Faculty of Oriental Studies

"OIL: Environmental pollution from oil."

Abstract on ecology and nature conservation

1st year student of the Department of Arabic Studies

S.S. Khachaturian

YEREVAN 2006

Introduction………………………………………………………3

Chapter 2. Atmospheric and soil pollution. Oil pollution of the World Ocean …………………5

Chapter 3. Methods of protection from environmental pollution associated with oil production, transportation and refining………………10

Conclusion……………………………………………………………12

List of used literature…………………14

Introduction.

At first, people did not think about what intensive oil and gas production entailed. The main thing was to pump them out as much as possible. That's what they did. But in the early 40s. of the current century, the first alarming symptoms appeared.

Environmental pollution by petroleum products, in my opinion, is a very relevant and important topic, which reminds us of itself more and more often every day. I, as a future orientalist, am particularly interested in this, since when speaking of the East, the first thing that comes to mind is oil.

Having begun the exploitation of oil and gas fields, man, without knowing it, “let the genie out of the bottle.” At first it seemed that oil only brought benefits to people, but it gradually became clear that its use also had a downside.

What does oil bring more, benefit or harm?

What are the consequences of its use?

Won't they turn out to be fatal for humanity?

Every minute, thousands of tons of oil are produced in the world, and at the same time people do not even think about the near future of our planet, because only in the 20th century more of our planet’s oil reserves were depleted. Moreover, the damage that was caused in this relatively short period of time cannot be compared with any catastrophe that occurred in the entire history of mankind.

This also happened in the Wilmington oil field (California, USA). The field stretches through the southwestern areas of Los Angeles and across Long Beach Bay, reaching the coastal areas of the resort city of the same name. The oil and gas bearing area is 54 km 2 . The field was discovered in 1936, and already in 1938 it became the center of California oil production. By 1968, almost 160 million tons of oil and 24 billion m of gas had been pumped out of the depths; in total, they hope to get more than 400 million tons of oil here.

The location of the field in the center of a highly industrialized and densely populated region of southern California, as well as its proximity to the large oil refineries of Los Angeles, was important in the development of the economy of the entire state of California. In this regard, from the beginning of the field's production until 1966, it consistently maintained the highest level of production compared to other oil fields in North America.

In 1939, residents of the cities of Los Angeles and Long Beach felt quite noticeable shaking of the earth's surface - subsidence of the soil above the field began. In the forties, the intensity of this process intensified. An area of ​​sedimentation emerged in the form of an elliptical bowl, the bottom of which fell precisely on the arch of the anticlinal fold, where the level of selection per unit area was maximum. In the 60s the subsidence amplitude had already reached 8.7 m. The areas confined to the edges of the subsidence bowl experienced tension. Horizontal displacements with an amplitude of up to 23 cm appeared on the surface, directed towards the center of the area. The movement of soil was accompanied by earthquakes. Between 1949 and 1961, five fairly strong earthquakes were recorded. The ground was literally disappearing from under our feet. Piers, pipelines, city buildings, highways, bridges and oil wells were destroyed. $150 million was spent on restoration work. In 1951, the subsidence rate reached a maximum of 81 cm/year. There is a threat of land flooding. Frightened by these events, the city of Long Beach stopped development of the field until the problem was resolved.

By 1954, it was proven that the most effective means of combating subsidence is to inject water into the formation. This also promised an increase in the oil recovery factor. The first stage of waterflooding work began in 1958, when almost 60 thousand m 3 of water per day began to be pumped into the productive formation on the southern flank of the structure. Ten years later, the injection intensity has already increased to 122 thousand m 3 days. The subsidence has practically stopped. Currently, in the center of the bowl it does not exceed 5 cm/year, and in some areas even a surface rise of 15 cm has been recorded. The field has returned to production, with about 1,600 liters of water being injected for every ton of oil withdrawn. Maintaining reservoir pressure currently provides up to 70% of daily oil production in the old areas of Wilmington. In total, the field produces 13,700 tons of oil per day.

Recently, reports have appeared about the subsidence of the North Sea bottom within the Ekofisk field after 172 million tons of oil and 112 billion m 3 of gas were extracted from its depths. It is accompanied by deformations of well bores and offshore platforms themselves. The consequences are difficult to predict, but their catastrophic nature is obvious.

In the old fields of Azerbaijan - Balakhani, Sabunchi, Romany (in the suburbs of Baku) surface subsidence occurs, which leads to horizontal movements. In turn, this causes collapse and breakage of the casing pipes of production oil wells.

According to experts, there is a direct relationship between increased pumping of oil from the subsoil and the intensification of small earthquakes. Cases of well bore breakage and column collapse have been recorded. In all these cases, one of the effective measures is also the injection of water into the productive formation, compensating for the extraction of oil.

Chapter 2. Atmospheric and soil pollution. Oil pollution of the world's oceans

Since, at present, petroleum products are one of the most important energy carriers for Humanity, and the trend will continue for at least the next 20 years, the problem of oil entering the Earth’s hydrosphere remains quite relevant.

A much greater danger lies in the use of oil and gas as fuel. When these products are burned, large quantities of carbon dioxide, various sulfur compounds, nitrogen oxide, etc. are released into the atmosphere. Over the past half century, from the combustion of all types of fuel, including coal, the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by almost 288 billion tons, and more than 300 billion tons of oxygen have been consumed. Thus, since the first fires of primitive man, the atmosphere has lost about 0.02% of oxygen and gained up to 12% of carbon dioxide. Currently, every year humanity burns 7 billion tons of fuel, which consumes more than 10 billion tons of oxygen, and the increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere reaches 14 billion tons. In the coming years, these numbers will grow due to a general increase in production combustible minerals and their combustion. According to experts, by 2020, about 12,000 billion tons of oxygen (0.77%) will disappear from the atmosphere. Thus, in 100 years the composition of the atmosphere will change significantly and, presumably, for the worse.

A decrease in the amount of oxygen and an increase in carbon dioxide content, in turn, will affect climate change. Carbon dioxide molecules allow short-wave radiation from the sun to penetrate the Earth's atmosphere and block infrared radiation emitted by the Earth's surface. The so-called “greenhouse effect” occurs, and the average planetary temperature rises. It is assumed that the warming from 1880 to 1940 is largely attributable to this. It would seem that in the future the warming should progressively increase.

Jet planes, cars, plants and factories play a big role in air pollution. To cross the Atlantic Ocean, a modern jetliner absorbs 35 tons of oxygen and leaves contrails that increase cloud cover. Cars, of which there are already more than 700 million, also significantly pollute the atmosphere. According to experts, cars “multiply” 7 times faster than people. As Senator E. Muskie said in 1976, in the United States every year from diseases caused by air pollution, 15 thousand people die. Americans are seriously worried about this. Various projects are emerging to create engines that run on other types of fuel. Electric cars are no longer news, there are prototypes in many countries around the world, but so far their widespread implementation is being held back due to low battery power.

Various factories, heat and power plants make a significant contribution to atmospheric poisoning. An average power plant operating on fuel oil emits 500 tons of sulfur into the environment every day in the form of sulfur dioxide, which, when combined with water, immediately produces sulfurous acid. French journalist M. Rouze provides the following data. The thermal power plant of the Electricité de France company daily releases 33 tons of sulfuric anhydrite into the atmosphere from its pipes, which can turn into 50 tons of sulfuric acid. Acid rain covers the area around this station within a radius of up to 5 km. Such rains are highly chemically active, they even corrode cement, not to mention limestone or marble.

Ancient monuments are especially affected. The Athenian Acropolis is in a dire situation, which has withstood the destructive effects of earthquakes, raids by foreign invaders, and fires for more than 2,500 years. Now this world-famous ancient monument is under serious threat. Atmospheric pollution gradually destroys the surface of marble. The smallest particles of smoke emitted into the air by the industrial enterprises of Athens, together with drops of water, fall on the marble, and, having evaporated in the morning, leave on it countless barely noticeable pockmarks. According to the Greek archaeologist Professor Narinatos, the monuments of ancient Hellas have suffered more from air pollution over the past 20 years than in 25 centuries full of wars and invasions. In order to preserve these priceless creations of ancient architects for posterity, experts intend to cover the most damaged parts of the monuments with a special protective layer of plastic.

Atmospheric pollution with various harmful gases and solid particles leads to the fact that the air in large cities becomes dangerous for human life. In some cities in the USA, Japan, and Germany, traffic controllers breathe oxygen from special cylinders. For pedestrians this option is available for an additional fee. In Tokyo and some other Japanese cities, oxygen tanks are installed on the streets for children to get a breath of fresh air on the way to school. Japanese entrepreneurs are opening special bars where people drink fresh air rather than alcoholic drinks. True, in recent years the situation has changed for the better.

Deadly fogs descending on large cities pose a particular danger to human life. The biggest tragedy occurred in 1952 in London. Waking up on the morning of December 5, Londoners did not see the sun. An unusually dense smog, a mixture of smoke and fog, lingered over the city for 3-4 days. This smog, according to official data, claimed 4 thousand lives, worsening the health of many thousands more people. Such fogs have more than once choked people in other cities in Western Europe, America and Japan. In the Brazilian city of Sao Paulo, the level of air pollution is 3 times higher than the maximum permissible standards, and in Rio de Janeiro - 2 times. Common diseases here are irritation of the mucous membrane of the eyes, allergic diseases, developing into chronic bronchitis and asthma. The Japanese city of Nagoya received the title of "Japanese smog capital."

ABOUT A common feature of all oil-contaminated soils is a change in the number and limitation of species diversity of pedobionts (soil meso- and microfauna and microflora). The types of responses of different groups of pedobionts to pollution are ambiguous:

· There is a massive death of soil mesofauna: three days after the accident, most species of soil animals completely disappear or make up no more than 1% of the control. Light fractions of oil are the most toxic to them.

·Changes in the environmental situation lead to the suppression of the photosynthetic activity of plant organisms. First of all, this affects the development of soil algae: from their partial inhibition and replacement of some groups by others to the loss of individual groups or the complete death of the entire algal flora. Crude oil and mineral waters especially significantly inhibit the development of algae.

· The photosynthetic functions of higher plants, in particular cereals, change. Experiments have shown that in the conditions of the southern taiga, with high doses of pollution - more than 20 l/m2, plants cannot develop normally on contaminated soils even after a year.

·Soil respiration also reacts sensitively to oil pollution. In the first period, when the microflora is suppressed by a large amount of hydrocarbons, the intensity of respiration decreases; with an increase in the number of microorganisms, the intensity of respiration increases.

So, the processes of natural regeneration of biogeocenoses in contaminated areas are slow, and the rates of formation of different tiers of ecosystems are different. The saprophytic complex of animals is formed much more slowly than microflora and plant cover. The pioneers of overgrowth of disturbed soils are often algae.

B people and the planet's water basins will be recklessly polluted. Every year, for one reason or another, from 2 to 10 million tons of oil are discharged into the World Ocean. Aerial photography from satellites has recorded that almost 30% of the ocean surface is already covered with an oil film. The waters of the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean and their shores are especially polluted.

Pollution of continental and oceanic waters with hydrocarbons is currently one of the main types of hydrosphere pollution in modern civilized society. Hydrocarbon pollution occurs as a result of many factors associated with oil production, its transportation by tankers and the use of petroleum fuels and lubricants. The fact that there are areas of the sea where oil tankers are allowed to discharge water after washing tanks violates the entire foundation of oceanography. This problem is especially acute in estuarine areas, where, despite the abundance of fish, they cannot be eaten due to the unpleasant taste that the oil imparts to them. In addition, the effect of hydrocarbons disrupts the ecological balance of enclosed seas.

A liter of oil deprives 40 thousand liters of sea water of oxygen, so necessary for fish. A ton of oil pollutes 12 km2 of ocean surface. The eggs of many fish develop in the near-surface layer, where the danger of encountering oil is very high. When it is concentrated in sea water in an amount of 0.1-0.01 ml/l, the eggs die within a few days. More than 100 million fish larvae can die on 1 hectare of sea surface if there is an oil film. To get it, just pour 1 liter of oil.

There are quite a few sources of oil entering the seas and oceans. These are accidents of tankers and drilling platforms, discharge of ballast and treatment waters, and the transport of polluting components by rivers. Currently, 7-8 tons of oil out of every 10 tons produced at sea are delivered to places of consumption by sea. 1967 Until 1989, about 22 tankers were lost and 2,479,450 tons of dark oily liquid spilled into the ocean, forming a slick more than 2,500 km long. These are my calculations, that is, the calculations of an orientalist, and the figures are taken from various sources in which only large cases are presented. Then it is even difficult to imagine what the real numbers and numbers of such disasters are, as a result of which more and more new portions of oil spilled into rivers, seas and oceans.

So how much oil enters the world's oceans each year from various sources as a result of human activity? Despite the unreliability of existing estimates, most authors are of the opinion that the amount of this oil is 5 million tons. However, some experts estimate it at 10 million tons. Since 1 ton of oil, spreading over the surface of the ocean, occupies an area of ​​12 km2, the World Ocean, probably has long been covered with a thin surface film of hydrocarbons.

In addition to oil, many other human waste products are carried into the seas and oceans, polluting these bodies of water. J.-I. Cousteau writes: “The sea has become a sewer into which all the pollutants carried out by the poisoned rivers flow; all the pollutants that wind and rain collect in our poisoned atmosphere; all those pollutants that are released by shippers such as tankers. Therefore, one should not be surprised if little by little life leaves this sewer."

Detailed statistics taken from a report by the National Academy of Sciences in Washington are shown in Table 1 below.

Table No. 1.

Distribution of contribution to ocean pollution

oil from various sources.

It seems as if people are forgetting that water is the basis of life. A de Saint-Exupéry, who understood the real price of water after a plane crash in the Sahara, wrote: “Water, you have no taste, no color, no smell, you cannot be described, they enjoy you without knowing what you are!” It cannot be said that you are necessary for life: you are life itself. You fill us with joy that cannot be explained by our feelings. With you, the forces to which we have already said goodbye return to us. By your grace, the dry springs of our hearts begin to bubble within us again.”

1. Nature and man. Yu.V. Novikov, 1991

2. Environmental protection. A.S. Stepanovsky.

3. Dorst S. Before nature dies. M.: Progress, 1968. 415 p.

4. Bezuglaya E. Yu., Rastorgueva G. P., Smirnova I. V. What we breathe.

5. Man and the ocean. Gromov F.N. Gorshkov S.G. S.-P., Navy, 1996 - 318 p.

6. Great Soviet Encyclopedia - “Soviet Encyclopedia” 1987

7. World aphorisms - 1999

8. Shlygin I.A. and others. Study of processes during waste disposal into the sea. – Leningrad: Gidrometioizdat. 1983

9. Revelle P., Revelle Ch. Our habitat. In 4 volumes. Volume 3. Energy problems of humanity. – Moscow: Mir, 1995

(Magazine "Oil of Russia")

http://www.skrin.ru (Energy News)

Introduction

Oil as a source of environmental pollution

1 Concept and properties of oil

2 Sources of oil pollution of the environment

Impact of oil pollution on the environment

1 Impact of oil on water resources

2 Impact of oil pollution on fauna

3 Impact of oil pollution on flora

Measures to combat oil pollution of the environment

1 Measures to combat oil pollution at the legislative level

2 Protective measures and cleaning work

Conclusion

Introduction

The most harmful chemical pollutants, as stated in the International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Waste Dumping, adopted at the end of 1972, include oil and petroleum products.

In the modern world, the consumption of oil in all its forms annually costs an astronomical amount - 740 billion dollars. And the cost of oil production is only 80 billion dollars. Hence the desire of oil monopolies to get more and more deposits of black gold at their disposal.

Due to the growth in production, transportation, refining and consumption of oil and petroleum products, the scale of environmental pollution is expanding.

Pollution of oil products and the aquatic environment is growing. “The ocean is dying, it is sick due to the fault of man,” these words of Thor Heyerdahl are well known. Back in 1969, while sailing across the Atlantic Ocean on the papyrus ship "Ra", he noted that the sea surface was free from globules of oil and tar for only a few days during the entire two-month period of the voyage. Currently the situation has not improved.

According to the US National Academy of Sciences, in the mid-70s, approximately 6 million tons of oil ended up in the marine environment alone. By the end of the 70s, oil emissions into the seas and oceans increased to 10 million tons/year. The greatest damage is caused by oil spills as a result of tanker accidents and accidents on offshore drilling platforms.

The relevance of research. Oil and petroleum products have a harmful effect on many living organisms and adversely affect all links of the biological chain. Oil films on the surface of seas and oceans can disrupt the exchange of energy, heat, moisture and gases between the ocean and the atmosphere. Ultimately, the presence of an oil film on the surface of the ocean can affect not only the physicochemical and hydrobiological conditions in the ocean, but also the Earth’s climate and the balance of oxygen in the atmosphere.

The purpose of the work is to study the impact of oil pollution on the environment and determine methods to combat them.

To achieve this goal, the objectives of the course work include consideration and analysis of the following issues:

sources of environmental pollution by oil;

the impact of oil pollution on the environment;

methods of combating oil pollution.

The subject of the study is the impact of oil pollution on the environment.

The object of the study is oil pollution and the damage it causes to the environment.

oil pollution environment

1. Oil as a source of environmental pollution

1 Concept and properties of oil

Oil is a natural product. The question of the origin of oil has been discussed in the scientific literature for a long time, but still remains open. Over more than two centuries, hundreds of options for oil and gas formation on Earth have been proposed.

The history of science knows many cases when heated debates flare up around some problem. There are similar disputes about the origin of oil. They started a long time ago and have not stopped yet.

M.V. Lomonosov believed that oil arose from coal, and coal, in turn, from organic residues. The organic theory of the origin of oil is supported by most scientists, for example Ivan Mikhailovich Gubkin.

This hypothesis is supported by the fact that porphyrins are “fragments” of hemoglobin and chlorophyll molecules. It is also known that oil has specific optical properties characteristic only of organic substances.

The inorganic hypothesis of the origin of oil was formulated by D.I. Mendeleev. He believed that in the depths of the Earth, metal carbides interact with water and hydrocarbons are formed:

2 FeC + 3 H 2O = Fe 2O 3+H 3C-CH 3

The theory does not stand up to harsh criticism, but it has many supporters.

In order to unify the interpretation of the concept of "oil", the International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund (established in 1971) has prepared and issued a Non-Technical Guide to Defining the Nature and Concept of Persistent Oil to guide complex cases.

In a real geological situation, the formation of oil requires an optimal combination of several factors: temperature, pressure, composition of the mantle material and the volatile part of the Earth's degassing flow. Oil-carrying fluids can only be water and gases that are in more severe thermodynamic conditions than the sedimentary layer.

The gas-hydrothermal process of oil formation implies a close connection between oil and ore formation. More than 60 microelements have been found in natural oil.

Oil deposits are found in the bowels of the earth at varying depths (usually about 3 km), where it fills the space between rocks.

If oil is under gas pressure, it rises through wells to the surface of the Earth.

Main oil fields:

(30 of the 45 largest fields) are located in Asia: the Near and Middle East (Kuwait's capital growth during the oil boom was $150 around the clock);

giant deposits are located in Latin America;

deposits are located in Africa;

In North America;

In Western Siberia;

In Southeast Asia.

Figure 1. Oil composition

Crude oil is separated at refineries into fractions:

gasoline, with a boiling point up to 200 0C, including hydrocarbons with 5-12 carbon atoms;

intermediate distillates - kerosene, diesel fuel and gas turbine fuel with a boiling point from 169 to 375 0C, and containing hydrocarbons with 9-22 carbon atoms (soluble toxic components include naphthalene);

gas oil, boiler fuel, tar and lubricating oils with a boiling point > 375 0C, contain compounds with 29-36 carbon atoms;

the remainder is oil compounds with even higher boiling points, reminiscent of asphalt.

2 Sources of oil pollution of the environment

According to the classification of the Expert Group on various aspects of pollution by oil and petroleum products, the main sources include:

modern biosynthesis by organisms;

oil (crude oil and its components), as well as incoming:

a) during transportation, including normal transport operations, dock operations, tanker accidents, etc.;

b) when removed from land - domestic, municipal and industrial wastewater;

Migration flows of oil on the seabed due to their seepage along faults and cracks from oil and gas bearing structures and gas hydrate accumulations have been discovered in many marine regions. This process occurs over an area of ​​no more than 10-15% of the total area of ​​the World Ocean, in marginal areas and inland seas, where oil and gas basins are common.

Thus, the flow of oil into the sea from a linear seepage area with a length of about 1.5 km in the Santa Barbara Channel (California) is estimated at 10-15 tons per day. Such large flows are due to the shallow depths of oil-bearing strata and a favorable tectonic or tological situation.

According to the latest summary data, the global flow of oil into the marine environment due to seepage from the seabed is estimated at values ​​ranging from 0.2 to 2 million tons annually, which is on average about 50% of the total flow of oil into the World Ocean.

If we consider the transportation of oil at sea by tankers and pipelines, their total contribution to marine pollution averages about 20%.

This is almost 5 times less than the contribution from all other sources.

The contribution from emergency leaks during drilling and operation of wells is minimal (less than 0.2%). Losses in case of accidents during work at onshore terminals and when pumping oil through underwater pipelines are 5 and 10%, respectively. The main oil losses are associated with accidental spills during tanker transportation (about 85% of the total volumes during oil production and transportation at sea). However, the amount of oil coming from this source has decreased significantly in recent years.

Due to atmospheric transport, about 5% of the total amount of pollutants enters sea waters. The atmosphere contains relatively small amounts of pollutants compared to their total content in soils, bottom sediments and water. However, the rapid movement of air makes it an important channel for delivering contaminants to the sea surface. Any chemically stable wind-borne material moves within the atmosphere as air masses move and in accordance with weather conditions.

During the exploration and production of hydrocarbon raw materials, the main types of pollution are emergency releases of drilling and grouting fluids, hydrocarbon raw materials themselves, unauthorized discharge of formation water, sludge and accidental minor leaks. The stirring up of bottom sediment and turbidity of water when drilling wells (directionally) is also pollution of the environment, but is of a short-term nature.

The most dangerous situations are emergency situations, although such cases are rare. Potential sources in these situations will be systems for the preparation and circulation of drilling fluids and liquid chemicals; storage units for bulk and fuel and lubricants. In case of accidents with the formation of fountains and griffins, pollution of large water areas with oil is inevitable. Contamination can occur when testing the production string for leaks, when testing wellhead equipment, when dismantling equipment, etc. In water areas with ice conditions, there is a risk of platform destruction by the ice field.

Contrary to popular belief, accidental spills are not the main source of oil pollution in the World Ocean. Their contribution, according to recent estimates, ranges from 9 to 13% of the total global flow of oil into the marine environment. In particular, the extraordinary events resulting from the Iran-Iraq War of 1983-1988. led to the spilling of about 1 million tons of oil into the waters of the Persian Gulf, and the release of about 70 million tons of petroleum products into the atmosphere. During the accident of the Prestige tanker, 63,000 tons of oil entered the waters of the Eastern Atlantic. This flow exceeded the average total from all oil sources. We can also recall the emergency spill of about 100 thousand tons of oil on the territory of the Komi Republic in Russia in 1984 with the pollution of the Pechora basin and Pechora Bay. Hence the spasmodic nature of oil spill statistics from year to year. However, the general trend towards a decrease in the amount of oil pollution associated with emergency tanker spills continues, despite the increase in the volume of oil transported by sea. At the same time, it should be noted that catastrophic incidents with spills of more than 30 thousand tons of oil occur quite rarely. It all depends on the specific situation in which the spill occurred, as well as on the properties of the spilled oil product itself.

The energy installation of a drilling platform that burns fuel and associated gas can be considered as a long-term point source of pollutants.

Nationwide, oil and gas complex enterprises account for a fifth of all industrial emissions of pollutants, and one of the main sources of air pollution within this complex is the flaring of APG.

Oil and gas production is associated with the formation of a large amount of waste, which technically can be disposed of in three main ways: by storage in special earthen structures (sludge pits), burial by injection into underground horizons, and removal to special landfills outside designated areas. If we take into account unofficial data that specialized storage facilities are overcrowded, and the removal of waste to remote landfills is expensive and also environmentally unsafe, then we will have to admit the existence of the practice of dumping drilling fluids and other waste “overboard” or pumping it underground, which is not quite consistent stringent requirements of environmental legislation prohibiting the discharge of industrial waste into surface and underground water bodies, watersheds, subsoil and soil.

Pipeline ruptures of an emergency nature, as well as those occurring due to illegal tapping, pose a particular danger.

2. Impact of oil pollution on the environment

1 Impact of oil on water resources

The most common case of environmental pollution by oil is its contact with the water (sea) surface

Oil discharges into water quickly cover large areas, and the thickness of the pollution also varies. Cold weather and water slow the spread of oil over the surface, so a given amount of oil covers larger areas in summer than in winter. The thickness of the spilled oil is greater in places where it collects along the coastline. The movement of an oil spill depends on wind, currents and tides. Some types of oil sink (sink) and move under the water column or along the surface depending on the current and tides.

Crude oil and refined products begin to change composition depending on air, water and light temperatures. Low molecular weight components evaporate easily. The amount of evaporation ranges from 10% for spills of heavy types of oil and petroleum products (fuel oil) to 75% for spills of light types of oil and petroleum products (fuel oil, gasoline). Some low molecular weight components may dissolve in water. Less than 5% of crude oil and petroleum products are soluble in water. This "atmospheric" process causes the remaining oil to become denser and unable to float on the surface of the water.

Oil oxidizes under the influence of sunlight. A thin film of oil and oil emulsion is more easily oxidized in water than a thicker layer of oil. Oils with a high metal content or low sulfur content oxidize faster than oils with a low metal content or high sulfur content. Fluctuations in water and currents mix oil with water, resulting in either an oil-water emulsion (a mixture of oil and water), which will dissolve over time, or an oil-water emulsion, which will not dissolve. Water-oil emulsion contains from 10% to 80% water; 50-80 percent emulsions are often called "chocolate mousse" due to their dense, viscous appearance and chocolate color. The "mousse" spreads very slowly and can remain on the water or shore without change for many months.

The movement of oil from the surface of the water in the process of dissolution and transformation into an emulsion delivers molecules and particles of oil to living organisms. Microbes (bacteria, yeast, filamentous fungi) in water change the composition of oil into small and simple hydrocarbons and non-hydrocarbons. Oil particles, in turn, stick to particles in the water (debris, mud, microbes, phytoplankton) and settle to the bottom, where microbes change components that are light and simple in structure. Heavy components are more resistant to microbial attack and eventually settle to the bottom. The effectiveness of microbes depends on water temperature, pH, percentage of salt, presence of oxygen, oil composition, nutrients in water and microbes. Thus, microbiological deterioration most often occurs when there is a decrease in oxygen, nutrients and an increase in water temperature.

Microbes exposed to oil multiply in marine organisms and react quickly to large oil releases. Between 40% and 80% of crude oil spills are exposed to microbes.

Various organisms attract oil. Filter-feeding zooplankton and bivalve mollusks absorb oil particles. Although shellfish and most zooplankton are unable to digest oil, they can transport it and provide temporary storage. Fish, mammals, birds and some invertebrates (crustaceans, many worms) digest a certain amount of petroleum hydrocarbons, which they ingest during feeding, purification, and respiration.

The residence time of oil in water is usually less than 6 months, unless an oil spill occurs the day before or directly in winter in northern latitudes. Oil may become trapped in ice until spring, when it is exposed to air, wind, sunlight and increased microbial exposure as water temperatures rise. The residence time of oil in coastal sediments, or already exposed to atmospheric influence as a water-oil emulsion, is determined by the characteristics of the sediments and the configuration of the coastline. The persistence period of oil in coastal environments ranges from a few days on rocks to more than 10 years in tidal and wet areas.

Oil trapped in sediments and on shore can be a source of pollution in coastal waters.

Periodic storms often pick up huge amounts of settled oil and carry it out to sea. In cold climates, ice, slow wave movement, and less chemical and biological activity cause oil to remain in sediments or on shore for longer periods of time than in temperate or tropical climates. In cold climates, sheltered and damp areas from the tides can retain oil indefinitely. Some sediments or damp soils do not contain enough oxygen to decompose; Oil decomposes without air, but this process is slower.

Oil spilled on the ground does not have time to be exposed to the weather before it enters the soil. Oil spills on small bodies of water (lakes, streams) are usually less affected by the weather until they reach shore than oil spills in the ocean. Differences in current speed, soil porosity, vegetation, wind and wave direction affect the time period oil remains at the shoreline.

Oil spilled directly on the ground evaporates, is subject to oxidation and exposure to microbes. If the soil is porous and the water table is low, oil spilled on the ground can contaminate the groundwater.

2 Impact of oil pollution on fauna

Oil has external effects on birds, food intake, contamination of eggs in nests and changes in habitat. External oil contamination destroys plumage, tangles feathers, and causes eye irritation. Death is a result of exposure to cold water; birds drown. Medium to large oil spills typically cause the death of 5,000 birds. Birds that spend most of their lives on the water are most vulnerable to oil spills on the surface of water bodies.

Birds ingest oil when they preen their beaks, drink, eat contaminated food, and breathe in fumes. Ingestion of oil rarely causes direct death of birds, but leads to extinction from hunger, disease, and predators. Bird eggs are very sensitive to oil. Contaminated eggs and bird plumage stain the shells with oil. Small amounts of some types of oil may be sufficient to cause death during the incubation period.

Oil spills in habitats can have both immediate and long-term impacts on birds. Oil fumes, food shortages, and cleanup efforts may reduce use of the affected area. Heavily oil-contaminated wet areas and tidal muddy depressions can change the biocenosis for many years.

Less is known about the effects of oil spills on mammals than on birds; Even less is known about the effects on non-marine mammals than on marine mammals. Marine mammals that are primarily distinguished by their fur (sea otters, polar bears, seals, newborn fur seals) are the most likely to die from oil spills. Fur contaminated with oil begins to mat and loses its ability to retain heat and water. Adult sea lions, seals and cetaceans (whales, porpoises and dolphins) have a blubber layer that is affected by oil, increasing heat consumption. In addition, oil may cause irritation to the skin, eyes and interfere with normal swimming ability. There are cases where the skin of seals and polar bears absorbed oil. The skin of whales and dolphins suffers less.

A large amount of oil entering the body can lead to the death of a polar bear. However, seals and cetaceans are hardier and quickly digest oil. Oil that enters the body can cause gastrointestinal bleeding, kidney failure, liver intoxication, and blood pressure disorders. Vapors from oil vapors lead to respiratory problems in mammals that are near or in close proximity to large oil spills.

There is not much documentation on the impact of oil spills on non-mammals. A large number of muskrats died in a fuel oil spill from a bunker on the St. Lawrence River. Huge marsupial rats have died in California after being poisoned by oil. Beavers and muskrats were killed by an aviation kerosene spill on the Virginia River. During an experiment carried out in the laboratory, rats died when they swam through water contaminated with oil. The harmful effects of most oil spills include a reduction in food supply or changes in certain species. This influence may have a variable duration, especially during the mating season, when the movement of females and juveniles is limited.

Sea otters and seals are particularly vulnerable to oil spills due to their density, constant exposure to water, and the effects on the insulation of their fur. An attempt to simulate the impact of oil spills on the seal population in Alaska found that a relatively small (just 4%) percentage of the total would die under "extraordinary circumstances" caused by oil spills. Annual natural mortality (16% female, 29% male) plus mortality from marine fishing nets (2% female, 3% male) was much greater than projected oil spill losses. It will take 25 years to recover from “extraordinary circumstances.”

The susceptibility of reptiles and amphibians to oil pollution is also not well known. Sea turtles eat plastic items and oil globs. Green sea turtles have been reported to ingest oil. Oil may have caused the death of sea turtles off the coast of Florida and in the Gulf of Mexico after the oil spill. Turtle embryos died or developed abnormally after the eggs were exposed to oil-covered sand.

Weathered oil is less harmful to embryos than fresh oil. Recently, oiled beaches can pose a problem for newly hatched turtles, which must cross the beaches to get to the ocean. Various species of reptiles and amphibians died as a result of fuel oil spills from Bunker C on the St. Lawrence River.

Frog larvae were exposed to No. 6 fuel oil, which would be expected to appear in shallow waters as a consequence of oil spills; Mortality was greater in larvae in the last stages of development. Larvae of all presented groups and ages showed abnormal behavior.

Larvae of wood frogs, marsupial rats (salamanders) and 2 species of fish were exposed to several exposures to fuel oil and crude oil under static and moving conditions. The sensitivity of amphibian larvae to oil was the same as that of two fish species.

Fish are exposed to oil spills in water by consuming contaminated food and water, and by coming into contact with oil during spawning movements. The death of fish, excluding juveniles, usually occurs during serious oil spills. Consequently, a large number of adult fish in large bodies of water will not die from oil. However, crude oil and petroleum products have varying toxic effects on different fish species. Concentrations of 0.5 ppm or less of oil in water can kill trout. Oil has an almost lethal effect on the heart, changes breathing, enlarges the liver, slows growth, destroys fins, leads to various biological and cellular changes, and affects behavior.

Fish larvae and juveniles are most sensitive to the effects of oil, spills of which can destroy fish eggs and larvae located on the surface of the water, and juveniles in shallow waters.

The potential impact of oil spills on fish populations was assessed using the Georges Bank Fishery model of the northeast US coast. Characteristic factors for determining pollution are toxicity, % oil content in water, location of the spill, time of year and species affected by pollution. The normal variation in natural mortality of eggs and larvae for marine species such as Atlantic cod, common cod, and Atlantic herring is often much greater than the mortality caused by a huge oil spill.

Oil spill in the Baltic Sea in 1969 led to the death of numerous species of fish that lived in coastal waters. As a result of studies of several oil-contaminated sites and a control site in 1971. it was found that fish populations, age development, growth, and body condition were not significantly different from each other. Because such an assessment was not conducted before the oil spill, the authors could not determine whether individual fish populations had changed during the previous 2 years. As with birds, the rapid effects of oil on fish populations may be determined locally rather than regionally or over long periods of time.

Invertebrates are good indicators of pollution from discharges due to their limited mobility. Published data from oil spills often report mortality rather than impacts on organisms in the coastal zone, in sediments, or in the water column. The effects of oil spills on invertebrates can last from a week to 10 years. It depends on the type of oil; the circumstances under which the spill occurred and its impact on organisms. Colonies of invertebrates (zooplankton) in large volumes of water return to their previous (pre-spill) state faster than those in small volumes of water. This is due to the greater dilution of emissions into the water and the greater potential to expose zooplankton in adjacent waters.

3 Impact of oil pollution on flora

Plants, because of their limited mobility, are also good subjects for observing the effects that environmental pollution has on them. Published data on the impact of oil spills contain evidence of the death of mangroves, sea grass, most seaweeds, severe long-term destruction of marsh and freshwater life from salt; increase or decrease in biomass and photosynthetic activity of phytoplankton colonies; changes in the microbiology of colonies and an increase in the number of microbes. The effects of oil spills on key native plant species can last from a few weeks to 5 years depending on the type of oil; circumstances of the spill and the species affected. Mechanical cleaning work on damp areas can increase the recovery period by 25%-50%. It will take 10-15 years for the mangrove forest to fully recover. Plants in large volumes of water return to their original (pre-oil spill) state faster than plants in smaller bodies of water.

The role of microbes in oil pollution has led to a huge amount of research on these organisms. Studies in experimental ecosystems and field trials were conducted to determine the relationship of microbes to hydrocarbons and different emission conditions. In general, oil can stimulate or inhibit microbial activity depending on the amount and type of oil and the condition of the microbial colony. Only persistent species can consume oil as food. Microbial colony species can adapt to oil, so their numbers and activity may increase.

The effect of oil on marine plants such as mangroves, sea grass, salt marsh grass, and algae has been studied in laboratories and experimental ecosystems. Field tests and studies were carried out. Oil causes death, reduces growth, and reduces the reproduction of large plants. Depending on the type and amount of oil and the type of algae, the number of microbes either increased or decreased. Changes in biomass, photosynthetic activity, and colony structure were noted.

The effects of oil on freshwater phytoplankton (periphyton) have been studied in laboratories and in field trials. Oil has the same effect as seaweed.

The remote ocean environment is characterized by deep water, distance from shore, and a limited number of organisms that are susceptible to the effects of oil spills. Oil spreads over water and dissolves in the water column under the influence of wind and waves.

The coastal zone environment extends from the deep waters of the outer zone to the low water level, and is therefore more complex and biologically productive than the environment of the outer zone. The coastal zone includes: isthmuses, isolated islands, barrier (coastal) islands, harbors, lagoons and estuaries. The movement of water depends on the ebb and flow of tides, complex underwater currents, and wind directions.

Shallow coastal waters may contain kelp, seagrass beds or coral reefs. Oil can collect around islands and along coastlines, especially in sheltered areas. Large amounts of oil on the surface of the water at a depth of only a few meters can create large concentrations of oil in the water column and sediments. The movement of oil near the surface of the water in shallow waters will have direct contact with the ocean floor.

3. Measures to combat oil pollution of the environment

1 Measures to combat oil pollution at the legislative level

As is known, the most important prerequisite for the sustainable development of activities related to both oil production and the elimination of its negative consequences is effective legal regulation.

The issue of preventing pollution from ships was first considered at the international level in 1926, when a conference was held in Washington, which was attended by representatives of 13 states. At the conference, the United States proposed a complete ban on oil discharges from sea-going vessels (including warships). It was decided to establish a system of coastal zones in which the discharge of an oil mixture exceeding 0.05% would be prohibited. The establishment of the width of such zones was left to the discretion of states (but not more than 50 miles). However, the preliminary draft of the convention was never adopted. In the 30s The League of Nations, at the suggestion of Great Britain, also discussed this problem, and even a draft convention was prepared, largely coinciding with the draft developed in Washington; in 1936, the Council of the League of Nations decided to convene an international conference to consider this project, but further developments in the world made the convening of the Conference impossible. After the end of World War II, in 1954, on the initiative of Great Britain, an international conference was convened in London, which adopted the International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Oil. The 1954 Convention tried to solve the problem in two ways: by establishing “prohibited zones” in which the discharge of oil and oil sludge in a certain proportion was prohibited, and by installing reception facilities in each main port capable of receiving oil residues remaining on the ship from ships.

The Torrey Canyon tanker accident has raised a number of legal issues. The tanker accident occurred in 1967 on the high seas off the coast of Great Britain. To prevent pollution, by decision of the British government, the tanker was bombed and destroyed. That same year, the UK asked the IMO to consider the complex issues raised by the accident, including whether a State threatened with pollution from an oil spill from a ship on the high seas could take appropriate preventative measures. Thus, the following issues had to be urgently resolved:

a) to what extent can a State directly threatened by a casualty occurring outside its territorial sea take measures to protect its coasts, territorial sea harbors or recreational facilities, even though such measures may affect the interests of shipowners, salvage companies and insurers and even the State flag;

b) whether there should be absolute liability for damage as a result of oil pollution, what its limits should be; Who should be responsible for pollution damage: the ship owner, the ship operator or the owner of the cargo?

The first issue was resolved by the adoption of the International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties, 1969. The second issue was resolved by the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969 (entered into force on June 19, 1975 ., and currently there are about 60 states participating in it). In 1992, a Protocol was adopted amending this Convention, which entered into force on May 30, 1996 (about 70 states are parties to it). The Russian Federation has been a party to the 1992 Protocol since March 20, 2001, and Chapter XVIII of the ITC “Liability for damage from oil pollution from ships” is based on the norms of this Protocol (currently the 1969 Convention, as amended by the 1992 Protocol, has been adopted called the 1992 Convention).

The Exxon Valdez disaster in Alaska prompted the International Maritime Organization to promote the development and conclusion of the 1990 International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Control and Cooperation (OPPR). Article 7 of the Convention invites Parties that issued a distress signal to take possible measures to prevent accidental oil pollution. Serious maritime incidents are reported to the IMO; The Parties are obliged to notify the Organization of any actions taken or proposed to protect the marine environment from pollution (Part 3 of Article 5 of the Convention).

Article 194 of the said Convention provides for special measures to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment from any source. For this purpose, the Parties shall use the best practicable means at their disposal.

Such detailed requirements are unlikely to be found in regional agreements. The 1990 Convention and the 2000 Protocol apply these general rules to pollution incidents caused by ships, coastal installations and port loading and unloading facilities where the marine environment or the interests of the coastal State are threatened. The basic rule is that the Parties are obliged to take adequate measures in emergency situations at sea in order to prevent or reduce pollution of the marine environment. In this case, international standards should be provided that can be quickly and effectively used in possible emergency incidents, including contingency procedures. Information regarding measures taken against marine pollution must be immediately brought to the attention of other states. States party to the treaties are also required to ensure that coastal oil terminals within the national jurisdiction of those states and the port facilities serving them are brought into conformity with standards approved by the competent national authorities.

Due to the difficulties experienced in interpreting the concepts of “pollution damage”, “preventive measures”, and especially in the recovery of economic damage, the International Maritime Committee at the 35th Conference (Sydney) in 1994 approved the MMK Guidelines on Oil Pollution Damage . The International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund in 1995 also approved criteria for the admissibility of claims for compensation for pollution damage.

Currently, the issue of “particularly vulnerable marine areas” has acquired significant relevance. According to the Revised Guidelines for the Identification and Designation of Particularly Sensitive Marine Areas (PSSA Guidelines), adopted by the IMO Assembly in December 2005 (Resolution A.982(24)), a Particularly Sensitive Marine Area (PSSA) is an area which requires special protection through action by the IMO because of its significance for recognized environmental, socio-economic or scientific characteristics if, in view of such characteristics, it may be vulnerable to damage arising from “international shipping activities”.

The organization responsible for the oil spill is responsible for the consequences. The General Environmental Responsibility and Compensation for Damage Act passed in 1980. (CERCLA), as amended in 1986, provides for natural resource rehabilitation, cleanup, and remediation activities carried out by federal, state, local, or foreign governments or Indian tribes. Natural resources include: land, air, water, groundwater, drinking water, fish, animals and other representatives of fauna and flora. The latest rules for assessing damage to natural resources are published in Federal Publication (FR) publication 51 FR 27673 (Type B rules) and 52 FR 9042 (Type A rules) and codified at 43 CFR part 11.

Additions and revisions to these rules are printed at 53FR 5166, 53 FR 9769. Type A rules are one model for using standard physical, biological, and economic data to make simplified assessments. A minimal site survey is required. Type B rules are an alternative description of more complex cases when the damage caused to the environment, the magnitude of the spill, and the duration of the spill are unclear. Extensive monitoring is necessary. Thus, the oil spill from the Exxon Valdez tanker is assessed as type B.

Type B requires basic data collected by government agencies responsible for the affected resources. Basic moments:

Establish (determine) the connection between the damage and the oil spill. This paragraph requires the availability of documents on the movement of oil from the spill site to the affected resources.

Determining the extent of damage caused. Data on the geographic magnitude of the hazard and the extent of contamination will be required.

Determination of the state “before the spill begins.” This requires data from previous, normal conditions in areas affected by spills.

Determining the amount of time required to restore the previous state “before the spill”. This will require historical data on natural conditions and the impact of oil on the environment.

The term “harm” defines changes in the biology of the surrounding world. Type B rules identify 6 categories of harm (death, illness, behavioral abnormalities, cancer, physiological dysfunction, physical changes), as well as various acceptable (accountable) biological deviations that can be used to confirm harm.

Inadmissible (not taken into account) deviations can be used if they meet the 4 criteria that were used to identify acceptable deviations. The extent of harm is based on data measuring the difference between the pre-harm and post-harm periods, or between the affected and control areas.

The process defined by CERCLA provides assurance that a thorough and legitimate assessment of the environmental impact of an oil spill is being conducted. However, the CERCLA procedure is complex and time-consuming, especially for a Type B injury assessment. For example, once an injury assessment has been made, an actual "damage" assessment must be completed, either using a Type A computer program or a thorough financial assessment and justification. recovery type B.

2 Protective measures and cleaning work

Containment and cleanup activities are typically carried out during ocean oil spills where there may be contact with land or important natural resources. Cleanup efforts depend on the circumstances of the spill. Proximity of oil spills to densely populated areas, harbors, public beaches, fishing grounds, wildlife habitats (important natural areas), protected areas; threatened species; Also, the coastal habitat (tidal shallows, marshes) influences protective measures and cleanup work. While strong winds and storms interfere with basic containment and cleanup efforts, they also help dissolve oil in the water until it reaches shore.

Coastlines of non-porous origin (rocks) or low porosity (dense sandy soil, fine-grained sand), subject to intense wave action, are usually not objects of cleanup measures, because nature itself quickly cleanses them. Coarse sand and gravel beaches are often cleaned using heavy, mobile equipment. Cleaning rocky beaches is difficult and requires intensive work. Tidal mudflats, mangroves and swamps are very difficult to clean due to the softness of the substrate, the vegetation and the ineffectiveness of treatment methods. Such sites typically employ methods that minimize substrate degradation and enhance natural cleanup. Limited access to the coast often greatly hinders cleanup efforts.

Lakes and enclosed reservoirs vary in the percentage of salt they contain, ranging from fresh (less than 0.5 ppm) to highly saline (40 ppm). Lakes vary widely in size, configuration, and water characteristics, making the impact of spilled oil and biological consequences difficult to predict. Little is known about the impact and consequences of oil spills on the freshwater ecosystem. A review addressing this issue has recently been published. Below are some important observations about the lakes:

the chemical and physical characteristics of the oil must be similar to those found in the oceans;

the level of change and the relative importance of each mechanism of change may vary;

the influence of wind and currents decreases as lake sizes decrease. The small size of lakes (compared to oceans) increases the likelihood that spilled oil will reach shore when the weather is relatively stable.

Rivers are moving fresh waters that vary in length, width, depth and water characteristics. General river observations:

due to the constant movement of water in the river, even a small amount of spilled oil can affect a large body of water;

oil spills are significant when they come into contact with river banks;

Rivers can quickly carry oil during floods that are as strong as a sea tide.

Shallow waters and strong currents in some rivers can allow oil to penetrate into the water column.

Measures to protect and clean up lakes are identical to those used to clean up the oceans. However, these measures are not always suitable for protecting and cleaning rivers (suction with pumps, use of absorbents). The rapid spread of oil by currents requires quick response, simple methods and cooperation of local authorities to clean up river banks affected by pollution. Winter oil spills in northern latitudes are difficult to clean up if the oil becomes mixed or frozen under the ice.

One of the most modern methods in the fight against oil pollution is oil spill monitoring.

Every year, spills of oil and petroleum products during production and transportation in the shelf zone cause enormous damage, estimated at millions of dollars and causing enormous damage to the ecosystem. This is due to an increase in oil production and transportation in offshore areas, the commissioning of new oil terminals and drilling rigs, and pipeline accidents.

Earth remote sensing data has opened up new opportunities for operational monitoring of oil spills on land and in offshore areas. Imagery obtained using sensors installed on space platforms covers areas up to 500 kilometers wide and has sufficient resolution to localize spills.

Radar data is the most suitable means for solving the problem of monitoring oil pollution at sea due to its all-weather capability and independence from light levels. It is known that oil slicks spilled on the surface of the water form a film, and, due to their inherent physical characteristics, appear as dark spots on the surrounding brighter surface on a radar image.

With low winds, usually between 0 and 2-3 m/s, the water surface appears dark on radar images. In this case, dark oil films merge with the dark background of the ocean, and detection of pollution is impossible.

Wind speeds between 3 and 9-11 m/s are ideal for identifying oil pollution; slicks appear as dark spots on the light surface of the water. With higher wind strength, detection of contaminants again becomes difficult - they disappear from the images due to mixing with the upper layer of water.

Typically, the analysis of a radar image in order to identify contamination begins with the detection of “suspicious” areas on it. Then - the classification of oil pollution, natural slicks of biological nature (waste products, plankton, etc.) and the water surface under the influence of conditions unfavorable for photography.

On radar images, oil spills are characterized by:

shape (oil pollution is characterized by a simple geometric shape),

edges (smooth edge with a greater gradient than natural slicks),

size (too large spots are usually slicks of natural origin, for example, accumulations of algae or plankton),

geographical location (mainly oil spills occur in areas of oil production or oil product transportation routes).

Using SAR, the following types of oil pollution can be detected on the sea surface:

raw oil;

fuel oil, diesel fuel, etc.;

removal of petroleum products with river runoff;

technological discharges from ships;

drilling water and cuttings;

oil seeps from griffins on the seabed;

waste from the fishing industry.

Thus, oil spill monitoring can help determine the scale of the accident and localize its consequences.

Conclusion

The appearance of about 35% of oil hydrocarbons in offshore waters in the early 70s was caused by spills and discharges during oil transportation by sea. Spills during transportation and unloading account for less than 35% of the total size and discharge of oil into soil and clean water in the environment.

The environment and circumstances of a spill determine oil cleanup methods to reduce environmental impacts. The American Petroleum Institute (API) provides excellent guidance on oil spill cleanup methods and the unique characteristics of the marine environment (API Publication No. 4435). Most of the techniques used to combat oil spills and protect the environment at sea are also used to clean up the freshwater environment. Exceptions include methods involving chemicals (dispersants, absorbents, gelling agents) designed for use in salt water. Only EPA approved chemicals may be used to clean up oil spills.

Over the past decade, the idea that a healthy environment and sustainable economic development interact with one another has gained increasing recognition. At the same time, the world was undergoing major political, social and economic changes as many countries began programs to radically restructure their economies. And although the oil industry is one of the steadily operating industrial complexes of the Russian economy, the high frequency of emergency ruptures of oil pipelines, accidents of tankers and other oil delivery vehicles, and large-scale emergency oil spills during production and refining cannot but cause concern.

Many oil-producing countries (USA, Canada) have already adopted relevant laws regulating the area of ​​oil spill response. For example, the American Oil Pollution Act, adopted in 1990, which established the “polluter pays” principle, stipulates that the owner of a tanker transporting oil in American territorial waters makes a deposit of almost a billion dollars into a special federal insurance fund for liquidation of the consequences of accidents. At the same time, the spill prevention, control and response fund is replenished through a special tax on oil companies. And also the above US Law provides for unlimited financial liability for spills caused by criminal negligence or intentional violation of the rules. At the same time, the law takes into account not only economic damage to natural resources, but also damage to values ​​that have no commercial value: marine animals, sea water, beaches, and specially protected areas. The OilPollutionAct, most importantly, provides for the creation of a Citizens' Advisory Council to monitor the actions of oil workers and government agencies.

Human activity before the start of intensive industrial development negatively affected individual ecosystems. Deforestation and the construction of settlements and cities in their place led to land degradation, reduced their fertility, turned pastures into deserts, and caused other consequences, but still did not affect the entire biosphere and did not upset the balance that existed in it. With the development of industry, transport, and the increase in population on the planet, human activity has become a powerful force changing the entire biosphere of the Earth. Pollution of the natural environment by industrial and household waste is one of the main factors influencing the state of the Earth's ecological systems.

Pollutants change the composition of water, air and soil, which is the cause of many global environmental problems, such as climate change, acid precipitation, decline in the number of many species of plants and animals, lack of clean fresh water and others.

Currently, almost all areas of human activity related to the provision of material goods and energy resources cause changes in the natural environment, and therefore, in many cases, are environmentally unfavorable.

List of sources used

1. Akimova T.A., Khaskin V.V. Ecology. - M.: Alterus, 2008. - 648 p.

Garin V.M., Klenova I.A., Kolesnikov V.I. Ecology for technical universities. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2008. - 401 p.

Dorst S. Before nature dies. - M.: Progress, 2008. - 415 p.

Ermolina M.A. Emergency measures to protect the marine environment from pollution: International legal problems // Jurisprudence. - 2006. - No. 6. - P.162-183.

Komyagin V.M. Ecology and industry. - M.: Progress, 2008. -493 p.

Lvovich M.I. Water and life. - M.: Nauka, 2006. -482 p..

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The combustion of coal, oil products, gas, bitumen and other substances is accompanied by the release into the atmosphere, soil and aquatic environment of significant masses of carcinogenic substances, among which polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and benzo(a)pyrene (BP) are especially dangerous. Motor transport, aviation, coke and oil refineries, and oil fields contribute to environmental pollution with these carcinogens. Anthropogenic sources emit carcinogenic 3,4-benzpyrene and other toxic compounds into the atmosphere.

The presence of increased quantities (BP) in air, water, soil, food has been established in cities, industrial regions, around enterprises, railway stations, airports, and along roads. The main final reservoir of BP accumulation is the soil cover. Most of it accumulates in the humus horizon of soils. With soil dust, groundwater, as a result of water erosion, and with food, benzopyrene enters general biogeochemical cycles on land, spreading everywhere.

Over 2.5 billion tons of crude oil are produced annually in the world. A negative consequence of intensifying oil production is pollution of the natural environment with oil and its products. During the extraction, transportation, processing and use of oil and petroleum products, about 50 million tons are lost per year. As a result of pollution, large areas become unsuitable for agricultural use. With the entry of crude oil and petroleum products into the soil, the process of their natural fractionation is disrupted. In this case, light fractions of oil gradually evaporate into the atmosphere, some of the oil is mechanically carried away by water beyond the contaminated area and dispersed along the paths of water flows. Some of the oil undergoes chemical and biological oxidation.

Oil is a complex mixture of gaseous, liquid and solid hydrocarbons, their various derivatives and organic compounds of other classes. The main elements in oil are carbon (83-87%) and hydrogen (12-14%). Other elements in its composition include sulfur, nitrogen and oxygen in noticeable quantities.

In addition, oil typically contains small amounts of trace elements. Over 1000 individual compounds have been identified in the oil.

To assess oil as a substance polluting the natural environment, the following characteristics are used: the content of light fractions, paraffin and sulfur:

light fractions have increased toxicity for living organisms, but their high volatility contributes to rapid self-purification;

paraffin - does not have a strong toxic effect on living organisms, but due to its high pour point it significantly affects the physical properties of the soil;

sulfur - increases the risk of hydrogen sulfide contamination of soils.

Main soil pollutants:

formation fluid consisting of crude oil, gas, oil waters;

gas from gas caps of oil deposits;

edge waters of oil reservoirs;

oil, gas and oil reservoir wastewater;

oil, gas and wastewater obtained as a result of formation fluid separation and primary oil treatment;

The groundwater;

drilling fluids;

petroleum products.

These substances enter the environment due to technology violations, various emergency situations, etc. At the same time, components of gas flows are deposited on the surface of plants, soils, and reservoirs. Partially hydrocarbons return to the earth's surface with precipitation, and secondary pollution of land and water bodies occurs. As oil and petroleum products enter the environment through microbiological and chemical decomposition processes, they evaporate, which can serve as a source of air and soil pollution.

Petroleum substances are capable of accumulating in bottom sediments, and then, over time, being included in the physicochemical, mechanical and biogenic migration of the substance. The predominance of certain processes of transformation, migration and accumulation of petroleum products extremely depends on the natural climatic conditions and properties of the soils into which these pollutants enter. When oil enters the soil, deep, irreversible changes occur in the morphological, physical, physicochemical, microbiological properties, and sometimes significant changes in the soil profile, which leads to the loss of fertility in contaminated soils and the exclusion of territories from agricultural use.

The composition of oil includes: alkanes (paraffins), cycloalkanes (naphthenes), aromatic hydrocarbons, asphaltenes, resins and olefins.

Petroleum products include various hydrocarbon fractions obtained from oil. But in a broader sense, the concept of “petroleum products” is usually represented as commercial raw materials from oil that have undergone primary preparation in the field, and oil refining products used in various types of economic activities: gasoline fuels (aviation and automobile), kerosene fuels (jet, tractor, lighting), diesel and boiler fuels; fuel oils; solvents; lubricating oils; tars; bitumen and other petroleum products (paraffin, additives, petroleum coke, petroleum acids, etc.)

When evaporating, for example, from the surface of groundwater contaminated with petroleum products, they form gas areoles in the aeration zone. And having such a property as the formation of an explosive mixture at a certain ratio of vapors to air, they can explode when a high-temperature source is introduced into this mixture.

Vapors from oil and petroleum products are toxic and have a poisonous effect on the human body. Vapors from sulfur oils and petroleum products, as well as leaded x gasoline. Maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) of harmful petroleum product vapors in the air of working areas of oil depots are given in Table. 5.2.

Table 5.2 MPC of harmful petroleum product vapors in the air of working areas of oil depots

The interaction of oil and petroleum products with soils, microorganisms, plants, surface and underground waters have their own characteristics depending on the types of oil and petroleum products.

Methane hydrocarbons, being in soils, water and air, have a narcotic and toxic effect on living organisms: entering cells through membranes, they disorganize them.

Extraction, transportation, and processing of oil and gas are often accompanied by significant losses and catastrophic impacts on the environment, which are especially noticeable within offshore areas. The main danger to the coastal-marine zone is the development of oil and gas fields on the shelf.

There are currently more than 6,500 drilling platforms operating around the world. More than 3,000 tankers are transporting petroleum products.

The entry of petroleum products into the world's oceans accounts for approximately 0.23% of annual global oil production. Pollution of seas and oceans with oil occurs mainly as a result of oil-containing water being discharged overboard by tankers and ships (see Table 5.3).

On land, the bulk of petroleum products are transported through pipelines. The most vulnerable part of main pipelines are crossings of rivers, canals, lakes and reservoirs. Trunk pipelines intersect with railways, highways, rivers, lakes and canals. And emergency situations often arise at crossings, especially since almost 40% of the length of main pipelines has been in operation for more than 20 years and their service life is coming to an end.

Table 5.3 Sources and routes of entry of petroleum hydrocarbons into the World Ocean

Oil pollution is a technogenic factor that affects the formation and course of hydrochemical and hydrological processes in the seas, oceans and inland basins. There is the concept of “background state of the natural environment,” which refers to the state of natural ecosystems in vast areas experiencing moderate anthropogenic impacts due to pollutants coming from near and distant sources of emissions into the atmosphere and wastewater discharges into water bodies.

The atmosphere promotes the evaporation of volatile fractions of oil and petroleum products. They are susceptible to atmospheric oxidation and transport and may return to land or the ocean. Land-based (located on land) oil production facilities serve as anthropogenic sources of pollution of such constituent elements of the geological environment as the earth's surface, soils and underlying groundwater horizons, as well as rivers, reservoirs, coastal zones of marine areas, etc.

A significant part of the light fraction of oil decomposes and evaporates on the soil surface or is washed away by water flows. During evaporation, 20 to 40% of the light fraction is removed from the soil. Partially the oil on the earth's surface undergoes photochemical decomposition. The quantitative side of this process has not yet been studied.

An important characteristic when studying oil spills on soils is the content of solid methane hydrocarbons in oil. Solid paraffin is not toxic to living organisms, but due to high pour points and solubility in oil (+18 C and +40 C), it turns into a solid state. After purification, it can be used in medicine.

When assessing and monitoring environmental pollution, groups of petroleum products are distinguished, differing:

degree of toxicity to living organisms;

rate of decomposition in the environment;

the nature of the changes made in the atmosphere, soils, grounds, waters, biocenoses.

Technogenic petroleum products are found in soils in the following forms:

porous medium - in a liquid, easily mobile state;

on rock or soil particles - in a sorbed, bound state;

in the surface layer of soil or soil - in the form of a dense organomineral mass.

Soils are considered contaminated with petroleum products if the concentration of petroleum products reaches a level at which:

oppression or degradation of vegetation begins;

the productivity of agricultural land is falling;

the ecological balance in the soil biocenosis is disrupted;

one or two growing species of vegetation displace other species, and the activity of microorganisms is inhibited;

oil products are washed out from soils into underground or surface waters.

It is recommended to consider a safe level of soil contamination with petroleum products to be the level at which none of the negative consequences listed above occur due to pollution with petroleum products. The lower safe level of petroleum products in soils for the territory of Russia corresponds to a low level of pollution and is 1000 mg/kg. At lower levels of pollution, relatively rapid self-purification processes occur in soil ecosystems, and the negative impact on the environment is insignificant.

frozen-tundra-taiga areas - low pollution (up to 1000 mg/kg);

taiga-forest areas - moderate pollution (up to 5000 mg/kg);

forest-steppe and steppe areas - average pollution (up to 10,000 mg/kg).

To monitor the level of soil contamination from chronic leaks of petroleum products, to prevent critical environmental situations, as well as to assess soil contamination, soil samples are taken. If an accident has already occurred, then during sampling it is established:

the depth of penetration of petroleum products into soils, their direction and speed of intrasoil flow;

the possibility and extent of penetration of petroleum products from soils into aquifers;

distribution area of ​​petroleum products within the contaminated aquifer;

source of soil and water pollution.

Sampling points are determined depending on the terrain, hydrogeological conditions, source and nature of pollution.

And water is determined by the characteristics of its location in surface and underground waters. Oil and petroleum products are a mixture of hydrocarbons with different solubility in water: for oils (depending on the chemical composition) the solubility is 10-50 mg/dm 3 ; for gasoline - 9-505 mg/dm 3; for kerosene - 2-5 mg/dm 3; for diesel fuel - 8-22 mg/dm 3. The solubility of hydrocarbons increases in the series:

• aromatic > cycloparaffin > paraffin. The soluble fraction of oil in water from its entire mass is small (5∙10 -3%), but two circumstances must be taken into account:
• the dissolving components of oil include its most toxic components;
• oil can form stable emulsions with water, so that up to 15% of all oil can pass into the water column.

When mixed with water, oil forms two types of emulsion: direct - “oil in water” and reverse - “water in oil”. Direct emulsions, composed of oil droplets with a diameter of up to 0.5 microns, are less stable and are characteristic of oils containing surfactants.

When volatile fractions are removed, oil forms viscous inverse emulsions that can remain on the surface as a thin film of oil that moves at approximately twice the speed of water flow.

Upon contact with the shore and coastal vegetation, an oil film settles on them. In the process of spreading over the surface of the water, light fractions of oil partially evaporate and dissolve, while heavy fractions sink into the water column and settle to the bottom, polluting bottom sediments.

Table 6.7 shows the classification of oil pollution of surface water bodies.

It is very difficult to establish a direct connection between the volume of a leak (spill) and the area of ​​contamination of the surface of the water, the bottom of the reservoir, its shores, as well as the persistence of the contamination. An approximate (approximate) estimate of the area of ​​contamination can be obtained using the data of S.M. Dracheva (Table 6.8).

Table 6.7

Table 6.8

Consequences of oil pollution of rivers and reservoirs. Water pollution from oil impedes all types of water use.

The impact of oil pollution on a reservoir is manifested in:

• deterioration of the physical properties of water (turbidity, change in color, taste, smell);
• dissolving toxic substances in water;
• the formation of a surface film of oil and sediment at the bottom of the reservoir, reducing the oxygen content in the water.

The characteristic smell and taste appear at a concentration of oil and petroleum products in water of 0.5 mg/dm 3, and of naphthenic acids of 0.01 mg/dm 3. Significant changes in the chemical parameters of water occur when the content of oil and petroleum products exceeds 100-500 mg/dm 3 . A film of oil on the surface of a reservoir impairs the gas exchange of water with the atmosphere, slowing down the rate of aeration and removal of carbon dioxide formed during oil oxidation. With an oil film thickness of 4.1 mm and an oil concentration in water of 17 mg/dm3, the amount of dissolved oxygen decreases by 40% in 20-25 days.

Pollution of fishery reservoirs with oil and oil products leads to deterioration of:

• quality of fish (appearance of color, spots, smell, taste);
• death of adult fish, juveniles, larvae and eggs;
• deviations from the normal development of fish fry, larvae and eggs;
• reduction of food reserves (benthos, plankton), habitats, spawning and feeding of fish;
• disruption of the migration of fish, juveniles, larvae and eggs.

When characterizing and assessing oil pollution, an important place is occupied by methods for determining oil hydrocarbons and oil products in waters, which are very diverse and contradictory. Currently, there is no single standardized method for determining the content of petroleum products in natural environments; this is due to the complexity of the hydrocarbon composition of oils and the heterogeneity of dispersed systems formed during oil pollution.

Most often, when determining the content of petroleum products in water, two methods are used:

• fluorimetric (device “Fluorat - 02”): the device “Fluorat - 02” measures the mass concentrations of petroleum products dissolved in hexane (according to MUK 4.1.057-4.1.081-96). The range of measured concentrations is 0.005-50 mg/dm 3 . The method is not applicable for determining in water samples the individual components that make up petroleum products, paraffins and the low-boiling fraction of petroleum products;
• photometric (AN-1 and IKF-2A devices): a two-beam analyzer (AN-1 device) measures the content of petroleum products in samples of water and bottom sediments in accordance with PND F 14.1: 2.5-95 by extracting them with carbon tetrachloride;

An oil product concentrator (IKF-2a device) measures the content of oil products in water and bottom sediment samples in accordance with PND F 14.1:2.5-95 by extracting them with carbon tetrachloride. The minimum detectable concentration of petroleum products is from 0.03 mg/dm3.

Oil and petroleum products are highly soluble in low-polar organic solvents. Almost all petroleum components are completely soluble in carbon tetrachloride. Non-polar organic solvents (hexane) dissolve the entire hydrocarbon part of the oil, but do not dissolve the asphaltenes and high-molecular resins included in its composition. Therefore, a two-beam analyzer and petroleum products concentration meter make it possible to determine the total content of both light and heavy hydrocarbons.

A special place is occupied by ocean pollution with oil and petroleum products. Natural pollution occurs as a result of oil seepage from oil-bearing layers, mainly on the shelf. For example, in the Santa Barbara Channel off the coast of California (USA), an average of almost 3 thousand tons per year arrives this way; this seepage was discovered back in 1793 by the English navigator George Vancouver. In total, from 0.2 to 2 million tons of oil per year enter the World Ocean from natural sources. If we take the lower estimate, which seems more reliable, it turns out that the artificial source, which is estimated at 5-10 million tons per year, exceeds the natural one by 25-50 times.

About half of artificial sources are created by human activity directly on the seas and oceans. In second place is river runoff (together with surface runoff from the coastal area) and in third place is the atmospheric source. Soviet specialists M. Nesterova, A. Simonov, I. Nemirovskaya give the following ratio between these sources - 46:44:10.

The largest contribution to ocean oil pollution is made by seaborne oil transportation. Of the 3 billion tons of oil currently produced, about 2 billion tons are transported by sea. Even with accident-free transport, oil losses occur during its loading and unloading, the discharge of washing and ballast water into the ocean (with which tanks are filled after unloading oil), as well as during the discharge of so-called bilge water, which always accumulates on the floor of the engine rooms of any ships. Although international conventions prohibit the discharge of oil-contaminated waters in special areas of the ocean (such as the Mediterranean, Black, Baltic, Red Seas, and the Persian Gulf), in the immediate vicinity of the coast in any area of ​​the ocean, they impose restrictions on the content of oil and oil products in discharged waters, they still do not eliminate pollution; During loading and unloading, oil spills occur as a result of human errors or equipment failure.

But the greatest damage to the environment and the biosphere is caused by sudden spills of large quantities of oil during tanker accidents, although such spills account for only 5-6 percent of total oil pollution. The chronicle of these accidents is as long as the history of the maritime transportation of oil itself. The first such accident is believed to have occurred on Friday 13 December 1907, when the 1,200 ton seven-masted sailing schooner Thomas Lawson, carrying a cargo of kerosene, crashed into rocks off the Isles of Scilly, off the south-western tip of Great Britain, in stormy weather. The cause of the accident was bad weather, which for a long time did not allow astronomical determination of the ship's location, as a result of which it deviated from course, and a severe storm that tore the schooner from its anchors and threw it onto the rocks. As a curiosity, we note that the most popular book by the writer Thomas Lawson, whose name the lost schooner bore, was called “Friday the 13th.”

On the night of March 25, 1989, the American tanker Exxon Valdie, which had just departed from the oil pipeline terminal in the port of Valdez (Alaska) with a cargo of 177,400 tons of crude oil, while passing through Prince William Sound, ran into an underwater rock and ran aground. Eight holes in its hull spilled more than 40 thousand tons of oil, which within a few hours formed a slick with an area of ​​more than 100 square kilometers. Thousands of birds floundered in the oil lake, thousands of fish surfaced, and mammals died. Subsequently, the spot, expanding, drifted to the southwest, polluting the adjacent shores. Enormous damage was caused to the flora and fauna of the area, many local species were in danger of complete extinction. Six months later, the Exxon oil company, having spent $1,400 million, stopped work to eliminate the consequences of the disaster, although the complete restoration of the ecological health of the area was still very far away. The cause of the accident was the irresponsibility of the ship's captain, who, while drunk, entrusted the control of the tanker to an unauthorized person. The inexperienced third officer, frightened by the ice floes that appeared nearby, mistakenly changed course, resulting in a disaster.

Between these two events, at least a thousand oil tankers were lost, and there were many more accidents in which the ship was saved. The number of accidents increased and their consequences became more serious as the volume of maritime transport of oil increased. In 1969 and 1970, for example, there were 700 accidents of various sizes, as a result of which more than 200 thousand tons of oil ended up in the sea. The causes of accidents are varied: navigation errors, bad weather, technical problems, and irresponsible personnel. The desire to reduce the cost of oil transportation has led to the emergence of supertankers with a displacement of more than 200 thousand tons. In 1966, the first such vessel was built - the Japanese tanker Idemitsu Maru (206 thousand tons), then tankers of even larger displacement appeared: Universe Ireland (326 thousand deadweight tons): Nisseki Maru ( 372 thousand tons); “Globtik Tokyo” and “Globtik London” (478 thousand tons each); “Batillus” (540 thousand tons): “Pierre Guillaume” (550 thousand tons), etc. Per ton of cargo capacity, this really reduced the cost of building and operating the vessel, so it became more profitable to transport oil from the Persian Gulf to Europe, rounding the southern the tip of Africa, rather than by conventional tankers along the shortest route - through the Suez Canal (previously, such a route was forced due to the Israeli-Arab war). However, as a result, another cause of oil spills has emerged: supertankers have become quite often broken up by very large ocean waves, which can be as long as the tankers.

The hull of supertankers may not be able to withstand it if its middle part ends up on the crest of such a wave, and the bow and stern hang over the soles. Such accidents were noted not only in the area of ​​​​the famous “key rollers” off South Africa, where waves, accelerated by the westerly winds of the “Roaring Forties,” enter the oncoming current of Cape Agulhas, but also in other areas of the ocean.

The disaster of the century today remains the accident that occurred with the supertanker “Amoco Cadiz”, which in the area of ​​the island of Ouessant (Brittany, France) lost control due to malfunctions of the steering mechanism (and the time it took to negotiate with the rescue vessel) and sat on the rocks near of this island. This happened on March 16, 1978. All 223 thousand tons of crude oil spilled from the Amoco Cadiz tanks into the sea. This created a severe environmental disaster in a vast area of ​​the sea adjacent to Brittany and along a large stretch of its coast. Already in the first two weeks after the disaster, the spilled oil spread over a vast area of ​​water, and the French coastline was polluted for 300 kilometers. Within a few kilometers from the scene of the accident (and it happened 1.5 miles from the coast), all living things died: birds, fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and other organisms. According to scientists, biological damage has never been seen over such a huge area in any of the previous oil pollution events. A month after the spill, 67 thousand tons of oil had evaporated, 62 thousand had reached the shore, 30 thousand tons had been distributed in the water column (of which 10 thousand tons had decomposed under the influence of microorganisms), 18 thousand tons had been absorbed by sediments in shallow waters, and 46 thousand tons had been collected from shore and from the surface of the water mechanically.

The main physicochemical and biological processes through which self-purification of ocean waters occur are dissolution, biological decomposition, emulsification, evaporation, photochemical oxidation, agglomeration and sedimentation. But even three years after the accident of the Amoco Cadiz tanker, oil residues remained in the bottom sediments of the coastal zone. 5-7 years after the disaster, the content of aromatic hydrocarbons in bottom sediments remained 100-200 times higher than normal. According to scientists, it will take many years to restore the full ecological balance of the natural environment.

Accidental spills occur during offshore oil production, which currently accounts for about a third of all global production. On average, such accidents make a relatively small contribution to oil pollution of the ocean, but individual accidents are catastrophic. These include, for example, the accident at the Ixtoc-1 drilling rig in the Gulf of Mexico in June 1979. The out-of-control oil gusher erupted for more than six months. During this time, almost 500 thousand tons of oil ended up in the sea (according to other sources, almost a million tons). The time of self-cleaning and damage to the biosphere during oil spills are closely related to climatic and weather conditions, and the prevailing water circulation. Despite the huge amount of oil spilled during the accident on the Ixtoc-1 platform, which stretched in a wide strip for a thousand kilometers from the Mexican coast to Texas (USA), only a small share of it reached the coastal zone. In addition, the prevalence of stormy weather contributed to the rapid dilution of oil. Therefore, this spill did not have such noticeable consequences as the Amoco Cadiz disaster. On the other hand, if it took at least 10 years to restore the ecological balance in the “catastrophe of the century” zone, then, according to scientists’ forecasts, it will take about 5 to 15 years, although the amount of oil spilled there is 5 times less. The fact is that low water temperatures slow down the evaporation of oil from the surface and significantly reduce the activity of oil-oxidizing bacteria, which ultimately destroy oil pollution. In addition, the heavily rugged rocky shores of Prince William Sound and the islands located in it form numerous “pockets” of oil that will serve as long-term sources of pollution, and the oil there contains a large percentage of the heavy fraction, which decomposes much more slowly than light oil.

Thanks to the action of wind and currents, oil pollution has affected essentially the entire oceans. At the same time, the degree of ocean pollution is increasing from year to year.

In the open ocean, oil is found visually in the form of a thin film (with a minimum thickness of up to 0.15 micrometers) and tar lumps, which are formed from heavy fractions of oil. If tar lumps primarily affect plant and animal marine organisms, then the oil film, in addition, affects many physical and chemical processes occurring at the ocean-atmosphere interface and in the layers adjacent to it. With increasing ocean pollution, this impact may become global.

First of all, the oil film increases the share of solar energy reflected from the ocean surface and reduces the share of absorbed energy. Thus, the oil film influences the processes of heat accumulation in the ocean. Despite the decrease in the amount of incoming heat, the surface temperature in the presence of an oil film increases the more, the thicker the oil film. The ocean is the main supplier of atmospheric moisture, on which the degree of continental humidification largely depends. The oil film makes it difficult for moisture to evaporate, and with a sufficiently large thickness (about 400 micrometers) it can reduce it to almost zero. By smoothing out wind waves and preventing the formation of water spray, which, when evaporating, leaves tiny particles of salt in the atmosphere, the oil film changes the salt exchange between the ocean and the atmosphere. This can also affect the amount of precipitation over the ocean and continents, since salt particles make up a large part of the condensation nuclei needed to form rain.

Hazardous waste. According to the United Nations International Commission on Environment and Development, the amount of hazardous waste generated annually in the world is more than 300 million tons, with 90 percent of it occurring in industrialized countries. There was a time, not too distant, when hazardous waste from chemical and other enterprises ended up in ordinary city landfills, dumped in water bodies, and buried in the ground without taking any precautions. However, soon, in one country or another, the sometimes very tragic consequences of frivolous handling of hazardous waste began to appear more and more often. A broad environmental public movement in industrialized countries has forced the governments of these countries to significantly tighten legislation on the disposal of hazardous waste.

In recent years, hazardous waste problems have become truly global. Hazardous wastes have increasingly crossed national borders, sometimes without the knowledge of the government or public of the receiving country. Underdeveloped countries especially suffer from this type of trade. Some publicized egregious cases literally shocked the world community. On June 2, 1988, about 4 thousand tons of toxic waste of foreign origin were discovered in the area of ​​​​the small town of Koko (Nigeria). The cargo was imported from Italy in five shipments from August 1987 to May 1988 using forged documents. The Nigerian government arrested the culprits, as well as the Italian merchant ship Piave, in order to ship the hazardous waste back to Italy. Nigeria recalled its ambassador from Italy and threatened to take the case to the international court in The Hague. A survey of the landfill revealed that the metal drums contained volatile solvents and were at risk of fire or explosion, producing extremely toxic fumes. About 4,000 barrels were old, rusty, many were swollen from the heat, and three of them contained a highly radioactive substance. When loading waste for shipment to Italy on the ship “Karin B”, which became notorious, loaders and crew members were injured. Some of them received severe chemical burns, others suffered from vomiting blood, and one person was partially paralyzed. By mid-August, the landfill was cleared of foreign “gifts.”

In March of that year, 15,000 tons of “raw brick material” (so the documents said) were buried in a quarry on the island of Kassa opposite Conakry, the capital of Guinea. Under the same contract, another 70 thousand tons of the same cargo were soon to be delivered. After 3 months, newspapers reported that the vegetation on the island was drying out and dying. It turned out that the cargo delivered by the Norwegian company was ash rich in toxic heavy metals from household waste incinerators from Philadelphia (USA). The Norwegian consul, who turned out to be the director of the Norwegian-Guinean company - the direct culprit of the incident, was arrested. The waste was removed.

Even a complete list of cases known today will not be exhaustive, since, of course, not all cases are made public. On March 22, 1989, in Basel (Switzerland), representatives of 105 countries signed a treaty to control the export of toxic waste, which will come into force after ratification by at least 20 countries. The highlight of this agreement is considered to be an indispensable condition: the government of the receiving country must give written permission in advance to accept waste. The treaty thus excludes fraudulent transactions but legitimizes transactions between governments. The Green environmental movement has condemned the treaty and is demanding a complete ban on the export of hazardous waste. The effectiveness of the measures taken by the “greens” is evidenced by the fate of some ships that carelessly took on board dangerous cargo. The already mentioned “Karin B” and “Deep Sea Carrier”, which were transporting dangerous cargo from Nigeria, could not immediately unload; the ship that left Philadelphia in August 1986 with 10 thousand tons of waste wandered the seas for a long time, the cargo of which was not accepted in the Bahamas , nor in Honduras, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Guinea-Bissau. The dangerous cargo, containing cyanide, pesticides, dioxin and other poisons, traveled for more than a year before returning on board the Syrian ship Zanoobia to the port of departure Marina de Carrara (Italy).

The problem of hazardous waste must, of course, be solved by creating waste-free technologies and decomposing waste into harmless compounds, for example, using high-temperature combustion.

Radioactive waste.

The problem of radioactive waste is of particular importance. Their distinctive feature is the impossibility of their destruction and the need to isolate them from the environment for a long time. As mentioned above, the bulk of radioactive waste is generated at nuclear industry plants. These wastes, mostly solid and liquid, are highly radioactive mixtures of uranium fission products and transuranic elements (except plutonium, which is separated from the waste and used in the military industry and for other purposes). The radioactivity of the mixture averages 1.2-105 Curies per kilogram, which approximately corresponds to the activity of strontium-90 and cesium-137. Currently, there are about 400 nuclear reactors operating in the world with a capacity of about 275 gigawatts. Roughly, it can be assumed that per 1 gigawatt of power annually there is about a ton of radioactive waste with an average activity of 1.2-105 Curies. Thus, the amount of waste by weight is relatively small, but its total activity is growing rapidly. So, in 1970 it was 5.55-10 20 Becquerels, in 1980 it quadrupled, and in 2000, according to forecasts, it will quadruple. The problem of disposal of such waste has not yet been resolved.