left the princely residence on Gorodishche and headed to the border. The prince's departure was tantamount to a break in the world. In the end, supporters of Alexander Nevsky from among the Novgorod boyars convinced the veche to accept his conditions in order to save the Novgorod land from invasion and ruin.

In the end, supporters of Alexander Nevsky from among the Novgorod boyars convinced the veche to accept his conditions in order to save the Novgorod land from invasion and ruin.

The Horde failed to extend the rules of military service to Rus' in the Mongol uluses. But the measures taken by the Horde laid the foundation of the Basque system, more adapted to Russian conditions. Instead of Temniks and Thousanders, Russia began to be governed by specially appointed officials - Baskaks, who had military force at their disposal. The main baskak kept his headquarters in Vladimir. He supervised the activities of the Grand Duke, ensured the collection of tribute and recruited soldiers into the Mongol army. In the middle of the 13th century. There were signs of the collapse of the Mongol Empire and they became increasingly isolated from each other. The influx of military detachments from Mongolia to Batu ulus stopped. The rulers of the Horde tried to compensate for the losses with additional recruitment of warriors in the conquered countries.

Prince Alexander Nevsky managed to achieve success in the Horde and limit forced recruitment of troops only due to special circumstances. Many Russian lands and principalities escaped; Batu’s invasion was not going to recognize the power of the Mongols. The rich and vast Novgorod land was among them. During the defense of Torzhok, the Novgorodians offered fierce resistance to the Tatars. Later they repelled the invasion of the Livonian knights. It was impossible to bring Novgorod to its knees without a war, and Prince Alexander suggested that the rulers of the Horde use Vladimir “tumens” against the Novgorodians.

The unwillingness of weakened Rus' to fight the Horde was revealed quite clearly when the performance of Andrei Yaroslavich, brother of A. Nevsky, against the Horde ended in complete failure. His army was defeated, and the prince himself fled to Sweden. The invasion of foreigners caused heavy damage to the Russian economy. Some important industries froze for a long time (metal processing, construction, jewelry making, etc.). The news of Batu's death caused a sigh of relief in the Russian Lands. Moreover, in 1262 there were uprisings throughout the Russian Cities, during which Tatar tribute collectors were beaten and expelled. Alexander Nevsky, foreseeing the grave consequences of these events, decided to visit the Horde in order to prevent the coming bloody retribution.

In 1258, the Mongols defeated the Lithuanians. The appearance of the Tatars in Lithuania worsened the position of Novgorod. In the winter of 1259, Novgorod ambassadors traveling to Vladimir brought the news that there were regiments on the Suzdal border, ready to start a war. The threat of invasion by the Vladimir “tumens” and Tatars took effect. Novgorod agreed to accept the Tatar “chislenniks” for the census (chislenniks were the Tatar officials who conducted the population census and determined the size of the Horde tribute. It is believed that the Horde tried to streamline the collection of tribute in Rus'. However, there is there is reason to believe that the rulers of Sarai tried to spread the Mongol military system to Rus'). The Horde failed to extend the rules of military service to Rus' in the Mongol uluses. But the measures taken by the Horde laid the foundation of the Basque system, more adapted to Russian conditions. Instead of Temniks and Thousanders, Russia began to be governed by specially appointed officials - Baskaks, who had military force at their disposal. The main baskak kept his headquarters in Vladimir. He supervised the activities of the Grand Duke, ensured the collection of tribute and recruited soldiers into the Mongol army.

By the beginning of the 1260s, the Golden Horde not only stood out and entered into a protracted and bloody war with the Mongol state of Hulagu, which was formed after the conquest of Persia and the final defeat of the Arab Caliphate. The collapse of the Mongol Empire and the war between the uluses tied the forces of the Horde and limited its interference in the internal affairs of Rus'.

II . The influence of the Mongol-Tatar yoke on the development of Russian lands.

Frequent raids on Rus' contributed to the creation of a unified state, as Karamzin said: “Moscow owes its greatness to the khans!” Kostomarov emphasized the role of the khan's labels in strengthening the power of the Grand Duke. At the same time, they did not deny the influence of the devastating campaigns of the Tatars - Mongolians on Russian lands, the collection of heavy tribute, etc. Gumilyov, in his research, painted a picture of good neighborly and allied relations between Rus' and the Horde. Soloviev (Klyuchevsky, Platonov) assessed the impact of the conquerors on the internal life of ancient Russian society as insignificant, with the exception of raids and wars. He believed that the processes of the 2nd half of the 13th-15th centuries either followed from the trends of the previous period, or arose independently of the Horde. Having briefly mentioned the dependence of the Russian princes on the khan's labels and the collection of taxes, Soloviev noted that there is no reason to recognize the significant influence of the Mongols on the Russian internal administration, since we do not see any traces of it. For many historians, there is an intermediate position - the influence of the conquerors is regarded as noticeable, but not determining the development and unification of Rus'. The creation of a unified state, according to Grekov, Nasonov and others, occurred not thanks to, but in spite of the Horde, from the point of view of the Mongol yoke in modern historical science: Traditional history views it as a disaster for the Russian lands. Another interprets Batu’s invasion as an ordinary raid of nomads. Supporters of the traditional point of view extremely negatively assess the impact of the yoke on various aspects of the life of Rus': there was a massive movement of the population, and with it the agricultural culture, to the west and north-west, to less convenient territories with a less favorable climate; The political and social role of cities is sharply declining; The power of the princes over the population increased. The invasion of nomads was accompanied by massive destruction of Russian cities, the inhabitants were mercilessly destroyed or taken prisoner. This led to a noticeable decline in Russian cities - the population decreased, the lives of city residents became poorer, and many crafts fell into decay. The Mongol-Tatar invasion dealt a heavy blow to the basis of urban culture - handicraft production. Since the destruction of cities was accompanied by massive removals of artisans to Mongolia and the Golden Horde. Together with the craft population of the Russian city, they lost centuries of production experience: the craftsmen took their professional secrets with them. Complex crafts have been disappearing for a long time; their revival began only 15 years later. The ancient skill of enamel has disappeared forever. The appearance of Russian cities has become poorer. The quality of construction subsequently also dropped significantly. The conquerors inflicted no less heavy damage on the Russian countryside and rural monasteries of Rus' where the majority of the country's population lived. The peasants were robbed by all the Horde officials, and numerous khan's ambassadors, and simply gangs of robbers. The damage caused by the Monolo-Tatars to the peasant economy was terrible. Dwellings and outbuildings were destroyed in the war. Draft cattle were captured and driven to the Horde. The damage caused to the national economy of Rus' by the Mongolo-Tatar conquerors was not limited to devastating looting during raids. After the establishment of the yoke, huge values ​​left the country in the form of “tribute” and “requests”. The constant leakage of silver and other metals had dire consequences for the economy. There was not enough silver for trade; there was even a “silver famine.” The Mongol-Tatar conquests led to a significant deterioration in the international position of the Russian principalities. Ancient trade and cultural ties with neighboring states were forcibly severed. Trade fell into decline. The invasion dealt a strong destructive blow to the culture of the Russian principalities. The conquests led to a long decline in Russian chronicle writing, which reached its peak at the beginning of Batu's invasion. The Mongol-Tatar conquests artificially delayed the spread of commodity-money relations, and subsistence farming did not develop.

Conclusion

Thus, the origin and development of the Golden Horde had a strong influence on the development of the Russian state, because for many years its history was tragically intertwined with the fate of the Russian lands and became an inseparable part of Russian history.

While the Western European states, which were not attacked, gradually moved from feudalism to capitalism, Rus', torn apart by the conquerors, retained the feudal economy. The invasion was the reason for the temporary backwardness of our country. Thus, the Mongol-Tatar invasion cannot in any way be called a progressive phenomenon in the history of our country. After all, the rule of the nomads lasted for almost two and a half centuries, and during this time the yoke managed to put a significant imprint on the fate of the Russian people. This period in the history of our country is very important, since it predetermined the further development of Ancient Rus'.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1. Egorov V.L. “Golden Horde: Myths or Reality” ed. knowledge Moscow 1990

2. Grekov B.I. World of history: Russian lands in the 13th-15th centuries. M., 1986

3. Kuchkin V.A. Alexander Nevsky - statesman and commander of medieval Rus' - Domestic history. 1996

4. Ryazanovsky V.A. Questions of History 1993 No. 7

5. Skrynnikov R. G. Russian History 9-17 centuries M.; ed. The whole world 1997

By right of a conqueror, the great khan of the Golden Horde, Batu, achieved recognition of his supreme power (suzerainty) from the princes of the Russian lands. The Russian lands were not directly included in the territory of the Golden Horde: their dependence was expressed in the payment of tribute - the Horde “exit” - and in the issuance by the khan of the Golden Horde of “labels” - letters of reign to the Russian rulers. In terms of the scale of destruction, the Mongol conquest differed from countless internecine wars primarily in that they were carried out simultaneously across all lands.

The painful result of the Mongol conquest for Rus' was the payment of tribute to the Horde. Tribute (“exit”) began to be collected back in the 40s of the 13th century, and in 1257, by order of Khan Berke, the Mongols carried out a population census (“number”) in North-Eastern Rus', establishing fixed rates of collection. Only the clergy were exempt from paying the exit fee (before the adoption of Islam in the Horde at the beginning of the 14th century, the Mongols were distinguished by religious tolerance). To control the collection of tribute, representatives of the khan, the Baskaks, were sent to Rus'. By the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century. The institution of Baskaism was abolished due to the active opposition of the Russian population to it. From that time on, the collection of the Horde “exit” was carried out by the princes of the Russian lands themselves, whom the khan kept in obedience with the help of a system of issuing labels for reigning.

The question of the influence of the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the establishment of Horde rule on the history of Russia has long been a controversial one. There are three main points of view on this problem in Russian historiography. Firstly, this is a recognition of the very significant and predominantly positive impact of the conquerors on the development of Rus', which pushed the process of creating a unified Moscow state.

The founder of this point of view was N.M. Karamzin, and in the 20s of our century it was developed by the so-called Eurasians. At the same time, unlike L.N. Gumilyov, who in his research painted a picture of good neighborly and allied relations between Rus' and the Horde, did not deny such obvious facts as the ruinous campaigns of the Mongol-Tatars on Russian lands, the collection of heavy tribute, etc.

Other historians (among them S.M. Solovyov, V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.F. Platonov) assessed the impact of the conquerors on the internal life of ancient Russian society as extremely insignificant. They believed that the processes that took place in the second half of the 13th - 15th centuries either organically followed from the trends of the previous period, or arose independently of the Horde.

Finally, many historians are characterized by a sort of intermediate position. The influence of the conquerors is regarded as noticeable, but not determining the development of Rus' (and definitely negative). The creation of a unified state, according to B.D. Grekov, A.N. Nasonov, V.A. Kuchkin and others, happened not thanks to, but in spite of the Horde.

Based on the current level of knowledge about the economic, social, political, cultural development of Russian lands in the 13th - 15th centuries, as well as the nature of Russian-Horde relations, we can talk about the consequences of a foreign invasion. The impact on the economic sphere was expressed, firstly, in the direct devastation of territories during the Horde campaigns and raids, which were especially frequent in the second half of the 13th century. The heaviest blow was dealt to the cities. Secondly, the conquest led to the systematic siphoning of significant material resources in the form of the Horde “exit” and other extortions, which bled the country dry.

The Horde sought to actively influence the political life of Rus'. The efforts of the conquerors were aimed at preventing the consolidation of Russian lands by pitting some principalities against others and weakening them mutually. Sometimes the khans went to change the territorial and political structure of Rus' for these purposes: on the initiative of the Horde, new principalities were formed (Nizhny Novgorod) or the territories of old ones were divided (Vladimir).

The consequence of the invasion of the 13th century. there was an increase in the isolation of the Russian lands, a weakening of the southern and western principalities. As a result, they were included in the structure that arose in the 13th century. early feudal state - the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: Polotsk and Turov-Pinsk principalities - by the beginning of the 14th century, Volyn - in the middle of the 14th century, Kiev and Chernigov - in the 60s of the 14th century, Smolensk - at the beginning of the 15th century.

Russian statehood (under the suzerainty of the Horde) was preserved as a result only in North-Eastern Rus' (Vladimir-Suzdal land), in the Novgorod, Murom and Ryazan lands. It was North-Eastern Rus' from approximately the second half of the 14th century. became the core of the formation of the Russian state. At the same time, the fate of the western and southern lands was finally determined.

Thus, in the XIV century. The old political structure, which was characterized by independent principalities-lands, governed by different branches of the princely family of Rurikovich, within which smaller vassal principalities existed, ceased to exist. The disappearance of this political structure also marked the subsequent collapse of the structure that had developed in the 9th - 10th centuries. Old Russian people - the ancestor of the three currently existing East Slavic peoples. In the territories of North-Eastern and North-Western Rus', the Russian (Great Russian) nationality begins to gradually take shape, while in the lands that became part of Lithuania and Poland - the Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities.

In addition to these “visible” consequences of conquest, significant structural changes can also be traced in the socio-economic and political spheres of ancient Russian society.

In the pre-Mongol period, feudal relations in Rus' developed in general according to a pattern characteristic of all European countries: from the predominance of state forms of feudalism at an early stage to the gradual strengthening of patrimonial forms, although slower than in Western Europe. After the invasion, this process slows down, and state forms of exploitation are conserved. This was largely due to the need to find funds to pay for the “exit”.

In Rus' in the 14th century. State-feudal forms prevailed, the relationship of personal dependence of the peasants on the feudal lords was at the stage of formation, the cities remained in a subordinate position in relation to the princes and boyars. Thus, there were no sufficient socio-economic prerequisites for the formation of a unified state in Rus'. Therefore, the leading role in the formation of the Russian state was played by the political (“external”) factor - the need to confront the Horde and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Due to this necessity, wide sections of the population - both the ruling class, the townspeople, and the peasantry - were interested in centralization.

This “advanced” nature of the unification process in relation to socio-economic development determined the peculiarities of the unification that was formed by the end of the 15th - 16th centuries. states: strong monarchical power, strict dependence of the ruling class on it, a high degree of exploitation of direct producers. The latter circumstance was one of the reasons for the formation of the serfdom system.

Thus, the Mongol-Tatar conquest had an overall significant impact on ancient Russian civilization.

In addition to the direct consequences of the Horde policy, structural deformations are observed here, which ultimately led to a change in the type of feudal development of the country. The Moscow monarchy was not directly created by the Mongol-Tatars, rather on the contrary: it developed in spite of the Horde and in the fight against it. However, indirectly, it was the consequences of the influence of the conquerors that determined many of the essential features of this state and its social system.

North-Eastern Rus' after the Mongol invasion

Relatively more favorable development of North-Eastern Rus' (Vladimir-Suzdal land), which became the core of the new united Russian state (Russia), in the second half of the XIII-XIV centuries. was associated with factors operating on the eve of the invasion and after it.

The princes of the Vladimir-Suzdal land almost did not participate in the internecine struggle of the 30s of the 13th century, which significantly weakened the Chernigov and Smolensk princes. The Grand Dukes of Vladimir managed to extend their suzerainty to Novgorod, which turned out to be a more profitable “all-Russian” table than Kyiv and Galich, which had lost their importance.

Unlike the Smolensk, Volyn and Chernigov regions, North-Eastern Rus' until the second half of the 14th century. experienced virtually no pressure from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The impact of the Horde factor was also ambiguous. Although North-Eastern Rus' was subjected to in the 13th century. very significant ruin, it was her princes who were recognized in the Horde as the “elders” in Rus'. This contributed to the transition of the status of the “all-Russian” capital from Kyiv to Vladimir.

During the Mongol invasion, Northern Rus' was simultaneously faced with expansion coming from the Baltic states. By the 12th century. the population of the Baltic lands entered the phase of statehood formation. At the same time, the territories inhabited by the Baltic tribes found themselves the target of an invasion by German knights, who, with the blessing of the Pope, organized a crusade against the Livonians.

In 1201, the crusaders, led by the monk Albert, founded the Riga fortress, and the next year the “Order of the Swordsmen” was formed on the conquered lands. In 1212 The crusaders subjugated all of Livonia and began to conquer the lands of the Estonians, coming close to the Novgorod borders.

The expansion of the Crusaders was accompanied by the distribution of land to German feudal lords and the forced conversion of the local pagan population to Catholicism. This was the difference between the Order’s policy and the actions of the Russian princes in the Eastern Baltic: the latter did not claim to directly seize lands (being content with tribute) and did not carry out forced Christianization. In 1234, the Novgorod prince Yaroslav Vsevolodich, the son of Vsevolod the Big Nest, managed to defeat the German knights near Yuryev (Dorpt). And two years later, the Swordsmen were defeated by the militia of Lithuanians and Semigallians.

The defeats suffered forced the remnants of the Order of the Sword in 1237 to unite with the larger Teutonic Order, which by this time, as a result of active “missionary” activity, occupied the lands of the Prussians.

The unification of the forces of the spiritual-knightly Orders and the formation of the Livonian Order significantly increased the danger that threatened Veliky Novgorod and its “suburb” Pskov. At the same time, the danger from the Swedish and Danish knights increased.

Bibliography

To prepare this work, materials from the site http://russia.rin.ru/ were used

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