The study of personality does not end with the study of its mental properties - temperament, motives, abilities, character. The final stage is the study of the individual’s self-awareness. For many years, self-awareness was the Cinderella of Russian psychology. And only with the active penetration of the ideas of humanistic psychology the problem of self-consciousness began to be actively developed.
Self-awareness is a necessary condition for the existence of personality. Without it there is no personality. A person is aware not only of the surrounding reality, but also of himself in his relationships with others. Therefore, S.L. is right. Rubinstein, when he noted that the study of personality “ends with the revelation of the individual’s self-awareness.”
The formation of self-awareness is included in the process of personality formation and therefore it is not built on top of it, but is one of the components of personality. In this regard, it is possible to understand the structure of self-consciousness and the stages of its formation during the formation and development of the personality itself, starting from its first steps in life.
The goal of developing self-awareness is for a person to realize his “I”, his separation from other people, which is expressed in the growing independence of the subject.
A person’s self-awareness is the totality of his ideas about himself, expressed in the “concept - “I”, and the person’s assessment of these ideas is self-esteem.
About the mechanisms of self-awareness
The first of these is the ability to understand mental phenomena.
Already during the first year of life, the child develops the ability to separate himself from his visual images, i.e. to realize that the world exists independently of him, but is perceived through images. This ability, which is formed during the first year of life and develops subsequently, constitutes the very possibility of a person’s awareness of his mental processes, experienced mental states, mental properties and qualities.
According to V.V. Stolin, the basis of consciousness is splitting, i.e. a person’s ability to distinguish from the environment what he now perceives as seeing”), then through what visible signs he perceives and distinguishes an object from the environment (“I understand what I see”), and the observer’s own position associated with the body diagram ( “I somehow relate to what I see”). This ability allows a person to realize himself, his separation from the world, other people, that is, to highlight his phenomenal “I”.
However, having isolated himself from the environment, the child, interacting with the environment itself and people, somehow manifests himself, in other words, his acting “I” contributes to the formation of his phenomenal “I” or “I”-concept.
The main mechanism for the formation of the “I” concept, i.e. The actual self-awareness of the individual are the phenomena of subjective assimilation and differentiation. V.V. Stolin identifies the following phenomena:
1) acceptance of another’s point of view on oneself (direct assimilation or indirect assimilation of another point of view);
2) direct and indirect indoctrination to the child by the parents, as ways for the child to assimilate the assessments, norms, standards, ways of behavior, etc., transmitted to him;
3) transmission of specific assessments and standards to the child by the parents, which forms the child’s level of expectations and level of aspirations;
4) child monitoring system;
5) system of inter-complementary relations (system of transactions according to E. Bern);
6) family identity, i.e. involving the child in real relationships in the family;
7) identification mechanism.
The action of these mechanisms helps answer the question: how does the process of filling the “I” concept take place, i.e. through which ideas about oneself are acquired and appropriated. Let us give a brief comment on the actions of these mechanisms.
1) Acceptance of another's point of view on oneself.
“A person’s self-consciousness is the transformed and internalized point of view of others about the subject,” is the opinion of J. Mead, the author of the theory of symbolic interactionism.
Indeed, in the process of interpersonal interaction, the child assimilates the points of view of other people that are significant to him and, appropriating them for himself, forms self-awareness. In the process of accepting the point of view of others, it is important to evaluate yourself based on the attitude of other people. What does a child learn?
This:
a) values, parameters of assessments and self-esteem, norms;
b) the image of oneself as a bearer of certain abilities and qualities;
c) parents’ attitude towards themselves, expressed by them through emotional and cognitive assessments;
d) self-esteem of the parents themselves, i.e. the self-esteem of the parents or one of them can become the self-esteem of the child;
e) a way of regulating a child’s behavior by parents and other adults, which becomes a way of self-regulation.
2) Direct and indirect suggestion.
What do they want to instill and do they instill in their child? It is impossible to list everything; let’s name just a few phenomena: volitional and moral qualities, discipline, interests, abilities, evaluative characteristics.
3) Translation of grades and standards to the child.
Parents always equip their child with specific assessments, behavioral goals, ideals, plans, and standards for performing actions. If all of them are realistic, that is, they correspond to the child’s capabilities, then by achieving them, he increases his self-esteem, his level of aspirations, thereby forming a positive “I” concept.
4) Control system.
We are talking about the influence of the child control system and the parenting style chosen by the parents on the child’s self-concept. Control over a child’s behavior can be exercised either through granting autonomy to the child or through strict control. In addition, control itself can be exercised in two ways: either by maintaining fear of punishment, or by inducing feelings of guilt or shame. Finally, control can be absolutely consistent, or random and unpredictable. From the point of view of developing self-awareness, it is important to be aware of how the control system used by parents is transformed into a system of self-control over behavior in the child himself.
For example, strict discipline turns into self-discipline, and control through fear turns into self-control by constantly looking at the opinions of others and avoiding negative opinions about oneself. The predictable or unpredictable nature of parental control can be transformed into such a personal quality as internality-externality of behavior.
5) System of complementary relations.
We are talking about the nature of the relationship between parents and child, which may involve:
a) equality of communication;
b) functional inequality, i.e. inequality determined by the situation, the status of those communicating, etc.;
c) a system of transactions - actions of a subject aimed at another in order to evoke in him the state and behavior desired by the subject (transactions according to E. Berne).
Obviously, most often the relationship between parents involves functional inequality, but with age they can change to equal.
6) Involving the child in real relationships in the family.
We are talking about the role of the family in shaping the child’s self-awareness. First of all, we should characterize the so-called family identity, i.e. a set of ideas, plans, mutual responsibilities, intentions, etc. that create the family “WE”. It is this, this family “WE” that is included in the content of the individual “I” of the child. In addition, the child’s self-awareness will be determined by the psychological structure of the family, i.e. that invisible network of demands made by family members on each other. In this regard, families differ in:
Families with rigid, impassable boundaries between its members. Parents most often know nothing about the child’s life, and only some dramatic event can activate intra-family communication. This structure is a barrier to the formation of a family identity in a child. The child is, as it were, excluded from the family;
Families with diffuse, confused boundaries (pseudo-mutual families). They encourage the expression of only warm, loving, supportive feelings, and hostility, anger, irritation and other negative feelings are hidden and suppressed in every possible way. Such an undifferentiated family structure creates difficulties for the child in self-determination, in the formation of his “I”, and in the development of independence.
The presented characteristics of different families are two opposite poles, and in the center between them is a normally functioning family.
7) Identification.
One of the mechanisms for the formation of self-awareness is identification, i.e. likening Oneself in the form of experiences and actions to another person. Identification is both a mechanism for the formation of personal attitudes and a mechanism of psychological defense. The action of this mechanism is well illustrated by 3. Freud in his theory of psychosexual development of the child, in particular at the third - phallic stage of development.
Stages of development of self-awareness, its structure and functions
The stages of the formation of self-awareness coincide with the stages of a child’s mental development - the formation of his intellectual and personal spheres, which unfold from birth to adolescence inclusive.
The first stage is associated with the formation of a body diagram in the baby - a subjective image of the relative position of the state of movement of body parts in space. This image is formed on the basis of information about the position of the body and its parts in space (proprioceptive information and the state of movement of organs (kinesthetic information). The body diagram extends beyond the physical body and may include objects that have been in touch with it for a long time (clothing) The sensations that arise in a child on the basis of proprioceptive and kinesthetic information create in him an emotionally charged impression of comfort or discomfort, i.e. what can be called the body’s well-being.Thus, the body diagram is initially the first component in the structure of self-consciousness.
The next step in the formation of self-awareness is the beginning of walking. At the same time, it is not so much the technique of mastery that is important, but rather the changes in the child’s relationships with the people around him. The relative autonomy of the child in his movement gives rise to some independence of the child in relation to other people. The child’s first idea of his “I” is associated with the awareness of this objective fact. S.L. Rubinstein emphasized that there is no “I” outside of the relationship to “YOU.”
The next stage in the development of self-awareness is associated with the child’s gender-role identity, i.e. identifying oneself as a gender and awareness of the content of the gender role. The leading mechanism for acquiring a gender role is identification, i.e. likening oneself in the form of experiences and actions to another person.
An important stage in the development of self-awareness is the child’s mastery of speech. The emergence of speech changes the nature of the relationship between a child and an adult. By mastering speech, the child gains the opportunity to direct the actions of other people at will, that is, from the state of an object of influence from others, he moves into the state of a subject of his influence on them.
About the structure of self-awareness
In the structure of self-consciousness it is customary to distinguish: “I” - the real, i.e. a set of ideas about oneself in the present, “I”-ideal – i.e. what I would like to be in general, “I” is the past, i.e. a set of ideas about one’s past “I”, “I”-future, i.e. a set of ideas about oneself in the future.
About the function of self-awareness
The leading function of self-awareness is the self-regulation of individual behavior. It is the totality of ideas about oneself and the assessment of these ideas that represents the psychological basis of an individual’s behavior. A person can only allow himself to behave as much as he knows himself. This formula largely determines the self-sufficiency of the individual, the degree of self-confidence, independence from others, freedom in behavior and awareness of the limitations of this freedom.
S. L. Rubinstein. Self-awareness of a person and his life path
The process of formation of a human personality includes, as an integral component, the formation of his consciousness and self-awareness. The personality as a conscious subject is aware not only of the environment, but also of himself in his relationships with the environment. If it is impossible to reduce a personality to its self-consciousness, to the Self, then it is impossible to separate one from the other. Therefore, the question that confronts us in terms of the psychological study of personality is the question of its self-awareness, of personality as an I, which, as a subject, consciously appropriates to itself everything that a person does, attributes to itself all deeds and actions emanating from him, and consciously accepts assume responsibility for them as their author and creator.
First of all, this unity of personality as a conscious subject possessing self-awareness does not represent an initial given. It is known that a child does not immediately realize himself as an “I”; During the first years, he often calls himself by name, as those around him call him; he exists at first even for himself, rather as an object for other people than as an independent subject in relation to them. Awareness of oneself as an “I” is thus the result of development.
The unity of the organism as a single whole and the real independence of its organic life are the first material prerequisite for the unity of the individual, but this is only a prerequisite. And according to this, the elementary mental states of general organic sensitivity (“synesthesia”), associated with organic functions, are obviously a prerequisite for the unity of self-consciousness, since the clinic has shown that elementary, gross violations of the unity of consciousness in pathological cases of the so-called split, or disintegration of personality ( depersonalization), are associated with disorders of organic sensitivity. But this reflection of the unity of organic life in general organic sensitivity is only a prerequisite for the development of self-consciousness, and in no way its source. The true source and driving forces for the development of self-awareness must be sought in the growing real independence of the individual, expressed in changes in his relationships with others.
It is not consciousness that is born from self-consciousness, from the Self, but self-consciousness arises in the course of the development of the consciousness of the individual, as it actually becomes an independent subject. Before becoming a subject of practical and theoretical activity, the Self itself is formed in it. The real, not mystified history of the development of self-awareness is inextricably linked with the real development of the individual and the main events of her life path.
The first stage in the real formation of personality as an independent subject, standing out from the environment, is associated with mastery of one’s own body, with the emergence of voluntary movements. These latter are developed in the process of forming the first objective actions.
The next step on the same path is the beginning of walking and independent movement. And in this second, as in the first case, it is not only the technique of this matter itself that is significant, but also the change in the relationship of the individual with the people around him, which leads to the possibility of independent movement, as well as independent mastery of an object through grasping movements . One, like the other, one together with the other gives rise to some independence of the child in relation to other people. The child really begins to become a relatively independent subject of various actions, really standing out from the environment. The awareness of this objective fact is associated with the emergence of a person’s self-awareness, his first idea of his Self. At the same time, a person realizes his independence, his separation as an independent subject from the environment only through his relationships with the people around him, and he comes to self-awareness, to knowledge own Self through knowledge of other people. There is no I outside the relationship to YOU, and there is no self-awareness outside the awareness of another person as an independent subject. Self-awareness is a relatively late product of the development of consciousness, presupposing as its basis the real formation of the child as a practical subject, consciously standing out from the environment.
An essential link in a number of major events in the history of the formation of self-awareness is the development of speech. The development of speech, which is a form of existence of thinking and consciousness in general, playing a significant role in the development of the child’s consciousness, at the same time significantly increases the child’s capabilities, thus changing the child’s relationships with others. Instead of being only an object of actions directed at him by the adults around him, a child, mastering speech, acquires the ability to direct the actions of the people around him at will and, through the mediation of other people, to influence the world. All these changes in the child’s behavior and in his relationships with others give rise, being realized, to changes in his consciousness, and changes in his consciousness, in turn, lead to changes in his behavior and his internal attitude towards other people.
There are a number of stages in the development of personality and its self-awareness. In the series of external events in a person’s life, this includes everything that actually makes a person an independent subject of social and personal life, such as: first, in a child, the developing ability for self-service and, finally, in a young man, in an adult, the beginning of his own work activity, which makes him materially independent; each of these external events also has its own internal side; an objective, external change in a person’s relationship with others, reflected in his consciousness, changes the internal, mental state of a person, rebuilds his consciousness, his internal attitude both to other people and to himself.
However, these external events and the internal changes that they cause in no way exhaust the process of formation and development of personality. They lay only the foundation, create only the basis of personality, carry out only its first, rough molding; further completion and finishing are associated with other, more complex internal work, in which the personality is formed in its highest manifestations.
The independence of the subject is in no way limited to the ability to independently perform certain tasks. It includes an even more significant ability to independently, consciously set oneself certain tasks, goals, and determine the direction of one’s activities. This requires a lot of internal work, presupposes the ability to think independently and is associated with the development of an integral worldview. Only a teenager, a young man, does this work; critical thinking is developed, a worldview is formed; Moreover, the approaching time of entering an independent life involuntarily poses with particular urgency the question of what he is suitable for, what he has special inclinations and abilities for; this makes you think seriously about yourself and leads to a significant development of self-awareness in a teenager and young man. The development of self-awareness passes through a number of stages - from naive ignorance about oneself to an increasingly in-depth self-knowledge, which is then combined with an increasingly definite and sometimes sharply fluctuating self-esteem. In the process of this development of self-awareness, the center of gravity for a teenager is increasingly transferred from the external side of the personality to its internal side, from the reflection of more or less random traits to the character as a whole. Associated with this is the awareness - sometimes exaggerated - of one’s originality and the transition to the spiritual, ideological scale of self-esteem. As a result, a person defines himself as a person on a higher plane.
In a very broad sense, everything experienced by a person, the entire mental content of his life, is part of the personality. But in a more specific sense, a person recognizes as his own, relating to his, not everything that is reflected in his psyche, but has just been experienced by him in the specific sense of the word, entering the history of his inner life. Not every thought that has visited his consciousness is equally recognized by a person as his own, but only one that he did not accept in a ready-made form, but mastered and thought through, that is, one that was the result of some of his own activities. In the same way, a person does not equally recognize every feeling that fleetingly touched his heart as his own, but only those that determined his life and activity. But all this - thoughts, feelings, and likewise desires - a person, for the most part, at best, recognizes as his own; in his own Self he will include only the properties of his personality - his character and temperament, his abilities - and to them he will add perhaps the thought to which he devoted all his strength, and the feelings with which his whole life became intertwined.
A real personality, which, reflected in its self-awareness, is aware of itself as I, as the subject of its activities, is a social being included in social relations and performing certain social functions. The real existence of a person is essentially determined by his social role: therefore, reflected in his self-awareness, this social role is also included by the person in his Self.
Human self-awareness, reflecting the real existence of the individual, does this - like consciousness in general - not passively, not mirror-like. A person’s idea of himself, even of his own mental properties and qualities, does not always adequately reflect them; The motives that a person puts forward, justifying his behavior to other people and to himself, even when he strives to correctly understand his motives and is subjectively quite sincere, do not always objectively reflect his motives that actually determine his actions. A person’s self-awareness is not given directly in experiences; it is the result of cognition, which requires awareness of the real conditionality of one’s experiences. It may be more or less adequate. Self-awareness, including this or that attitude towards oneself, is closely related to self-esteem. A person’s self-esteem is significantly determined by his worldview, which determines the norms of assessment.
Self-awareness is not an initial given inherent in man, but a product of development. In the course of this development, as a person gains life experience, not only more and more new aspects of existence open up before him, but also a more or less profound rethinking of life occurs. This process of its rethinking, which goes through a person’s entire life, forms the most intimate and basic content of his inner being, determining the motives of his actions and the inner meaning of the tasks that he solves in life. The ability, developed in the course of life in some people, to comprehend life in the grand scheme of things and recognize what is truly significant in it, the ability not only to find means to solve problems that randomly arise, but also to determine the very tasks and purpose of life so as to truly to know where to go in life and why is something infinitely superior to any learning, even if it has a large stock of special knowledge, this is a precious and rare property - wisdom.
The process of formation of a human personality includes, as an integral component, the formation of his consciousness and self-awareness. The personality as a conscious subject is aware not only of its surroundings, but also of itself. Your relationships with others. If it is impossible to reduce a personality to its self-consciousness, to the I, then it is impossible to separate it and the second one. So the question is... Which confronts us in terms of the psychological study of personality is the question of its self-awareness, of personality as a person. I, which as a subject consciously appropriates to itself everything that a person does, refers to itself all the deeds and actions emanating from him and consciously takes responsibility for them as their author and creator.
First of all, this unity of personality as a conscious subject possessing self-awareness does not represent an initial given. It is known that a child does not immediately realize how he is. I; During the first years, he often calls himself by name, as those around him call him; he exists at first even for himself, rather as an object for other people than as an independent subject in relation to them. Awareness of yourself as. The self is thus the result of development.
The unity of the organism as a single whole and the real independence of its organic life are the first material prerequisite for the unity of the individual, but these are only prerequisites. And according to this, the elementary mental states of general organic sensitivity (“synesthesia”). Associated with organic functions, they are obviously a prerequisite for the unity of self-consciousness, since clinics have shown that elementary, gross violations of the unity of consciousness in pathological cases of so-called splitting, or disintegration of personality (depersonalization), are associated with disturbances of organic sensitivity. But this reflection of the unity of organic life in general organic sensitivity is only a prerequisite for the development of self-consciousness, and in no way its source. The true source and driving forces of the development of self-awareness must be sought in the growing real independence of the individual, expressed in a change in his relationships with those around him.
NOT consciousness is born from self-consciousness, from. I, and self-awareness arises in the course of the development of personality consciousness, as it actually becomes an independent subject. Before becoming a subject of practical and theoretical activities,. I am formed in it. The real, not mystified history of the development of self-awareness is inextricably linked with the real development of personality and. The main events of her life putti.
The first stage in the real formation of personality as an independent subject, standing out from the environment, is associated with mastery of one’s own body, with the emergence of voluntary movements. These latter are developed in the process of forming the first objective actions.
A further step on the same path is the beginning of walking and independent movement. And in this second, as in the first case, it is not only the technique of this matter itself that is significant, but also the change in the relationship of the individual with the people around him to whom. PRTO ^t the possibility of independent movement, as well as independent mastery of an object through grasping movements. One, like the other, one together with the other gives rise to a certain independence of the child in relation to other people. The child is really starting to grow. A relatively independent subject of various actions, really. Standing out from your surroundings. The emergence of a person’s self-awareness, the first representation of it in one’s own, is connected with the awareness of this objective fact. I. At the same time, a person realizes his own worth, his isolation as an independent subject from the environment. Only through. His relationships with the people around him, and he comes to self-awareness, to knowledge of his own. I'm through. Getting to know other people. Does not exist. I am outside of the relationship to YOU, and there is no self-awareness outside of awareness. FRIEND. MAN as an independent subject. Self-awareness is. A relatively late product of the development of consciousness, presupposing as its basis the real formation of the child as a practical subject, consciously standing out from his environment.
An essential link in a number of major events in the history of the formation of self-awareness is the development of speech. Development of speech, which is a form of existence of thinking and consciousness in general, through playing. A significant role in the development of the child’s consciousness, at the same time significantly increases the child’s capabilities, thus changing the child’s relationships with others. Instead of. To be. Only by being the object of the actions of the adults around him directed at him, the child, having mastered speech, acquires the opportunity to direct the actions of the people around him at will and, through the mediation of other people, to influence the world. All. These changes in the child’s behavior and in his relationships with others give rise, being realized, to changes in his consciousness, and changes in his consciousness, in turn, lead to changes in his behavior and his internal attitude towards other people.
In the development of personality and its self-awareness exists. A whole series of steps. In the series of external events in a person’s life, this includes everything that actually makes a person an independent subject of social and personal life, such as: first, in a child, the developing ability for self-service and, finally, in a young man, in an adult, the beginning of his own work activity, which makes him financially independent; each of. THESE external events also have their internal side; An objective, external change in a person’s relationship with others, reflected in his consciousness, changes the internal, mental state of a person, rebuilds his consciousness, his internal attitude both to other people and to himself.
However. These external events and themes internal changes. Which they cause does not exhaust the process of formation and development of personality. They are pawning. Only the foundation is created. Only the basis in personality is realized. Only the first, rough shaping; Further completion and finishing are associated with other, more complex internal work, in which the personality is formed in its highest manifestations.
The independence of the subject is in no way limited to the ability to independently perform one or another task. It includes an even more significant ability to independently, consciously set one or another task, goal, and determine the direction of one’s activities. This requires a lot of internal work, presupposes the ability to think independently and is associated with the development of a holistic world view. Only in adolescence, in youth, this work is completed; critical thinking is developed, a worldview is formed; Moreover, the approaching time of entering an independent life involuntarily poses with particular urgency the question of what he is suitable for, what he has special inclinations and abilities; this makes you think seriously about yourself and leads to a significant development of self-awareness in a teenager and young man. The development of self-awareness passes through a number of stages - from naive ignorance about oneself to more and more in-depth self-knowledge, which is then combined with an increasingly definite and sometimes sharply fluctuating self-esteem. In the process of this development of self-awareness, the center of gravity for a teenager is increasingly transferred from the external side of the personality to its internal aspect. Oron, these are reflections of more or less random traits to the character as a whole. Associated with this is the awareness - sometimes exaggerated - of one’s originality and the transition to the spiritual, ideological scale of self-esteem. As a result, a person defines himself as a person on a higher plane.
In a very broad sense, everything experienced by a person, the entire mental content of his life, is part of the personality. But in a more specific sense, a person recognizes it as his own, relating to his. NOT everything that was reflected in his psyche, but what he had just experienced in the specific sense of the word. Having entered the history of his inner life, not every thought that visited his consciousness, a person equally recognizes as his own, but only one that he did not accept in a ready-made form, but mastered, thought through, that is, one that was the result of some kind of his own his activities. In the same way, a person does not equally recognize every feeling that fleetingly touched his heart as his own, but only those that determined his life and activity. But all of this - thoughts, feelings, and likewise desires - a person, for the most part, at best, recognizes as his own, as his own. I'll turn it on. Only the properties of your personality - your character and temperament. His abilities - and to them he will only add thought, to which he has given everything. His strengths and feelings with which his whole life has grown together.
A real personality, which, reflected in its self-awareness, is aware of itself as. I, as the subject of my activity, is a social being, included in social relations and performing one or another social function. The real existence of a person is essentially determined by his social role: therefore, reflected in his self-awareness, this social role is also included by the person in his Self.
Human self-awareness. Reflecting the real existence of the individual, it does this - like consciousness in general - not passively, not mirror-like. A person's idea of himself, even in his own. Your mental properties and qualities do not always adequately reflect them; motives. Which a person puts forward. Justifying his behavior to other people and to himself, even when he strives to understand correctly. His motives, while subjectively quite sincere, do not always objectively reflect his motives that actually determine his actions. A person’s self-awareness is not given directly in experiences; it is the result of cognition, which requires awareness of real conditioning. Your experiences. It may be more or less adequate. Self-awareness, including this or that attitude towards oneself, is closely related to self-esteem. A person’s self-esteem is significantly determined by his worldview, which determines the norms of evaluation.
Self-awareness. NOT an initial given inherent in man, but a product of development. In the course of this development, as a person gains life experience, not only more and more new aspects of existence open up before him, but also a more or less deep rethinking of life occurs. This process of its rethinking, passing through a person’s entire life, forms the most intimate and basic content of his inner being, determining the motives of his actions and the inner meaning of those tasks. Which he allows in life. An ability developed during life. Some people are able to comprehend life in the grand scheme of things and recognize what is truly significant in it, the ability to not only find a means to solve random problems, but also to determine the very tasks and purpose of life in this way. To truly know where to go in life and why is something infinitely superior to any learning, even if it has a large stock of special knowledge, this is a precious and rare quality - wisdom.
Rubinstein. SL. Being and consciousness -. M:. Pedagogical Academy of Sciences. USSR, 1957-328 s
Personal self-awareness
Psychology, which is more than a field for the idle exercises of learned bookworms, a psychology that is worth a person's life and strength, cannot limit itself to the abstract study of individual functions; it must, passing through the study of functions, processes, etc., ultimately lead to actual knowledge of real life, living people.
The true meaning of the path we have traveled lies in the fact that it was nothing more than a sequential, step-by-step path of our cognitive penetration into the mental life of the individual. Psychophysiological functions were included in a variety of mental processes. The mental processes that were first subjected to analytical study, being in reality aspects, moments of concrete activity in which they are actually formed and manifested, were included in this latter; in accordance with this, the study of mental processes turned into the study of activity - in that specific ratio that is determined by the conditions of its actual implementation. The study of the psychology of activity, which always really comes from the individual as the subject of this activity, was, in essence, the study of psychology personalities in her activities -^ its motives (impulses), goals, objectives. Therefore, the study of the psychology of activity naturally and naturally turns into the study of personality properties - its attitudes, abilities, character traits that manifest themselves and are formed in activity. Thus, the entire diversity of mental phenomena - functions, processes, mental properties of activity - enters the personality and merges in its unity.
Precisely because every activity comes from the personality as its subject and, thus, at each given stage the personality is the initial, initial one, personality psychology as a whole can only be the result, the completion of the entire path traversed by psychological knowledge, covering the whole variety of mental manifestations, consistently revealed in it by psychological knowledge in their integrity and unity. Therefore, with any attempt to begin the construction of psychology with the doctrine of personality, any specific psychological content inevitably falls out of it; personality appears psychologically as an empty abstraction. Due to the impossibility of revealing its mental content at first, it is replaced by a biological characteristic of the organism, metaphysical reasoning about the subject, spirit, etc., or a social analysis of the individual, whose social nature is psychologized.
No matter how great the importance of the problem of personality in psychology, personality as a whole cannot be included in this science. Such psychologization of personality is unlawful. Personality is not identical with either consciousness or self-awareness. Analyzing the errors of Hegel’s “Phenomenology of Spirit”, K. Marx notes among the main ones that for Hegel the subject is always consciousness or self-consciousness. Of course, it is not the metaphysics of German idealism - I. Kant, I. Fichte and G. Hegel - that should form the basis of our psychology. Personality, the subject is not “pure consciousness” (Kant and the Kantians), not always an equal “I” (“I + I” - Fichte) and not a self-developing “spirit” (Hegel); it is a concrete, historical, living individual involved in real relations to the real world. The essential, determining, leading ones for man as a whole are not biological, but social laws of his development. The task of psychology is to study the psyche, consciousness and self-awareness of the individual, but the essence of the matter is that it studies them precisely as the psyche and consciousness of “real living individuals” in their real conditioning.
The specificity of a person’s conscious way of life lies in his ability to separate his “I” from his life environment in the presentation of himself, to make his inner world the subject of comprehension and understanding. This process is called formation human self-awareness.
There are several points of view regarding the formation of human self-awareness.
1. Self-consciousness is the original, genetically primary form of human consciousness. Proponents of this concept argue that on the basis of primary self-sensitivity (self-awareness) there is a synthesis of two different systems of ideas about oneself as “I” and about everything else as “not-I”. Thus, the feeling of “I” exists as something completely autonomous from the processes of perception by the psyche of external (for it) facts.
2. Self-consciousness is the highest type of consciousness, arising as a result of the previous development of consciousness (the point of view of S. L. Rubinstein). This concept is built on the assumption that our psyche is exclusively externally oriented at the very first stage of its development, and only at some point does a person develop the ability to self-perceive. Reflection of the outside world is a universal channel of socialization, a defining aspect of consciousness.
3. Consciousness of the external world and self-consciousness arose and developed simultaneously, unified and interdependent (I.M. Sechenov). The prerequisites for self-awareness are laid in the so-called “systemic feelings”, which are psychosomatic in nature. Moreover, the first half of “feelings” corresponds to objects of the external world, the second – to the body’s own states – self-perceptions. As “objective sensations” are combined, a person’s idea of the external world is formed, and as a result of the synthesis of self-perceptions, an idea of himself is formed, i.e. the emerging consciousness reflects its carrier and mental reactions as one of the sides of this interaction. The accumulating pole of the psyche becomes the basis for the formation of individual self-awareness.
Self-awareness – a person’s conscious attitude to his needs and abilities, drives and motives of behavior, experiences and thoughts.
Self-awareness is expressed in a person’s emotional and semantic assessment of his subjective capabilities, which serves as the basis for the appropriateness of actions and deeds. By getting involved in an activity, an individual becomes an object of social assessment - as whether he satisfies or does not satisfy its technological requirements. A person turns into a condition for the realization (actualization) of himself. “I,” considered by the actor as a condition for self-realization, acquires a personal meaning. The meaning of “I” is thus the unit of self-consciousness. As a unit of self-awareness, the meaning of “I” contains cognitive, emotional and relational components; it is associated with the activity of the subject occurring outside consciousness, i.e. his social activities. Self-awareness allows an individual to identify his social value and the meaning of his existence, forms and changes ideas about his future, past and present (V.V. Stolin). At the individual level, the meaning of “I” is partially identical to self-esteem.
Self-esteem (sometimes: self-attitude, subjective attitude towards oneself, self-concept) is a stable structural formation endowed by a person to indicate his own value and significance and influences his development, activity and behavior.
A person’s self-esteem is formed on the basis of assessments of those around him about his activities, the relationship between his real and ideal self-image. From the point of view of T. Shibutani, each person places himself as an object within his symbolic environment. A person's self-image is not a direct reflection of what he is or what he does. A person comprehends himself with the help of linguistic categories and the general premises of his culture. S. L. Rubinstein emphasized that “my attitude towards myself is mediated by the attitude of another towards me.” Empirically, in a person's life, the attitude of other people towards him determines his attitude towards them.
The incentive-constructive role of positive self-esteem is associated with the formation in an individual of important socio-psychological qualities that have a strong motivational potential: a person begins to experience himself as an active subject of actions, a creator of alternatives, responsible for their choice and implementation, to strive for self-improvement and the possibility of self-affirmation (R. M . Granovskaya).
It is shown that all situations of coercion and pressure that threaten an individual’s self-respect, deprive him of the right to choose, and negatively affect the actualization of a person’s capabilities (L. I. Antsyferova). A negative attitude towards oneself acts as an obstacle to developing social influences in the sphere of professional and educational activities, communication and family life. In search of ways to assert oneself, a person often resorts to unconstructive forms of behavior.
Self-esteem creates the basis for perceiving one’s own success and failure, achieving goals of a certain level, i.e. level of personality aspirations (the term was introduced into psychology by K. Levin and his students).
Level of personality aspirations - a person’s desire to achieve goals of the complexity of which he considers himself capable.
The level of a person’s aspirations is formed as a result of the person’s own experience of his achievements as successful or unsuccessful. The level of aspirations can be adequate to the individual’s capabilities or inadequate (overestimated or underestimated).
Thus, the essence of the psychological mechanism of individual self-awareness should be considered as a system of self-givenness of the basic mental processes of the individual, integrated into a holistic personifying center, as a quality of human nature, thanks to which each of us turns from a “subject in himself” into a “subject for himself”.
Studying the impact of society on the individual, we can say that the influence of norms and regulations of society, customs and institutions depends on the volume and method of organizing knowledge, on the beliefs and worldview of the individual, on his ability to correctly comprehend social situations, adequately perceive interlocutors, and see significant contradictions in problematic issues. circumstances. Psychology has accumulated many concepts related to different sections of the worldview: “cognitive map of the world”, “subjective picture of the world”, “system of personal constructs” and others.
Within the framework of humanistic psychology, self-awareness is designated by the term “inner self.” To designate this concept as transpersonal (i.e., extrapersonal) psychic reality, G. I. Gurdjieff and his followers (P. D. Uspensky) use the term “essense”. This term, which goes back to the Latin word essere - being, in a similar meaning (essence in itself - In-se) is also used in the conceptual apparatus of ontopsychology by A. Meneghetti. In analytical psychology, the central psychic authority is designated by the term “I”, or “self” (seif). In psychosynthesis, the term “higher self” is used to designate this center of the psyche, hidden behind the “shell of personality” and constituting the “heart of the human psyche” (R. Assagioli). A. A. Radugin, when analyzing the structure of self-consciousness, uses the concepts: current “I” and personal “I”.
The simplest in science model of the structure of self-awareness proposed K. Jung and is based on the opposition of conscious and unconscious elements of the human psyche. He identified two levels of its self-representation:
1) the subject of the human psyche is the so-called “self,” which contains largely unconscious processes, i.e. the person we are;
2) the form of manifestation of the “self” on the surface of consciousness, the so-called conscious “I”, a secondary product of the conscious and unconscious existence of a person.
Domestic psychology (S. L. Rubinstein), considering self-awareness as the formation of qualitatively new capabilities of the individual, presents the following structure of self-awareness:
1. The direct sensory level, through which psychosomatic reactions and processes (self-awareness) are reflected in the individual’s self-awareness.
2. Holistic-personal level (personifying), associated with the perceptual mechanisms of personal centers (perception, experience and awareness of oneself as an active principle).
3. Intellectual-analytical level, which serves as the basis and means of the theoretical stage of self-cognitive activity (self-observation, introspection, self-awareness).
4. The goal-oriented activity level, which acts as a kind of synthesis of the three considered, through which the reflection and adjustment of the feedback connections of the psyche with the objective and one’s own subjective reality is carried out.
The leading functions of self-awareness are associated with the goal-oriented activity level of the structure of self-awareness: regulatory-behavioral and motivational.
The subjective picture of the life path in a person’s self-awareness is built according to individual and social development, commensurate with biographical and historical facts. To relate oneself to the forms of social life in which one has to live and act, identifying one’s capabilities and characteristics, and on this basis determine one’s place in these forms and structures - this is one of the main tasks of individual life. S. Büller was the first to try to understand the life of an individual not as a chain of accidents, but through its natural stages. She called individual, or personal life, the life path of the individual.
Personal life path – the life of a specific person, which has certain patterns, can be described and explained; the evolution of personality, the sequence of age stages of personality development, stages of its biography; the movement of the personality to higher, more perfect forms, to the best manifestations of the human psyche.
S. L. Rubinstein represented the life path of an individual as a whole, in which each age stage prepares and influences the next. S. Büller identifies events as structures of life and units of analysis of the life path; S. L. Rubinstein identifies turning stages in a person’s life that are determined by the individual. A person organizes his life, regulates its course, chooses and carries out its direction. S. L. Rubinstein emphasized the special role of self-awareness in the organization of a person’s life.
The life path is subject to periodization, not only by age (childhood, adolescence, maturity, old age), but also by personality, which may not coincide with age. Personal qualities act as the driving force of life dynamics and meaningfulness of life. Motives to action, claims, abilities, intentions, orientation, interests are expressed in the life manifestations of the individual. A person’s ability to organize life, to resolve its contradictions, to build value relationships is called a life position, which is a special life and personal formation.
Life position- a way of self-determination of an individual in life, generalized on the basis of her life values and meeting the basic needs of the individual, which is the result of the interaction of the individual with her own life, her own achievement.
Life position is characterized by personality contradictions and ways to resolve them. An illustration of the inability to resolve life's contradictions are two phenomena - leaving and placing responsibility on another. The inflexibility of one’s life position is manifested in the desire to maintain one’s views on life, “principles”, habits, social circle, etc. unchanged.
A person’s life position can be determined through his activity as a way of social life, a place in a profession, a way of self-expression, and the totality of a person’s relationship to life. The implementation of a life position in time and circumstances of life, corresponding to the dynamic characteristics of the life path, is called the life line.
Life line– this is a certain consistency (or inconsistency) of an individual in carrying out, realizing his life position, loyalty to his principles and relationships in changing circumstances.
The main characteristic of a progressive life line is the continuous feedback influence of the results of the previous stage (decisions, actions, etc.) on the subsequent one.
Satisfaction (or dissatisfaction) with life is an indicator of the real problems (presence of contradictions) of an individual. The individual’s life strategy lies in revealing and resolving the true causes of emerging contradictions, and not in avoiding them through life changes. An individual’s ability to resolve contradictions is a measure of his socio-psychological maturity, courage, perseverance and integrity.
Life strategy– these are ways of changing, transforming conditions and situations of life in accordance with the values of the individual; building a life based on one’s individual capabilities and opportunities developed in life.
The fundamental content of a life strategy consists not only in a unique structuring and organization of life, but also in the creation of its spiritual-value, spiritual-ethical level and method, which brings true satisfaction to a person.
1. Self-awareness can be defined as:
a) increased attention to oneself;
b) level of aspirations;
c) personality orientation;
d) self-image.
2. The first theoretical developments in the field of self-concept belong to:
a) V. Wundt;
b) K. Rogers
pm. Vygotsky;
d) W. James
3. The concept of “I am a concept” originated in the mainstream of psychology:
a) humanistic;
b) cognitive;
c) Gestalt psychology
d) cultural and historical
4. Self-awareness as a stage in the development of consciousness, prepared by the development of speech and voluntary movements, explored:
a) V.M. Bekhterev;
b) L.S. Vygotsky;
c) I.M. Sechenov;
d) P.P. Blonsky.
5. Consciousness and self-awareness arise and develop in parallel, according to:
a) V.V. Stolin;
b) V.M. Bekhterev;
c) I.M. Sechenov;
d) W. Wundt.
6. According to S.L. Rubinstein, self-awareness:
a) precedes the development of consciousness;
b) is a stage in the development of consciousness;
c) arises simultaneously with consciousness;
d) develops simultaneously with consciousness.
7. The first level of development of self-awareness is characterized by awareness:
a) biological needs;
b) level of aspirations;
c) significant relationships;
d) social needs.
8. The psychological mechanism of self-awareness is:
a) empathy;
b) reflection;
c) identification;
d) attribution.
9. An individual’s assessment of himself, his capabilities, personal qualities and place in the system of interpersonal relationships is called:
a) self-esteem;
b) self-presentation;
c) self-perception;
d) self-awareness.
10. The system of established views on the world around us and our place in it is called:
a) influence
b) worldview
c) personal meaning
d) need
11. The components of the installation are not the sphere:
a) cognitive
b) affective
c) behavioral
d) strong-willed
12. The system of conscious needs of the individual, prompting him to act in accordance with his views, reasons and worldview appears as:
a) beliefs;
b) installation;
c) worldview;
d) attitude.
13. The basis for classifying interests into material, spiritual and social is:
c) stability;
d) level of effectiveness.
14. The criterion for classifying interests into active and passive is:
c) stability;
d) level of effectiveness.
15. The desire of an individual to achieve goals of the degree of complexity that he considers himself capable of manifests itself as:
a) installation;
b) claim
c) worldview;
d) personal meaning.
16. The subjective attitude of a person to the phenomena of objective reality is called:
a) installation;
b) worldview;
c) personal meaning;
d) direction.
17. The main source of personality activity, the internal state of need, expressing dependence on the conditions of existence, is:
a) belief;
b) installation;
c) personal meaning;
d) need.
18. A specific cognitive focus on objects and phenomena of the surrounding world is called:
a) attraction;
b) desire;
c) interest;
d) inclination.
19. Motives in which needs are not directly represented in a given situation, but can be created as a result of activity, are:
a) attraction;
b) desire;
c) interest;
d) desire.
20. An unconscious state of readiness for a certain activity, with the help of which a need can be satisfied, is called:
a) attraction;
b) installation
c) interest;
d) desire.
21. The highest form of personality orientation is:
a) attraction;
b) desire;
c) interest;
d) belief.
22. The concept of “installation” is synonymous with the concept:
a) attraction;
b) attitude;
c) attribution;
d) atony.
23. Settings:
a) are determined only by our opinions and beliefs;
b) are the result of the influences to which we are exposed since childhood;
c) change with great difficulty after the 20th year of life;
d) are not used during life
Test tasks on the topic
"Sensation and Perception"
1. Sensation is:
a) reflection of individual properties of objects,
b) reflection of reality in an indirect way with the obligatory use of speech - REFLECTION.
c) reflection of general and essential features, connections and relationships of objects and phenomena - THINKING
d) reflection of objects and phenomena in the totality of their properties and parts - PERCEPTION.
2. Part of the analyzer that perceives the effects of stimuli and converts them into
nervous process is called:
a) receptor
b) effector,
c) afferent nerves,
d) cortical section of the analyzer.
3. Sensations that transmit signals about the position of the body in space and the state of the muscular system are called:
a) interoceptive,
b) proprioceptive,
c) exteroceptive,
d) subsensory.
4. The English physiologist Ch. Sherrington attributed to exteroceptive sensations:
a) organic sensations,
b) sensations of pain,
c) taste sensations,
d) all answers are incorrect.
5. The lower absolute threshold is:
a) the magnitude of the stimulus is directly proportional to the sensitivity of a given analyzer,
b) the minimum intensity of the stimulus that can cause a barely noticeable sensation,
c) the smallest difference between stimuli that can be perceived under given conditions,
d) the maximum intensity of the stimulus at which it is still perceived in its modality.
6. The scientist who initiated the study of absolute thresholds of sensations:
a) W. Wundt,
b) W. James,
c) G. Fechner,
d) S. Stevens.
7. Changes in the sensitivity of analyzers occur as a result of:
a) sensory adaptation,
b) interaction of sensations,
c) sensitization under the influence of exercise,
d) all answers are correct.
8. Sensory adaptation is manifested in the following:
a) we stop noticing the contact of clothing with skin,
b) in a dark room, the sensitivity of the eye increases 200,000 times over time,
c) leaving the cinema, we are first blinded by the bright light, then we begin to see as usual,
d) all answers are correct.
9. “Color hearing” is an example:
a) positive sensory adaptation,
b) sensitization,
c) desensitization,
d) synesthesia.
10. The principles of organizing the elements of visual perception into a holistic form were first identified within the framework of:
a) activity theory,
b) Gestalt psychology,
c) cognitive psychology,
d) psychophysics.
11. The perceptual property due to which we perceive the color of a white shirt as “white” under different lighting conditions, even at dusk, is:
a) constancy,
b) objectivity,
c) meaningfulness,
d) generality.
12. Apperception is understood as:
a) the dependence of perception on the general content of our mental life,
b) dependence of perception on perceptual actions,
c) dependence of perception on the interaction of analyzers,
d) all answers are incorrect.
Test tasks on the topic “Attention”
1. The physiological basis of attention is:
a) activation of the brain by the reticular formation,
b) orientation reflex,
c) dominant mechanism,
d) all answers are correct.
2. From the point of view of T. Ribot, attention:
a) is always associated with emotions and is caused by them,
b) there is a special active ability of the spirit,
c) due to an increase in local irritability of the central nervous system,
d) is the result of apperception.
a) A.A. Ukhtomsky,
b) P.Ya.Galperin,
c) D.N. Uznadze,
d) L.S. Vygotsky.
4. Voluntary attention:
a) given to the child from birth,
b) occurs as a result of the maturation of the organism,
b) is formed during the child’s communication with adults,
d) all answers are incorrect.
5. Involuntary attention:
a) is directly related to the orientation of the individual, his interests,
b) controlled by a conscious goal,
c) associated with a struggle of motives,
d) all answers are incorrect.
6. The most essential condition for sustained attention is:
a) application of volitional efforts,
b) the ability to reveal new aspects and connections in the subject on which it is focused,
c) ease and familiarity of the material on which attention is focused,
d) usual conditions for carrying out activities.
7. The distribution of attention is that:
a) a person is able to perform several types of activities simultaneously,
b) a person is able to consciously shift attention from one type of activity to another,
c) a person involuntarily moves attention from one object to another,
d) a person is able to focus attention on one object and distract it from another.
8. Post-voluntary attention is characterized by:
a) the correspondence of external stimuli to the internal state of a person,
b) application of volitional efforts,
c) lack of interest in the activity process,
G) purposeful in nature.
9. Poor attention is associated with:
a) physical or mental fatigue,
b) weakening of the body due to illness,
c) a disorder of the nervous system,
d) all answers are correct.
10. True absent-mindedness occurs when:
A) a person is unable to concentrate on anything for a long time and complete the task,
b) a person cannot concentrate on fulfilling his duties, but completes the task,
which he is interested in
c) a person does not notice anything around him, being deep in his thoughts.
d) a person is distracted by new and unusual stimuli.
Test tasks on the topic “Imagination and Imagination”
1. Views include:
a) images of sensations,
b) images of perception,
V ) memory images,
d) perseverative images.
2. Manifestations of active imagination are:
a) dreams
b) hallucinations,
c) dreams,
3. Recreating Imagination:
a) is closely related to human perception, memory and thinking,
b) lies at the basis of scientific creativity,
c) creates fundamentally new ideas,
d) compensates for the lack of satisfaction of needs.
4. A method of creating new images of the imagination, in which parts are attached
or properties of one object to another is called:
a) apperception,
b) agglutination,
c) emphasis,
d) schematization.
5. Imagination and physiological processes of the body are connected as follows:
a) the physiological basis of imagination is the activity of the cortex of the left hemisphere of the brain
b) imagination is the highest manifestation of the human spirit and is not associated with organic
processes,
c) the physiological basis of imagination is the orienting reflex,
G) Imagination plays a significant role in regulating the processes of the human body.
Solving creative problems
a) occurs completely consciously and voluntarily,
b) requires the participation of supraconscious processes,
c) happens by trial and error,
d) all answers are incorrect
Test tasks on the topic “Thinking”
1. Thinking is:
a) the process of cognition through the senses,
b) the process of creating new images,
c) the stage of knowledge that reveals the essence of things,
d) all judgments are correct.
2. The type of thinking in which a person, in the process of solving a problem, relies on the direct perception of objects in the process of acting with them, this is:
a) practical thinking,
b) visual and effective thinking,
c) visual-figurative thinking,
d) intuitive thinking.
3. The type of thinking in which a person, in the process of solving a problem, performs actions in the mind, without directly dealing with the experience gained through the senses, is:
a) theoretical conceptual thinking,
b) discursive thinking,
c) practical thinking,
d) intuitive thinking.
4. The operation of thinking, the essence of which is mental distraction from non-essentials
characteristics with simultaneous identification of essential ones is called:
a) generalization,
b) analysis,
c) abstraction,
d) synthesis.
5. A high level of generalization means:
a) establishing similarities and differences between objects and phenomena,
b) identifying a large number of common characteristics of objects and phenomena,
c) finding commonality where it is little noticeable,
d) identifying general and essential features of objects and phenomena.
6. The operation of thinking opposite to abstraction is:
a) specification,
b) induction,
c) analysis,
d) synthesis.
7. Creative thinking:
a) characteristic only of some outstanding people,
b) requires a high level of intelligence,
V ) is flexible,
d) is distinguished by a pronounced critical attitude.
8. As J. Piaget showed, the thinking of a preschool child is characterized by:
a) lack of knowledge,
b) egocentrism,
c) selfishness,
d) impulsiveness.
9. According to J. Piaget, the ability to perform mental operations using logical reasoning and abstract concepts appears at the age of:
b) 7-10 years,
c) 12-14 years old,
d) 16-18 years old.
10. According to the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions by P.Ya. Galperin, the development of a child’s thinking occurs thanks to:
a) learning through observation,
b) internalization of initially external actions,
c) maturation of the body and nervous system,
d) all answers are incorrect.
Test tasks on the topic “Speech”
1. Human speech differs from the language of communication of animals by the following function:
a) signal,
b ) expressive,
V) denoting
G) reporting.
2. Human speech:
a) is a means of communication,
b) is a means of thinking,
c) is a means of regulating behavior,
d) has a multifunctional character.
3. The simplest form of speech is:
a) inner speech,
b) colloquial speech,
c) written speech,
d) monologue speech.
4. Egocentric speech has the function:
A ) attracting attention to oneself,
b) influencing another person in order to satisfy one’s own needs,
c) escape into the world of autistic fantasies,
G) organizing one’s own thinking and activities.
5. Historically, the first form of speech was:
a) oral speech,
b) inner speech,
c) kinetic speech,
d) egocentric speech.
6. The sequence of stages in the process of mastering a child’s native language speech:
a) typical for children of different cultures,
b) depends on the complexity of the language,
c) depends on teaching methods,
d) depends on the individual characteristics of the child.
7. Age is considered a sensitive period for speech development:
a) infant
b) from 1 to 3 years,
c) preschool,
d) school.
8. Thinking and speech are related as follows:
a) these are two independent processes not related to each other,
b) thinking is silent speech,
V ) speech is a tool of thinking,
d) thinking and speech are identical.
Z.Ya. Baranova
O.V. Kozhevnikova
Workshop on general and experimental psychology (Tutorial).
Signed for seal
Format 60Х841/16. Offset printing. Cond.bake.l. Academic ed. L. 6.0. Circulation 50 copies. Order No.
Publishing house 426034, Izhevsk, Universitetskaya, 1, building 4.__
Test tasks on the topic “Memory”
1. Short-term memory:
a) lasts 5 minutes,
b) has a capacity of 11 elements,
c) allows you to remember a phone number for a long time,
d) all answers are incorrect.
2. Long-term memory:
A ) has limited capacity,
b) has an almost unlimited shelf life,
c) more developed in older people,
d) all answers are correct.
3. Memory is called operational memory:
a) in which information directly perceived by the senses is retained,
b) which represents the memorization of motor skills and labor operations,
c) in which the primary processing of information is carried out,
d) in which the information necessary to perform the current action or operation is stored.
4. Semantic memory is the following memory:
a) in which information is processed at the time of encoding,
b) which includes knowledge about the world, the rules underlying language and mental operations,
c) in which information regarding life events is stored,
d) all answers are incorrect.
5. When remembering involuntarily:
a) memorization productivity is always lower than with voluntary memory,
b) memorization productivity is associated with a memorization mindset,
c) material related to the purpose of the action is better remembered,
d) all answers are correct.
6. Repetition is most productive for memorization if:
a) it is carried out concentrated in time,
b) it is distributed over time,
c) the material being learned does not require comprehension,
d) the material is learned in its entirety, without dividing into parts.
7. As Zeigarnik showed, we remember any work better if it:
a) was completed
b) remained unfinished,
c) was deliberately discontinued,
d) led to a reward.
8. Retroactive interference (inhibition):
a) is associated with events that occurred before memorizing this material,
b) underlies positive transfer during learning,
c) increases if the materials are very different,
d) all answers are incorrect.
9. When retrieving information from memory it is always easier:
a) remember a single element,
b) answer direct questions,
c) recognize an element of information among those presented by others,
d) ignore the context.
10. Improving the reproduction of memorized material over time without additional repetitions and volitional efforts is called:
a) reminiscence,
b) remembering
c) association,
d) interference.
11.Modern models and mechanisms of memory are being developed within the framework of:
a) associative theory,
b) Gestalt theory,
c) psychoanalysis,
d) cognitive psychology.