Determining the sides of the horizon. Toward a landmark

Using a compass, you can most conveniently and quickly determine north, south, west and east. To do this, you need to give the compass a horizontal position, release the arrow from the clamp, and let it calm down. Then its dark end will be directed to the north.

To determine the accuracy of the deviation of the direction of movement from the direction to the north or to determine the positions of terrain points in relation to the direction to the north and counting them, divisions are marked on the compass, of which the lower divisions are indicated in degree measures (the value of the division is 3 °), and the upper divisions of the protractor in tens of thousands. Degrees are counted clockwise from 0 to 360°, and protractor divisions are counted counterclockwise from 0 to 600°. The zero division is located at the letter “C” (north), and there is also a triangle glowing in the dark, which replaces the letter “C” in some compasses.

frame;
limbo;
magnetic needle;
sighting device (front sight and rear sight);
count indicator;
brake.

Artillery compass (AK)

compass housing;
dial body;
goniometric scale (limbo);
cover with mirror a, cutout b for
sight, latch in;
magnetic needle;
brake lever protrusion arrows.

Under the letters “B” (east), “Y” (south), “3” (west) there are luminous dots. On the movable cover of the compass there is a sighting device (sight and front sight), against which luminous indicators are mounted, which serve to indicate the direction of movement at night. The most common compass in the army is the Andrianov system and the artillery compass.

Andrianov's compass allows you to make readings in degrees and thousandths. The inscriptions on the fixed scale of degree divisions are given clockwise through 15°, and thousandths - in the opposite direction through 500 thousandths (5-00). The sighting device is movable.

The artillery compass is graduated only in thousandths with a division value of 100 thousandths (1-00) clockwise. The sighting device is stationary, and the scale (dial) rotates, which allows, without changing the position of the compass, to quickly align the zero division of the dial with the northern end of the magnetic needle. The mirror on the hinged lid allows you to control the orientation of the compass and count along the dial when sighting on an object.

A sports compass is very convenient for military personnel to use, the needle of which is placed in a special liquid, so it quickly calms down and almost does not fluctuate when moving.

When working with a compass, you should always remember that strong electromagnetic fields or nearby metal objects will deflect the needle from its correct position. Therefore, when determining compass directions, it is necessary to move 40-50 m away from power lines, railroad tracks, military vehicles and other large metal objects.

Determining directions to the sides of the horizon using a compass is performed as follows. The sighting device's front sight is placed on the zero scale division, and the compass is placed in a horizontal position. Then the brake of the magnetic needle is released and the compass is turned so that its northern end coincides with the zero reading. After this, without changing the position of the compass, a distant landmark is noticed by sighting through the rear sight and front sight, which is used to indicate the direction to the north.

The directions to the sides of the horizon are interrelated, and if at least one of them is known, the rest can be determined. The opposite direction to north will be south, to the right is east, and to the left is west.

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What do you see around you at the dacha; by the river; on the sea; from the window of an apartment in the city?

Our planet is very large, so we always see only a small part of it.

In open spaces - in a field, on the seashore - you can see that somewhere far away the sky meets the earth. In the city, our gaze always rests on some objects.

The space visible to the eye is called the horizon (from the Greek word “horizon” - limiting), and the imaginary line limiting it is called the horizon line.

If you move forward, the horizon line will move away all the time. It is impossible to reach it.

On level ground, a person sees 4-5 km around him, and from a height of 100 m the horizon expands to 36 km.

We won't get lost in familiar terrain. Going to school, to friends, to the country, we quickly find our way. We can easily explain to a visitor how to get to the museum and find the right street. At the same time, we use well-remembered objects (houses, signs, trees), as well as the concepts of “left”, “right”, “up”, “down”, “forward”, “back”.

All these objects and concepts serve us to determine location on the ground.

How can we understand in an unfamiliar area - in the steppe, sea, deep forest - where we are and in which direction we need to go? First of all, it is important to remember that there are four
the main sides of the horizon: north, south, east and west. The sides of the horizon are abbreviated in capital letters: north - N, south - S, east - E, west - W.

Between the main sides of the horizon there are intermediate ones: northwest (NW), northeast (NE), southeast (SE), southwest (SW).

Knowing the sides of the horizon, you can determine your location.

The ability to determine one’s location relative to the sides of the horizon and individual objects is called orientation.

You can navigate the area in different ways: with the help of instruments, such as a compass, by the stars, and also by local features: trees, anthills, annual rings on stumps, etc.

What is called the horizon?
Explain what a horizon line is.
List the main and intermediate sides of the horizon.
In what direction is the school from your house? Which sides of the horizon do the windows of your apartment face?
What is orientation?
What methods of orienteering do you know?
Name the objects that are located in the north, south, west and east of your locality.

This is the space visible to the eye. The imaginary line that limits the horizon is called the horizon line. There are main (north, south, west, east) and intermediate (northwest, northeast, southeast, southwest) sides of the horizon. The ability to determine one’s location relative to the sides of the horizon and individual objects is called orientation.

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It must be remembered that if you stand facing north, then the east will be on your right hand, the west will be on your left, respectively, the south will be behind your back . To determine the sides of the horizon, the following methods can be recommended:

by compass;
by the Sun and analogue clock;
by the Sun and digital clock;
using improvised means;
for local facilities;
according to the North Star;
on the Moon.

Let us consider in more detail the indicated methods for determining the sides of the horizon, as well as the recommended sequence of their development during training sessions.

Determining the sides of the horizon using a compass . A magnetic compass is a device that allows you to determine the sides of the horizon, as well as measure angles in degrees on the ground. The principle of operation of a compass is that a magnetized needle on a hinge rotates along the lines of force of the Earth's magnetic field and is constantly held by them in one direction. The most common are various versions of the Adrianov compass and the artillery compass.

Rice. 5.1 Compass Adrianov

1 - cover with stands for sighting; 2 - dial; 3 - count indicator; 4 - magnetic needle; 5 - brake

Compass Adrianov(Fig. 5.1) allows you to measure angles in degrees and inclinometer divisions. A dial with two scales is used to measure angles. Degrees are marked in 15° intervals (division value is 3°) clockwise, protractor divisions are marked in 5-00 intervals (division value is 0-50). The dial reading is read using a pointer mounted on the inner wall of the compass cover opposite the front sight. The northern end of the magnetic needle, the reference and division indicator on the dial, corresponding to 0°, 90°, 180° and 270°, are covered with a glow-in-the-dark composition. There is a mechanism that slows down the movement of the arrow.

Rice. 5.2 Artillery compass

1 – compass body; 2 – rotating dial body; 3 – dial; 4 – compass cover with a mirror “a”, a cutout for sighting “b” and a latch “c”; 5 – magnetic arrow; 6 – protrusion of the brake lever arrows

Artillery compass(Fig. 5.2) thanks to some improvements, it is more convenient to use than Adrianov’s compass. Its body is rectangular, which allows you to accurately position the compass along the map lines and draw directions. The compass cover with a mirror surface allows you to observe the position of the magnetic needle and at the same time sight the object. The magnetic needle more steadily records the direction of the magnetic meridian; Its braking is carried out by closing the lid. The scale division value is 1-00, their signatures are given after 5-00 clockwise.

Determining the sides of the horizon using the Sun and an analog clock . This fairly convenient and accurate method of determining the sides of the horizon is used if the Sun is visible, or it is determined through the clouds.

Rice. 5.3

An analog watch is held in a horizontal plane and turned until the hour hand aligns with the direction of the Sun, the position of the minute hand is not taken into account. The angle between the hour hand and the number “1” on the watch dial is divided in half. A line dividing this angle in half will indicate the direction to the south (Fig. 5.3). It is important to remember that before one o'clock in the afternoon the angle not traversed by the clock hand is divided in half, and after one o'clock in the afternoon - the angle which it has already passed.

Determining the sides of the horizon using the Sun and a digital clock . This method of determining the sides of the horizon is used when the light of the Sun is sufficient for objects to cast a shadow.

On a horizontal surface (on the ground) a circle with a diameter of 25-30 cm is drawn with a point in the center. Then, on the outer side of the circle from the side of the Sun, a small load (for example, a bunch of keys) is suspended on a rope or cord so that the shadow of the rope passes through the center of the drawn circle. Next, through the point of intersection of the shadow from the rope with the sunny side of the circle and the center of the circle, a radius is drawn, indicating the hour hand of an imaginary clock. Using a digital clock, the actual time is specified, according to which divisions of an imaginary dial are drawn in the circle.

Further, as on an analog watch, the angle between one o'clock in the afternoon and the drawn hour hand is divided in half (before one o'clock in the afternoon the angle not passed by the hour hand is divided in half, and after one o'clock in the afternoon - the angle which it has already passed). The resulting direction is south (Fig. 5.4).

Rice. 5.4 Determining the sides of the horizon using the Sun and a digital clock

Determining the sides of the horizon using available tools . The situation becomes more complicated when on a cloudy day it is impossible to determine exactly where the Sun is. However, even in this case, there are ways to fairly accurately determine the sides of the horizon.

Rice. 5.5 Determining the sides of the horizon using a float and a needle

A flat round float with a diameter of 15-20 mm and a thickness of 5-6 mm is made from bark or a piece of wood. A shallow diametrical cut is made on the float, into which it is necessary to carefully place the needle and lower the float onto the existing water surface (any puddle; water poured into a plastic or wooden container; a small depression in the ground, lined with a plastic bag and filled with water from a flask, etc. ). Under the influence of earthly magnetism, the needle will certainly turn and, swinging between east and west, will be positioned with its tip to the north and its ear to the south, that is, along the magnetic force lines of the Earth (Fig. 5.5).

If there is no needle, then a thin steel nail or steel wire can replace it. But in this case, it is important to remember that the needle turns with its tip to the north due to the peculiarities of the manufacturing technology - the so-called “broaching”. With a piece of wire or a nail, the direction of pulling is unknown; therefore, it is unclear which end points to the north and which to the south. Therefore, for alignment, it is necessary to perform the same operations once near a noticeable landmark (anthill, growth rings, etc.) as with a needle, then mark the end of the wire or nail that will turn to the north. Interesting fact: even an automatic cleaning rod on a float of the appropriate size can play the role of a compass needle - the cleaning rod will always turn to the north with a thread (true only for AKs manufactured before 1984).

Determining the sides of the horizon using local objects . The sides of the horizon can be determined by local objects, but it must be remembered that the error in this case may be 15-20°.

One of the most reliable indicators of the sides of the horizon are forest anthills - they are usually located at the roots of a tree with a thick crown that protects them from rain and always on the southern side of this tree. In addition, the southern side of the anthill is always flatter compared to the northern.
The next, albeit not as reliable indicator as an anthill, is moss on stones and trees. Moss, avoiding direct sunlight, grows on the shady northern sides of stones and trees. Using this method, you need to be careful: since there is no direct sunlight in a dense forest, moss grows around the entire surface of the tree - at its roots and above. The same goes for stones. Accordingly, this method “works” well only on isolated trees or stones. Or, as a last resort, in open forests.
The sides of the horizon can be determined by the annual rings of trees. To do this, you can find a free-standing stump or cut a small, free-standing tree with a diameter of 70-80 mm. Having carefully cleaned the cut, we will see that the core, that is, the center of the concentric annual rings, is shifted relative to the geometric center of the stump, and it is necessarily shifted to the north. By drawing a straight line through the geometric center of the stump and the center of the concentric annual rings, we get the direction to the north.
The bark of most trees is coarser on the north side, thinner, more elastic (birch is lighter) on the south.
In pine, the secondary (brown, cracked) bark on the north side rises higher along the trunk.
On the north side, trees, stones, wooden, tiled and slate roofs are covered earlier and more abundantly with lichens and fungi.
On coniferous trees, resin accumulates more abundantly on the south side.
In spring, the grass cover is more developed on the northern outskirts of the meadows, warmed by the sun's rays, and in the hot period of summer - on the southern, darkened ones.
Berries and fruits acquire the color of maturity earlier (turn red, turn yellow) on the south side.
In summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier on the south side, which can be determined by touch.
Snow melts faster on the southern sides of snowdrifts, resulting in the formation of notches in the snow - spikes directed to the south.
In the mountains, oak often grows on the southern slopes.
Clearings in forests are usually oriented in the north-south or west-east direction.
The altars of Orthodox churches, chapels and Lutheran kirks face east, and the main entrances are located on the west side.
The altars of Catholic churches (cathedrals) face west.
The raised end of the lower crossbar of the church cross faces north.
Kumirni (pagan chapels with idols) face south.
On Christian graves, the gravestone or cross stands at the feet, that is, on the east side, since the grave itself is oriented from east to west.

Determining the sides of the horizon by the North Star . Let us recall the remarkable property of the Polar Star - it is practically motionless during the daily rotation of the starry sky and, accordingly, is very convenient for orientation - the direction towards it practically coincides with the direction to the north (the deviation from the north point does not exceed 3°).

To find this star in the sky, you must first find the constellation Ursa Major, which consists of seven fairly noticeable stars located so that if you connect them with an imaginary line, a bucket will be drawn.

If you mentally continue the line of the front wall of the bucket, approximately 5 distances equal to the length of this wall, then it will rest against the North Star (Fig. 5.6).

If you are in the mountains or in the forest, you may not see the bucket if it is currently located under the North Star. In this case, another noticeable constellation will help - the Constellation Cassiopeia. This constellation is formed by six fairly bright stars and represents the Russian letter “Z” when located to the right of the North Star, and the irregular letter “M” when located above the North Star.

Rice. 5.6 Finding the North Star in the sky

To find the North Star, you need to mentally draw a median from the top of the large triangle of the constellation (i.e., a straight line connecting the top of the triangle with the middle of the opposite side) to its base, which, when continued, will rest against the North Star (Fig. 5.6).

Determining the sides of the horizon by the Moon . The sides of the horizon are determined on a cloudy night, when it is not possible to find the North Star. To do this, you need to know the location of the Moon in various phases (Table 5.1)

The table shows that it is most convenient to determine the sides of the horizon during the full moon. In this phase, the Moon is at any time in the direction opposite to the Sun.

Table 5.1

Movement in azimuths

Movement along azimuths is a method of maintaining the intended path (route) from one point (landmark) to another along known azimuths and distances. Movement along azimuths is used at night, as well as in the forest, desert, tundra and in other conditions that make it difficult to navigate on the map.

Determining the direction on the ground at a given azimuth using Adrianov's compass . By rotating the compass cover, the pointer is set to a reading corresponding to the value of the specified azimuth. Then, having freed the magnetic needle, turn the compass so that the zero stroke of the dial aligns with the northern end of the needle. At the same time, they stand facing the desired direction and, raising the compass to approximately shoulder level, sight along the slot-front sight line and notice some landmark on the ground in this direction. This direction will correspond to the specified azimuth.

Determining the direction on the ground at a given azimuth using an AK artillery compass . The compass cover is set at an angle of 45° and by rotating the dial, the given reading is aligned with the pointer at the slot in the cover. The compass is raised to eye level and, observing in the lid mirror, is turned until the zero stroke of the dial aligns with the northern end of the arrow. In this position of the compass, one sights through the slot and notices any landmark. The direction to the landmark will correspond to the specified azimuth.

Measuring magnetic azimuth with Adrianov's compass . Having freed the magnetic needle, turn the compass to draw a zero stroke under the northern end of the needle. Without changing the position of the compass, by rotating the ring, direct the sighting device with the front sight towards the object to which you want to measure the azimuth. Aiming the front sight at an object is achieved by repeatedly moving the gaze from the sighting device to the object and back; For this purpose, you should not raise the compass to eye level, since this may cause the needle to move away from the zero stroke of the dial and the accuracy of azimuth measurement will sharply decrease. Having aligned the sighting line of the front sight slot with the direction towards the object, take a count from the front sight pointer. This will be the azimuth of the direction to the object. The average error in measuring azimuth with Adrianov's compass is 2-3°.

Measuring magnetic azimuth with an AK artillery compass . Having placed the compass cover at approximately an angle of 45?, sight the object. Then, without changing the position of the compass, by rotating the dial, while observing in the mirror, bring the zero stroke of the dial to the northern end of the magnetic needle and take a reading from the pointer. The average error in measuring azimuth with an AK artillery compass is approximately 0-25.

Preparing data for azimuth movement . The route is marked on the map with clear landmarks at turns and the directional angle and length of each straight section of the route are measured. Directional angles are converted into magnetic azimuths, and distances are converted into pairs of steps if the movement is on foot, or into speedometer readings when marching in cars. Data for movement along azimuths is drawn up on the map, and if there is no map along the way, a route diagram (Fig. 5.7) or a table (Table 5.2) is drawn up.

Rice. 5.7 Route diagram for movement in azimuths

Table 5.2

Order of movement by azimuths . At the initial (first) landmark, using a compass, the direction of movement to the second landmark is determined by azimuth. They notice some distant landmark (auxiliary) in this direction and begin to move. Having reached the intended landmark, they again mark the direction of movement using the compass to the next intermediate landmark and so continue moving until they reach the second landmark.

In the same order, but in a different azimuth, they continue moving from the second landmark to the third, etc. On the way, taking into account the distances covered, they look for landmarks at the turns of the route and thereby control the correctness of the movement.

To make it easier to maintain the direction, you should use the celestial bodies and various signs: the straightness of a walking column or your own track when skiing, the direction of ripples in the sand and sastrugi in the snow (sastruga is a long and narrow snow bank swept by the wind), wind direction, etc. Based on the celestial bodies, you can confidently maintain the direction of movement, clarifying it with a compass approximately every 15 minutes.

The accuracy of reaching a landmark depends on the accuracy of determining the direction of movement and measuring the distance. Deviation from the route due to the error in determining the direction using a compass usually does not exceed 5% of the distance traveled. If the direction of movement is clarified by the compass often enough, then the deviation from the route will be about 3% of the distance traveled.

Avoiding Obstacles . If there are obstacles on the route, then detour routes are marked on the map and the necessary data is prepared for this - azimuths and distances. Obstacles not taken into account when preparing data for movement are avoided in one of the following ways.

Rice. 5.8

First way is used when the obstacle is visible to the end. In the direction of movement, mark a landmark on the opposite side of the obstacle. Then they go around the obstacle, find the noticed landmark and continue moving from it in the same direction; The width of the obstacle is estimated by eye and added to the distance traveled to the obstacle.

Second way. An obstacle, the opposite side of which is not visible, is walked around in directions forming a rectangle or parallelogram, the azimuths and lengths of the sides of which are determined on the ground. An example of such a bypass is shown in Fig. 5.8. From point A walk along the obstacle in the selected direction (in the example - in azimuth 280°). Having passed to the end of the obstacle (to the point IN) and having measured the resulting distance (200 pairs of steps), they continue moving along the given azimuth (in the example - along the 45° azimuth) to the point WITH. From point WITH enter the main route in the opposite direction azimuth AB(in the example - in azimuth 100°, since the reverse azimuth is equal to the forward azimuth ±180°), measuring 200 pairs of steps in this direction (distance CD, equal AB). Here is the line length Sun added to the distance traveled from point No. 2 to point A, and continue moving to point No. 3.

Section 5. Location orientation

§ 1.5.1. Essence and methods of orientation

Terrain orientation includes determining one’s location relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent terrain objects (landmarks), maintaining a given or chosen direction of movement and understanding the location of landmarks, boundaries, friendly troops, enemy troops, engineering structures and other objects on the ground.

Methods of orientation. Depending on the nature of the task being performed, orientation can be carried out on the spot from individual points (for example, from observation points during reconnaissance) or on the move (on the march, on the offensive, etc.). In both cases, the main method is to navigate using a topographic map using a compass.

Reliable route keeping in difficult conditions and poor visibility is most successfully carried out using a topographic map using data provided by navigation equipment (coordinator and course plotter). A generally available way to maintain the direction of movement at night, as well as in areas with rare landmarks, is to move along azimuths prepared in advance from the map. In some cases, orientation (determining the direction of movement) can be done without a map (using a compass, landmarks, celestial bodies, signs of local objects).

When orienting on the ground during reconnaissance, topographical and then tactical orientation is performed first.

Topographical orientation includes determining the sides of the horizon, the point of one’s standing, and the position of surrounding terrain objects. When doing topographical orientation, they first show the direction to the north of any object and their location relative to the nearest and clearly visible landmark. Then the necessary landmarks and other terrain objects are named, directions to them and approximate distances are indicated. Directions to landmarks indicate relative to your position (straight, right, left) or along the sides of the horizon. The order of indicating landmarks is from right to left, starting from the right flank. Example of a report on topographical orientation: “ The direction to the north is the mound. We are located on the northern outskirts of Timonovka; on the right, 5 km - Semenovka; straight ahead, 4 km - “Dark” grove; further, 10 km - the settlement of Ivanovka; to the left, 2 km - height 125.6».

Tactical orientation consists of determining and showing on the ground the location and nature of the actions of enemy troops and friendly units by a certain time.

§ 1.5.2. Navigation without a map

Orientation without a map consists of determining the sides of the horizon (directions north, east, south, west) and your location on the ground relative to landmarks and takes place in a limited area.

Landmarks are clearly visible local objects and relief details, relative to which they determine their location, direction of movement and indicate the position of targets and other objects.

Landmarks are chosen as evenly as possible along the front and in depth. The selected landmarks are numbered from right to left along the lines and away from you towards the enemy. In addition to the number, each landmark is usually given a conventional name corresponding to its external characteristics, for example, “ Dry wood», « House with a red roof" and so on.

Sides of the horizon and methods for determining them

It must be remembered that if you stand facing north, then the east will be on your right hand, the west will be on your left, respectively, the south will be behind your back . To determine the sides of the horizon, the following methods can be recommended:

by compass;
by the Sun and analogue clock;
by the Sun and digital clock;
using improvised means;
for local facilities;
according to the North Star;
on the Moon.

Let us consider in more detail the indicated methods for determining the sides of the horizon, as well as the recommended sequence of their development during training sessions.

Determining the sides of the horizon using a compass . A magnetic compass is a device that allows you to determine the sides of the horizon, as well as measure angles in degrees on the ground. The principle of operation of a compass is that a magnetized needle on a hinge rotates along the lines of force of the Earth's magnetic field and is constantly held by them in one direction. The most common are various versions of the Adrianov compass and the artillery compass.

Rice. 5.1 Compass Adrianov

1 - cover with stands for sighting; 2 - limb; 3 - count indicator; 4 – magnetic needle; 5 - brake

Rice. 5.2 Artillery compass

1 – compass body; 2 – rotating dial body; 3 - limb; 4 – compass cover with a mirror “a”, a cutout for sighting “b” and a latch “c”; 5 – magnetic needle; 6 – protrusion of the brake lever arrows

Determining the sides of the horizon using the Sun and an analog clock . This fairly convenient and accurate method of determining the sides of the horizon is used if the Sun is visible, or it is determined through the clouds.

Determining the sides of the horizon using the Sun and a digital clock . This method of determining the sides of the horizon is used when the light of the Sun is sufficient for objects to cast a shadow.

Rice. 5.4 Determining the sides of the horizon using the Sun and a digital clock

Determining the sides of the horizon using available tools . The situation becomes more complicated when on a cloudy day it is impossible to determine exactly where the Sun is. However, even in this case, there are ways to fairly accurately determine the sides of the horizon.

Rice. 5.5 Determining the sides of the horizon using a float and a needle

Determining the sides of the horizon using local objects . The sides of the horizon can be determined by local objects, but it must be remembered that the error in this case may be 15-20°.

One of the most reliable indicators of the sides of the horizon are forest anthills - they are usually located at the roots of a tree with a thick crown that protects them from rain and always on the southern side of this tree. In addition, the southern side of the anthill is always flatter compared to the northern.
The next, albeit not as reliable indicator as an anthill, is moss on stones and trees. Moss, avoiding direct sunlight, grows on the shady northern sides of stones and trees. Using this method, you need to be careful: since there is no direct sunlight in a dense forest, moss grows around the entire surface of the tree - at its roots and above. The same goes for stones. Accordingly, this method “works” well only on isolated trees or stones. Or, as a last resort, in open forests.
The sides of the horizon can be determined by the annual rings of trees. To do this, you can find a free-standing stump or cut a small, free-standing tree with a diameter of 70-80 mm. Having carefully cleaned the cut, we will see that the core, that is, the center of the concentric annual rings, is shifted relative to the geometric center of the stump, and it is necessarily shifted to the north. By drawing a straight line through the geometric center of the stump and the center of the concentric annual rings, we get the direction to the north.
The bark of most trees is coarser on the north side, thinner, more elastic (birch is lighter) on the south.
In pine, the secondary (brown, cracked) bark on the north side rises higher along the trunk.
On the north side, trees, stones, wooden, tiled and slate roofs are covered earlier and more abundantly with lichens and fungi.
On coniferous trees, resin accumulates more abundantly on the south side.
In spring, the grass cover is more developed on the northern outskirts of the meadows, warmed by the sun's rays, and in the hot period of summer - on the southern, darkened ones.
Berries and fruits acquire the color of maturity earlier (turn red, turn yellow) on the south side.
In summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier on the south side, which can be determined by touch.
Snow melts faster on the southern sides of snowdrifts, resulting in the formation of notches in the snow - spikes directed to the south.
In the mountains, oak often grows on the southern slopes.
Clearings in forests are usually oriented in the north-south or west-east direction.
The altars of Orthodox churches, chapels and Lutheran kirks face east, and the main entrances are located on the west side.
The altars of Catholic churches (cathedrals) face west.
The raised end of the lower crossbar of the church cross faces north.
Kumirni (pagan chapels with idols) face south.
On Christian graves, the gravestone or cross stands at the feet, that is, on the east side, since the grave itself is oriented from east to west.

Determining the sides of the horizon by the North Star . Let us recall the remarkable property of the Polar Star - it is practically motionless during the daily rotation of the starry sky and, accordingly, is very convenient for orientation - the direction towards it practically coincides with the direction to the north (the deviation from the north point does not exceed 3°).

If you mentally continue the line of the front wall of the bucket, approximately 5 distances equal to the length of this wall, then it will rest against the North Star (Fig. 5.6).

Rice. 5.6 Finding the North Star in the sky

Determining the sides of the horizon by the Moon . The sides of the horizon are determined on a cloudy night, when it is not possible to find the North Star. To do this, you need to know the location of the Moon in various phases (Table 5.1)

The table shows that it is most convenient to determine the sides of the horizon during the full moon. In this phase, the Moon is at any time in the direction opposite to the Sun.

Table 5.1

§ 1.5.3. Movement in azimuths

Determining the direction on the ground at a given azimuth using Adrianov's compass . By rotating the compass cover, the pointer is set to a reading corresponding to the value of the specified azimuth. Then, having freed the magnetic needle, turn the compass so that the zero stroke of the dial aligns with the northern end of the needle. At the same time, they stand facing the desired direction and, raising the compass to approximately shoulder level, sight along the slot-front sight line and notice some landmark on the ground in this direction. This direction will correspond to the specified azimuth.

Determining the direction on the ground at a given azimuth using an AK artillery compass . The compass cover is set at an angle of 45° and by rotating the dial, the given reading is aligned with the pointer at the slot in the cover. The compass is raised to eye level and, observing in the lid mirror, is turned until the zero stroke of the dial aligns with the northern end of the arrow. In this position of the compass, one sights through the slot and notices any landmark. The direction to the landmark will correspond to the specified azimuth.

Measuring magnetic azimuth with Adrianov's compass . Having freed the magnetic needle, turn the compass to draw a zero stroke under the northern end of the needle. Without changing the position of the compass, by rotating the ring, direct the sighting device with the front sight towards the object to which you want to measure the azimuth. Aiming the front sight at an object is achieved by repeatedly moving the gaze from the sighting device to the object and back; For this purpose, you should not raise the compass to eye level, since this may cause the needle to move away from the zero stroke of the dial and the accuracy of azimuth measurement will sharply decrease. Having aligned the sighting line of the front sight slot with the direction towards the object, take a count from the front sight pointer. This will be the azimuth of the direction to the object. The average error in measuring azimuth with Adrianov's compass is 2-3°.

Measuring magnetic azimuth with an AK artillery compass . Having placed the compass cover at approximately an angle of 45?, sight the object. Then, without changing the position of the compass, by rotating the dial, observing in the mirror, bring the zero stroke of the dial to the northern end of the magnetic needle and take a reading from the pointer. The average error in measuring azimuth with an AK artillery compass is approximately 0-25.

Preparing data for azimuth movement . The route is marked on the map with clear landmarks at turns and the directional angle and length of each straight section of the route are measured. Directional angles are converted into magnetic azimuths, and distances are converted into pairs of steps if the movement is on foot, or into speedometer readings when marching in cars. Data for movement along azimuths is drawn up on the map, and if there is no map on the way, then draw up a route diagram (Fig. 5.7) or a table (Table 5.2).

Rice. 5.7 Route diagram for movement in azimuths

*Landmark number and name*	*Magnetic azimuth, degrees*	*Distance*
*Landmark number and name*	*Magnetic azimuth, degrees*	*in meters*	*in a couple of steps*
1 – separate yard	-	-	-
2 – the place where the road enters the forest	15	1557	1038
3 – intersection of clearings	330	645	430
4 – hole near the clearing	356	1020	680
5 – forester’s house	94	705	470

Table 5.2

Order of movement by azimuths . At the initial (first) landmark, using a compass, the direction of movement to the second landmark is determined by azimuth. They notice some distant landmark (auxiliary) in this direction and begin to move. Having reached the intended landmark, they again mark the direction of movement using the compass to the next intermediate landmark and so continue moving until they reach the second landmark.

Avoiding Obstacles . If there are obstacles on the route, then detour routes are marked on the map and the necessary data is prepared for this - azimuths and distances. Obstacles not taken into account when preparing data for movement are avoided in one of the following ways.

Second way. An obstacle, the opposite side of which is not visible, is walked around in directions forming a rectangle or parallelogram, the azimuths and lengths of the sides of which are determined on the ground. An example of such a bypass is shown in Fig. 5.8. From point A walk along the obstacle in the selected direction (in the example - in azimuth 280°). Having passed to the end of the obstacle (to the point IN) and having measured the resulting distance (200 pairs of steps), they continue moving along the given azimuth (in the example - along the 45° azimuth) to the point WITH. From point WITH enter the main route in the opposite direction azimuth AB(in the example - in azimuth 100°, since the reverse azimuth is equal to the forward azimuth ±180°), measuring 200 pairs of steps in this direction (distance CD , equal AB). Here is the line length Sun added to the distance traveled from point No. 2 to point A, and continue moving to point No. 3.

§ 1.5.4. Orientation on the map

Orientation at a location includes orienting a map, identifying landmarks, determining a standing point, and comparing the map with the terrain.

Orienting a map is giving it, by rotating it in a horizontal plane, a position in which the north side of the frame faces north, and the lines and directions on the map are parallel to the corresponding lines and directions on the ground. The map is oriented by a compass, terrain line or direction to a landmark.

Orienting the map using a compass . The technique is used mainly in terrain that is difficult to navigate (in a forest, desert, etc.). Under these conditions, the compass is used to determine the direction to the north, and then the map is turned with the top side of the frame in this direction. The compass map can be oriented more accurately taking into account magnetic declination. In this case, a compass with an open magnetic needle is installed on one of the vertical lines of the map coordinate grid so that the line passing through the 0 and 180° strokes of the scale (or the corresponding edge of the AK compass) coincides with the map line. The map is then rotated so that the north end of the magnetic needle deviates from the 0° line by the amount of direction correction indicated in the lower left corner of the given map sheet. An example of map orientation using a compass is shown in Fig. 5.9.

Rice. 5.9 Orienting the map using a compass

Orienting the map along the terrain line . The map is rotated so that the line of the symbol of a local object, for example a road, coincides with the direction of the local object itself, and the images of all objects located to the right and left of it are located on the same sides as on the ground (Fig. 5.10).

Rice. 5.10 Orienting the map along the terrain line

Orienting the map by towards a landmark . The technique is used when the standing point is known and the landmark marked on the map is visible from it. The map is rotated so that the direction “standing point - landmark” coincides with the corresponding direction on the ground. For more accurate orientation of the map, apply a ruler to these points and use it to sight the landmark.

Landmark identification - the most critical stage of orientation on the map, since the standing point can only be determined by landmarks, common to the map and the area.

Identification of landmarks begins with the largest, most prominent objects in the area, and those that are relatively rare in a given area. When searching for objects observed on the map on the map, their relative position and position relative to the sides of the horizon are taken into account. The correct identification of landmarks is checked using the surrounding elements of the terrain.

In cases where it is not possible to identify landmarks that are common to the map and the area, you should move so that other landmarks become visible and try to identify these landmarks on the map.

Determining the standing point on the map is done by eye using the nearest landmarks, measuring distances, measured distances and directions, and resection. When choosing a method, the nature of the terrain, visibility conditions, time availability, as well as the accuracy with which it is desirable to determine the standing point are taken into account.

Determining the standing point on the map by eye It is recommended to determine the standing point using the nearest landmarks on moderately rough terrain, when the point is located near a terrain feature shown on the map. To do this, they orient the map, identify two or three nearest landmarks on it and determine the distances to them by eye. Based on certain distances to landmarks, taking into account directions, a standing point is marked on the map. The accuracy of determining a standing point on a map using this method depends mainly on the distances to landmarks: what are these The longer the distance, the less reliably the standing point is determined. When located from landmarks at a distance of up to 500 m, the standing point, with sufficient experience, is determined with an average error of the order of 20% of the average distance to landmarks.

Determining a standing point on a map by measuring the distance . The method is used mainly when driving on a road or along a linear contour, mainly in closed areas or under poor visibility conditions. The essence of the method: measure the distance (for example, in steps) from a landmark located near the road or some other linear landmark to a designated standing point; then this distance is plotted on the map along the road (linear landmark) in the appropriate direction. The accuracy of determining the standing point using this method depends mainly on the magnitude of the error in measuring the distance on the ground.

Determining a standing point on a map by direction and distance . The method is used when only one landmark is identified. In this case, the map is oriented according to the compass, taking into account the magnetic declination. Then apply a ruler to a landmark on the map, aim it at the same landmark on the ground and draw a line (Fig. 5.11- A). You can also sight using a pencil mounted vertically (Fig. 5.11- b).

Rice. 5.11 Sighting techniques:

a – along a ruler;
b – by pencil

To do this, the oriented card should be in a horizontal position at approximately chin level. The pencil is placed vertically on the image of a landmark on the map, they are sighted through it at the landmark and, without changing the position of the eye and the map, they slowly move the pencil towards themselves. On the drawn line of sight from the landmark image, a distance is set aside, which is previously measured by steps, binoculars, rangefinder, or estimated by eye. Under the same conditions, the standing point can be determined using another technique (Fig. 5.12).

Rice. 5.12 Determining the standing point by direction and distance

At the standing point, measure the magnetic azimuth to the landmark with a compass. Then this azimuth is converted to the reverse (add or subtract 180°), and the last - to the directional angle along which a direction is drawn from a landmark on the map and the measured distance is plotted along this direction. The resulting point will be the desired standing point.

Example . The magnetic azimuth to the landmark (geodetic point) is 30°, the distance is 1500 m, the correction to the magnetic azimuth when moving to the directional angle is +12°. Determine the standing point. Solution. The return azimuth is 210° (30° + 180°), the directional angle is 222° (210° + 12°); the necessary constructions are shown in Fig. 5.12.

The average error in determining the standing point by distance and direction is about 5% of the distance from the standing point to the landmark when measuring distance in steps and azimuth with a compass.

Determining the standing point on the map by resection in one direction . This method is used when you are on a road (or other linear object), from which only one landmark is visible, located to the side of it. The map is oriented as accurately as possible and sighted on a landmark. The intersection point of the hairline and the road will be the desired standing point. The standing point under the same conditions can be determined by the following method: measure the magnetic azimuth to the landmark, convert it to the opposite one, and convert the latter into a directional angle. Based on the value of the directional angle, the direction from the landmark to the intersection with the road is drawn.

The average error in determining the standing point using this method, when carefully performing the techniques, is about 10% of the range at the notching angle from 30 to 60° and from 120 to 150° and about 5% at the notching angle from 60° to 120°.

Determination of the standing point on the map by resection in three (two) directions . This method is used mainly in open areas, poor in landmarks, when three (at most two) landmarks are identified. If possible, you should use landmarks located closer to the standing point so that the directions from the landmarks at the standing point intersect at angles within 30-150°.

Rice. 5.13 Determining the standing point by resection

The map is carefully oriented using a compass, a ruler is applied to the symbol of one of the landmarks on the map and directed to the same landmark on the ground, then a line is drawn towards yourself (Fig. 5.13). Without confusing the orientation of the map, the directions to the second and third landmarks are drawn in the same way. The intersection of three directions usually forms a triangle, the center of which will be the standing point. In two directions, the standing point is determined less accurately, and most importantly, without control.

Under the same conditions, when working with the map is difficult (it is raining, etc.), the standing point can be determined by magnetic azimuths measured from the standing point to landmarks. Magnetic azimuths are converted into reverse ones, and the latter into directional angles, and directions on the map from the corresponding landmarks are drawn using them.

The average error in determining the standing point by resection using three landmarks is about 15% of the average distance to the landmarks.

Comparison of the map with the terrain - the final stage of topographic orientation. At this stage, the terrain is studied, its changes that have occurred since the creation of the map are identified, and the location of the objects shown on the map is clarified.

To find an object visible on the map on the map, mentally or using a ruler, draw a line from the standing point to the terrain object and, in the direction of this line, find the symbol of the object being sought or make sure that the object is not shown on the map. To more accurately determine the direction to an object, measure the magnetic azimuth to it using a compass, calculate the directional angle of this direction, and use its value to draw the direction on the map.

To solve the inverse problem, i.e. to identify an object on the ground, indicated on the map, mentally or using a ruler, sight along the line connecting the standing point and the symbol of the object, and in this direction, taking into account the distance to the desired object, search for it on the ground.

Map navigation on the move . Depending on the nature of the terrain, when orienting on the move, they usually use a map at a scale of 1:100000 or 1:200000. The main task of orienteering in motion is to maintain a given route or one outlined on the map. Orientation while moving is carried out continuously in order to constantly know your location on the map, which is determined visually by comparing the map with the terrain. To do this, prepare a map in advance, and follow a certain order along the way.

§ 1.5.5. Creating a raster map

To create a raster map we will use the SASPlanet program.

Initially, you need to find the area of interest by scrolling the map. Do not pay attention to the highlighted rectangle - this is a trace of the previous search (it will disappear when starting a new search).

Having selected the area of interest at the desired scale, you need to click on “select rectangle”.

Rice. 5.14 Search for a site

Move the mouse pointer to the map field (upper left corner) and left-click once (this sets one of the corners of the rectangle); move the mouse pointer diagonally down the screen without pressing a key; Having outlined the desired rectangle, click the left mouse button; The Selected Area Operations dialog box appears.

Rice. 5.20 Specifying a card name

Click the “Start” button, wait for the end of saving the map piece, exit the SASPlanet program.

Rice. 5.21 Starting the saving process

Rice. 5.22 Saving process

Determining your own location

Situation of loss of control over own location occurs as a result of movement in conditions of limited visibility (fog, snowfall, blizzard, darkness), neglect to check the direction of movement with a compass and lack of orienteering skills.

realizing that you are lost, stop and do not complicate the situation by frantically throwing in different directions, especially in conditions of limited visibility;
you need to calmly figure out why you didn’t come to where you were going and where you ended up approximately;
if this fails, return to the place from which you started moving, or go to a linear landmark (river, road, clearing, power line), from which you can confidently continue your journey in the right direction;
If you are lost and do not have a compass and map, then in order to meaningfully move in the right direction, you need to know the location of the sides of the horizon.

Determining the sides of the horizon during the day

1. In the shadow of a pole (necessary conditions: bright sunny day, pole about 1 m long) (Fig. 12):

a) stick the pole into the ground (not necessarily perpendicular, you can also at an angle to the surface) on a flat area, free from vegetation, on which shadows are well defined; mark the point where the shadow of the pole ends;

b) wait until the shadow moves a few centimeters (on average this takes 10-15 minutes) - and mark its end again;

c, d) draw a line from the first marked point to the second and continue it 30 cm beyond the second mark - to the conditional point to which the shadow of the pole will later pass;

e) stand so that your left foot is at the first mark, and your right foot is at the second;

f) You are facing north: now you can determine other sides of the horizon.

Rice. 12. Determining the sides of the horizon by the shadow of a pole

2. By mechanical watch (Fig. 13)

Rice. 13. Determining the sides of the horizon using a mechanical watch

In the northern hemisphere, you can determine the sides of the horizon on a clear day, having a mechanical watch, as follows:

position the clock so that the hour hand points to the sun;
mentally determine the angle between the number 12 and the hour hand (if the hour hand is moved forward by one hour, then the number 1 should be taken);

As a result, we get a line indicating the direction N - S (north - south), with the bisector pointing to the south.

In the southern hemisphere, you can determine the sides of the horizon in a similar way, but with some features:

position the clock so that the number 12 points to the sun;
mentally determine the angle between the number 12 and the hour hand;
draw the bisector of the resulting angle.

We get a line indicating the direction N - S, and the bisector will point to the north.

3. By the sun

This is perhaps the most basic approximate definition of the sides of the horizon. You just need to remember that the sun rises in the east at 7 a.m., is in the south at noon (at 1 p.m.), and in the west at 7 p.m.

Determining the sides of the horizon at night

The natural way to determine the sides of the horizon at night is by the stars.

1. According to the North Star

This star will point north (Fig. 14).

Rice. 14. Determining the sides of the horizon by the North Star

To find the North Star in the sky, you need to find the constellation Ursa Major. Having connected the two outermost stars of the “bucket” (a and /3), mentally extend this line to five of the same distances: this is where the North Star is located. It is the last star in the tail of the Ursa Minor constellation. This constellation also consists of seven, but less bright, stars, and is shaped like a bucket, but smaller in size.

2. According to the constellation Cassiopeia

The constellation consists of five stars forming a slanted M (or W when low above the horizon). Cassiopeia, like the constellation Ursa Major, slowly rotates around the North Star. This fact is of great help in orientation if the Big Dipper is located low above the horizon or is not visible due to vegetation or tall objects. The North Star is at the same distance from the constellation Cassiopeia as from the Big Dipper (Fig. 15).

Rice. 15. Determining the sides of the horizon by the constellation Cassiopeia

3. According to the constellation Southern Cross (when located in the southern hemisphere)

The constellation consists of four stars forming a cross, inclined towards the horizon. The two stars form a long axis, which is called the shaft of the cross, or pointer. From the base of the cross rod, you need to mentally stretch a line to a distance 5 times greater than the length of the cross itself and find an imaginary point that will indicate the direction to the south (Fig. 16).

Rice. 16. Determining the sides of the horizon by the constellation Southern Cross

Determination of the sides of the horizon by the direction of the clearings and digitization on quarter posts.

Clearings are cut, as a rule, in the directions north - south and east - west. The blocks are numbered in rows, from west to east. At the ends of quarter posts installed at the intersections of clearings, the smallest number is located on the northwestern cut, and the next in order is on the northeast: these two numbers point to the north. The next two numbers indicate, respectively, south (Fig. 17).

Rice. 17. Determination of the sides of the horizon by quarter pillars

Orientation on local subjects.

Plants can help determine the sides of the horizon. But first, it should be noted that the most accurate method for determining the sides of the horizon is the astronomical one: it is worth using it first. The method of determining the sides of the horizon using local objects is very approximate, and it can be used only in extreme cases - in conditions of poor visibility and inclement weather. The technique boils down to the following: you need to select 4-5 signs, for each of them determine the side of the horizon, and then combine all these signs and approximately understand where the north, south, east and west are.

For orientation, you can use the following signs:

the bark of trees, due to the difference in heating and lighting on the southern side of the trunk, as a rule, is harder, lighter, drier than on the northern;
on the southern side of the tree trunk, natural deposits and clots of resin are visible, which harden and have a light amber color for a long time;
the trunks of the pine trees turn black from the north after the rain;
mushrooms prefer to grow on the north side of trees, bushes, and stumps;
berries on the southern side of the meadow acquire color earlier during the ripening period;
the grass is thicker in spring on the northern edge of the clearing, and in summer - on the southern edge;
tree branches are usually longer and thicker on the south side;
the growth rings on the stump of a cut tree are wider on the south side;
mosses and lichens prefer the northern side;
anthills are located on the south side of trees, bushes, stumps; the wall of the anthill is flatter on the south side;
in ravines with a west-east direction (or vice versa), the slopes differ from each other: the southern one is flatter, covered with soft grass, and the northern one is steeper, covered with sparse vegetation;
in ravines with a north-south direction (or vice versa), the slopes are usually the same. In winter, you can find the sides of the horizon using the following signs:
There is more snow on the north side of trees and buildings;
Snow thaws faster on the south side of various objects;
the southern slopes of the mountains are cleared of snow more quickly;
in ravines, snow melts faster on the northern side (there is an elementary explanation for this paradox: the northern slopes of the ravines receive much more solar heat, since the sun’s rays seem to rest on the surface of the northern slope, and glide along the southern slope);
the altars and chapels of Orthodox churches face east, and the bell towers face west.

In conclusion, considering the issue of terrain orientation, the following should be noted. If you find yourself in an unfamiliar area, it is better to find an open space where you have visibility to determine your own location. Along the crests of ridges, if they do not present any difficulties for movement, you can get out of the mountains most quickly. You should be careful when traveling through gorges and canyons. In an unfamiliar area, any river can be used as a landmark or a route for movement. In this case, the river serves as a source of food and water; in addition, the route along the river usually always leads to people.