Methods of cognition economic phenomena

Methods in science are a way, a way, a technique, a tool theoretical research a subject reflected in the system of its categories and laws.

As a philosophical method of Marxist political economy stands materialist dialectics - the doctrine of the most general laws development of nature, society and human cognition. She represents whole system categories, principles and laws. The categories of dialectics are: individual, special and general; content and form; cause and investigation; essence and phenomenon; necessity and chance; possibility and reality.

The most important principles dialectics are the principle of universal connection and the principle of universal development.

The basic laws of dialectics are: the law of unity and struggle of opposites, the law of transition quantitative changes in qualitative, the law of negation. The law of unity and struggle of opposites reveals internal source movement and development of the world around us.

The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative shows how the development process takes place, what are its specifics and mechanism of action.

The law of negation reveals general direction development, the relationship between the old, dying and the new, emerging. According to this law, the new, while denying the old, always preserves its positive aspects.

In the dialectical method it is necessary to distinguish between two aspects: historical and logical. Historical aspect involves the study of economic phenomena in the form in which they existed, with all the details and in all their diversity. In this case, naturally, both accidents and secondary circumstances that are noted in the actual historical process are perceived. From this point of view, economic categories are also presented in historical sequence, each of which reflects a certain aspect of economic phenomena. Logical aspect aims at studying these phenomena, mainly from the point of view of the logic of their development, general, natural, repeating in the real historical process. Logical research is carried out, so to speak, in a “pure” form (in abstraction from all existing contingencies and secondary circumstances).

The logical method is a way of reflecting internal connections, patterns of reality historical process in a theoretically consistent form.

Great importance K. Marx gave the method ascent from the concrete to the abstract. He highlights general pattern, inherent in the process scientific knowledge at all its stages: it always begins with living contemplation, with sensory perceptions and ideas about specific phenomena and processes reality and goes to abstract thinking. Concepts and abstractions arise on the basis of the processing by thinking of the data that is delivered by the senses and practical experience. As a result, a concrete is formed, which represents the unity of diverse definitions. Thus, the ascent from the concrete to the abstract is followed by the opposite ascent from the abstract to the concrete. But this is already a different concrete, not the concrete that is directly given to us in sensations, but the concrete reproduced with the help of scientific concepts and the interrelations of phenomena, system elements, etc. identified in the process of cognition.

In the process of ascent from the concrete to the abstract and from the abstract to the concrete, various techniques knowledge: analysis (from the Greek “analysis” - decomposition, dismemberment) - mental division of a phenomenon into its component parts; synthesis (from the Greek "synthesis" - connection) - the mental connection of parts of a phenomenon, the study of it as a single whole; induction (from the Latin “induction” - guidance) - the movement of thought from the individual to the general, from knowledge of a lesser degree of generality to knowledge to a greater extent community; deduction (from the Latin “deductio” - deduction) - the movement of thought from the general to the individual, from knowledge of a greater degree of generality to knowledge of a lesser degree of generality, etc. Together, these techniques form the necessary means scientific research. His end result is knowledge that is polished and tested by practice. It serves at the same time as both the starting point of knowledge and the criterion of truth.

In the course "Economics" there are two main methods of understanding economic phenomena: positive and normative, each of which has its own philosophical basis. Positive method is based on the philosophy of positivism (from the Latin “positivus” - positive). According to his main point, fundamental principle, scientific knowledge must be freed from any philosophy (in its previous metaphysical interpretation), which as independent science should be abolished, because it has become unnecessary (hence the slogan: “Every science is a philosophy in itself”). Anything genuine positive knowledge about real reality can be obtained in the form not of speculative philosophical generalizations, but of the results of individual special scientific research, on the basis of which the formation of one system knowledge. The task of science, in accordance with such reasoning, is not to study cause-and-effect relationships real phenomena and processes, and in the description and systematization external facts, individual judgments, data from sensory experience. As a result, its laws acquire a descriptive rather than a cause-and-effect nature.

Supporters of positivist philosophy introduced many of its provisions into economic science. Among the latter, in particular, the doctrine of evolution and balance social systems, differentiation and analysis of social statics and dynamics, interpretation of the truth and falsity of scientific knowledge, use of mathematical methods and apparatus mathematical logic in scientific research.

As a criterion of truth and falsity scientific knowledge two fundamental principles of positivism are used. The first is the principle verification(testability) of hypothesis, theory. According to this principle, the truth or falsity of any scientific statement of empirical origin must ultimately be established by comparing it with the phenomena and facts of reality. The second is the principle falsification(refutation) of a hypothesis, theory: a scientific statement must allow (for the sake of achieving truth) the possibility of refuting it with real experience, i.e. be falsifiable if it is false. It is accepted that any economic hypothesis or theory is true if it is confirmed by economic practice in accordance with these two principles. If this is not the case, then the economic hypothesis or theory must either be rethought or rejected, taking the path of developing a new one. Economists who adhere to a positivist methodology believe that all economic phenomena and processes should be considered regardless of subjective opinions, assessments, views of this or that scientist.

Normative method knowledge relies more on the philosophy of pragmatism (from the Greek “pragma” - business, action), the subject of research of which is Practical activities human and which is based on the principle maximum efficiency. In accordance with the latter, the task of science is determined - to find ways to ensure and implement as much as possible possible extent effective activities person. Scientific research is considered true in this context only when it brings a certain practical utility, understood as satisfaction subjective needs person.

Economists who adhere to the methodology of pragmatism put forward the main thesis according to which any analysis of economic phenomena and processes should be aimed at obtaining results that bring practical benefit and benefit to all subjects economic activity. However, the ways to achieve the goal interpreted in this way are quite complex: they depend not only on the specifics cognitive process, but also from the action of various social factors(political, legal, national, moral, religious, etc.).

At the same time, it should be noted that the positive and normative methods of scientific knowledge are not separated from each other by an insurmountable barrier. They are closely related to each other, interact and, to a certain extent, interpenetrate. This means that individual elements positive method used in normative economic analysis and vice versa.

Along with philosophical method widely used in Economics courses system-functional method , within which the object under study is considered as a complexly organized system. With this approach, the focus is on studying not genetic and cause-and-effect relationships, but connections between functional quantitative dependencies. The point is to set functional dependence between the elements of this system, as well as optimal conditions its preservation and development. In general, the logic of such economic analysis is as follows: the starting point is the collection, description and systematization empirical facts. Then hypotheses are developed about the functioning of one or another specific area economy (or its aggregate state), on the basis of which are formed economic principles or economic theories. The latter, in turn, act as a necessary prerequisite for the development of economic policies aimed at solving various economic problems. In this case, a fairly wide arsenal is used cognitive tools: abstraction, generalization, analysis, synthesis, induction and deduction. Especially important role are played by mathematical techniques and the corresponding tools - graphs, tables, formulas that are used at all stages of economic research.

The method of cognition of economic theory is a set of techniques, means and principles with the help of which the categories and laws of the functioning and development of economic systems are studied, as well as economic behavior its subjects. Economic theory applies both general scientific and science-specific methods of cognition of economic phenomena and processes

Dialectics is a method of cognition common to all sciences, including economic theory.

It is based on the use of laws and principles of philosophy, substantiated by the outstanding German philosopher Georg Hegel, the essence of which is: in the knowledge of economic phenomena and processes in their interrelation and interdependence; V continuous development; in the understanding that the accumulation of quantitative changes leads to qualitative leaps; that the source of development is internal contradictions phenomena, unity and struggle of opposites.

A feature of theoretical-economic research is that when studying economic processes one cannot use specific techniques and technical means, which are widely used, for example, in natural sciences(physics, chemistry, etc.). Here they use scientific economic thinking in the form of a scientific abstraction.

Scientific abstraction is an in-depth knowledge of basic economic processes, separated from everything external, secondary and not essential.

Analysis and synthesis The object of study is decomposed into its component parts and these parts are studied separately.

Induction - generalized conclusions are formed from particular factors. Deduction - from general to specific (from theory to practice).

Methods of historical and logical knowledge study development in historical sequence. Logical method: from simple to complex.

Economic modeling - this method clearly and better allows you to explore the features of an object. Computer simulation allows you to more options to choose the best one.

Method graphic images makes it possible to clearly show the relationships between various economic indicators.

An economic experiment is the reproduction of processes and phenomena in real conditions with the aim of studying them and applying them in practice. It also allows you to test the validity of a scientific theory in practice.

Method of qualitative and quantitative analysis. (creation theoretical basis for real practical problems).

Comparison method. Comparison of an unknown with an already known factor according to certain criteria.

Development of a scientific hypothesis. If an economic phenomenon is unknown, a theoretical assumption is necessary to describe it. Scientific hypothesis will become a full-fledged theory only after practical confirmation.

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More on topic 24.methods of understanding economic processes and phenomena:

1. 4. The concept of an economic system. Methods of cognition of economic processes.
2. Concept of method. Classification of methods of scientific knowledge. The relationship between the method and the subject of knowledge.
3. 39. The concept of the method of cognition. Classification of methods. Empirical and theoretical methods of cognition.
4. 37. Subject and object of knowledge. Subject and methods of cognition.
5. 25.Economic management methods, their intended purpose. Types and main content of methods of economic influence. Brief description and features of the application of economic methods
6. 3. General scientific techniques, private scientific techniques and private legal methods of understanding state legal phenomena. See 2

Methods in science are a way, a method, a technique, a tool for the theoretical study of a subject, reflected in the system of its categories and laws.

The philosophical method of Marxist political economy is materialist dialectics - the doctrine of the most general laws of development of nature, society and human knowledge. It represents an integral system of categories, principles and laws. The categories of dialectics are: individual, special and general; content and form; cause and investigation; essence and phenomenon; necessity and chance; possibility and reality.

The most important principles of dialectics are the principle of universal connection and the principle of universal development.

The basic laws of dialectics are: the law of unity and struggle of opposites, the law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, the law of negation. The law of unity and struggle of opposites reveals internal source movement and development of the world around us.

The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative shows how the development process takes place, what are its specifics and mechanism of action.

The law of negation reveals general direction development, the relationship between the old, dying and the new, emerging. According to this law, the new, while denying the old, always preserves its positive aspects.

In the dialectical method it is necessary to distinguish between two aspects: historical and logical. Historical aspect involves the study of economic phenomena in the form in which they existed, with all the details and in all their diversity. In this case, naturally, both accidents and secondary circumstances that are noted in the actual historical process are perceived. From this point of view, economic categories are also presented in historical sequence, each of which reflects a certain aspect of economic phenomena. Logical aspect aims at studying these phenomena, mainly from the point of view of the logic of their development, general, natural, repeating in the real historical process. Logical research is carried out, so to speak, in a “pure” form (in abstraction from all existing contingencies and secondary circumstances).

The logical method is a way of reflecting internal connections and patterns of the actual historical process in a theoretically consistent form.

K. Marx attached great importance to the method ascent from the concrete to the abstract. He highlights a general pattern inherent in the process of scientific knowledge at all its stages: it always begins with living contemplation, with sensory perceptions and ideas about specific phenomena and processes of reality and goes to abstract thinking. Concepts and abstractions arise on the basis of the processing by thinking of the data that is delivered by the senses and practical experience. As a result, a concrete is formed, which represents the unity of diverse definitions. Thus, the ascent from the concrete to the abstract is followed by the opposite ascent from the abstract to the concrete. But this is already a different concrete, not the concrete that is directly given to us in sensations, but the concrete reproduced with the help of scientific concepts and the interrelations of phenomena, system elements, etc. identified in the process of cognition.

In the process of ascent from the concrete to the abstract and from the abstract to the concrete, various methods of cognition are used: analysis (from the Greek “analysis” - decomposition, dismemberment) - the mental division of a phenomenon into its component parts; synthesis (from the Greek "synthesis" - connection) - the mental connection of parts of a phenomenon, the study of it as a single whole; induction (from the Latin “induction” - guidance) - the movement of thought from the individual to the general, from knowledge of a lesser degree of generality to knowledge of a greater degree of generality; deduction (from the Latin “deductio” - deduction) - the movement of thought from the general to the individual, from knowledge of a greater degree of generality to knowledge of a lesser degree of generality, etc. Together, these techniques form the necessary means of scientific research. Its end result is knowledge that is polished and tested by practice. It serves at the same time as both the starting point of knowledge and the criterion of truth.

In the course "Economics" two main methods of understanding economic phenomena have developed: positive and normative, each of which has its own philosophical basis. Positive method is based on the philosophy of positivism (from the Latin “positivus” - positive). According to its main, fundamental principle, scientific knowledge should be freed from all philosophy (in its previous metaphysical interpretation), which as an independent science should be abolished, because it has become unnecessary (hence the slogan: “Every science is a philosophy in itself”). Any genuine, positive knowledge about reality can be obtained not in the form of speculative philosophical generalizations, but the results of individual special scientific research, on the basis of which a unified system of knowledge is formed. The task of science, in accordance with such reasoning, is not to study the cause-and-effect relationships of real phenomena and processes, but to describe and systematize external facts, individual judgments, and data from sensory experience. As a result, its laws acquire a descriptive rather than a cause-and-effect nature.

Supporters of positivist philosophy introduced many of its provisions into economic science. Among the latter, in particular, the doctrine of evolution and equilibrium of social systems, the distinction and analysis of social statics and dynamics, the interpretation of the truth and falsity of scientific knowledge, the use of mathematical methods and the apparatus of mathematical logic in scientific research.

Two fundamental principles of positivism are used as a criterion for the truth and falsity of scientific knowledge. The first is the principle verification(testability) of hypothesis, theory. According to this principle, the truth or falsity of any scientific statement of empirical origin must ultimately be established by comparing it with the phenomena and facts of reality. The second is the principle falsification(refutation) of a hypothesis, theory: a scientific statement must allow (for the sake of achieving truth) the possibility of refuting it with real experience, i.e. be falsifiable if it is false. It is accepted that any economic hypothesis or theory is true if it is confirmed by economic practice in accordance with these two principles. If this is not the case, then the economic hypothesis or theory must either be rethought or rejected, taking the path of developing a new one. Economists who adhere to a positivist methodology believe that all economic phenomena and processes should be considered independently of the subjective opinions, assessments, and views of one or another scientist.

Normative method knowledge relies more on the philosophy of pragmatism (from the Greek “pragma” - business, action), the subject of study of which is the practical activity of man and which is based on the principle of maximum efficiency. In accordance with the latter, the task of science is determined - to find ways to ensure and implement, to the greatest possible extent, effective human activity. Scientific research is considered true in this context only when it brings a certain practical utility, understood as the satisfaction of subjective human needs.

Economists who adhere to the methodology of pragmatism put forward the main thesis according to which any analysis of economic phenomena and processes should be aimed at obtaining results that bring practical benefit and benefit to all economic entities. However, the ways to achieve the goal interpreted in this way are quite complex: they depend not only on the specifics of the cognitive process, but also on the action of various social factors (political, legal, national, moral, religious, etc.).

At the same time, it should be noted that the positive and normative methods of scientific knowledge are not separated from each other by an insurmountable barrier. They are closely related to each other, interact and, to a certain extent, interpenetrate. This means that individual elements of the positive method are used in normative economic analysis and vice versa.

Along with the philosophical method, the Economics course widely uses system-functional method , within which the object under study is considered as a complexly organized system. With this approach, the focus is on studying not genetic and cause-and-effect relationships, but connections between functional quantitative dependencies. The point is to establish the functional relationship between the elements of a given system, as well as the optimal conditions for its preservation and development. In general, the logic of such economic analysis is as follows: the starting point is the collection, description and systematization of empirical facts. Hypotheses are then developed about the functioning of a particular area of ​​the economy (or its aggregate state), on the basis of which economic principles or economic theories are formed. The latter, in turn, act as a necessary prerequisite for the development of economic policies aimed at solving various economic problems. In this case, a fairly wide arsenal of cognitive tools is used: abstraction, generalization, analysis, synthesis, induction and deduction. A particularly important role is played by mathematical techniques and the corresponding tools - graphs, tables, formulas that are used at all stages of economic research.

Successful knowledge of phenomena and processes economic life possible subject to the use of certain methods or techniques. The determining role in the choice of method is, of course, played by the subject of research: the solution to the question “what to study?” precedes the answer to the question “how to study?”. However, the application of the method also contributes to the development of the subject. Among the research methods used by economists are both general scientific and specific to economic theory (Fig. 1.3).

Economic theory is based on facts. Therefore, the very first method of studying economic life is observation and collection of facts. You must first set yourself a clear goal (task), which will direct attention to the perception of phenomena and processes in their real form, to identifying how characteristic (common, typical) they are of the economy as a whole or its individual parts, for what period. Facts are statistics, data accounting, survey results, visual observations and the like. Having collected a sufficient number of facts and systematized them, they then begin to process them using scientific methods, in particular, analysis and synthesis.

Rice. 1.3.

Methods of analysis and synthesis are interconnected, since they involve the study of a particular object first in parts - this analysis (from Greek analysis - dismemberment), and then as a whole - synthesis (from Greek synthesis - combination). For example, by analyzing the factors influencing the amount of consumer demand, you can determine the expected trends in demand changes in the near future.

Methods of induction and deduction are also closely interrelated. Induction (from lat. in - V, inductio - inference) - logical generalization, or the movement of thought from individual facts to general conclusion. By this logical method, having systematized and analyzed collected facts, derive economic categories, formulate laws and spatial theories. Deduction (from lat. de - back, deductio - inference) is the reverse path of thinking, when thought moves from general position(learned category, law, theory) to specific conclusions.

Using the induction method, researchers resort to scientific abstractions. V Method of scientific abstraction- this is the way in-depth study phenomena and processes economic life, with the help of which their main, essential features or properties are isolated, discarding (abstracting from) others that are secondary in this moment analysis. By the way, ordinary people always unwittingly use various abstractions (generalized concepts) without thinking about it: for example, when talking about family, love, honesty, life, state, law, and the like. Scientists, consciously using the method of abstraction, determine the essence (the main thing in the content) of a particular phenomenon. Every economic term or even theory is abstract, because it gives a simplified image of reality. And, by the way, that is why they are practical. V Economic term(category)- it's abstract scientific concept, which in a generalized form expresses the most essential (typical) properties of economic phenomena and processes.

Economists, like all scientists, are also guided by the principle of knowing the truth as a hypothesis. V Hypothesis(from Greek hypothesis - assumption) is an assumption that is put forward to explain a particular phenomenon, but still requires verification life experience(practice) and logical justification. If the hypothesis cannot be proven, it is refuted, that is, it is considered an erroneous statement. A proven hypothesis becomes scientific knowledge.

System analysis- This scientific approach, in which a phenomenon or process is considered as an integral (“living”) system, consisting of certain interconnected elements, and affects the performance of the economy as a whole.

Historical and logical analyzes are also effective in unity. A serious economist cannot limit himself to stating historical facts. Knowledge of history is useful for him in order to summarize the facts, giving him an assessment as a whole. For example, knowing the course and features of socio-economic life in former socialist countries, in particular in Ukraine, you logically come to the conclusion that they are ineffective economic system and the inevitability of its collapse.

In economic science, the modeling method is actively used. V Economic modeling(from lat. Modulus - sample) is the study of real phenomena and processes by presenting them in a simplified form. From this point of view, every economic theory and law is also a certain mentally, or an abstract model that helps understand economics. At the same time, economists often use formalized models ( mathematical formulas and equations, graphs, tables), which allow us to identify the features of the functioning of a real economic object and predict its behavior with changes in certain parameters.

It should be noted that economic life is extremely complex and changeable due to its connections and dependencies. That is why, in order to understand it, one often has to introduce logical conventions, or assumptions that somewhat simplify real picture life. Such assumptions, or as mathematicians say, "with other things equal conditions", and make it possible to apply certain models as a simplified description of the phenomena and processes of reality. So with economic models one should behave very carefully, without humiliating, but also without exaggerating their importance.

Economic experiment involves conducting artificial scientific research when an object is placed in specially created and controlled conditions. An experiment is considered, in particular, the creation of free or special economic zones, that is, giving certain territories exceptional economic conditions so that, if successful, this experience can be extended to the entire economy of the country. Experiments are more widely practiced by business entities themselves, in particular leading firms, for example regarding the launch of a new product model, the introduction of a new form of organization and remuneration. Famous experimenters in economics included such celebrities as Robert Owen, Pierre-Georges Proudhon and Karl Marx (19th century), Frederick Taylor and Henry Ford (20th century).

However, in contrast to natural and technical sciences(for example, chemistry, biology), which can only develop through experiments, in political-economic science it is necessary not to experiment on real life people, and use models (images) with which you can only carry out thought experiments and test your hypotheses. Let us note once again: modeling (and, consequently, corresponding simplifications and abstractions) is common in other sciences, but in political economy the skillful use of logical techniques abstract thinking is a sign of the professionalism of scientists and the special value of this science. J.M. Keynes would say here: “Economic theory is not a set of ready-made recommendations applicable directly to economic practice. It is rather a method than a teaching, an intellectual tool, a technique of thinking, helping the one who owns it to come to the right conclusions."

Functions of economic theory and its place in the system of economic sciences

Subject of economic theory

The subject of economic theory was formed in the process of everything historical development science and includes three objects:

public relations of production and objective laws of their functioning and development (general economic theory);

· behavior of individual economic entities in conditions of limited resources (microeconomics);

· functioning of the economy as a whole, ways to ensure its stable development (macroeconomics).

Functions of economic theory:

· cognitive;

· practical;

· ideological;

· methodological.

Positive economics explains how the economy functions, how society decides key economic problems(the main function is cognitive).

Normative economic theory gives recommendations, determines ways to solve problems; economic policy is based on it (the main function is practical).

Economic policy – a set of measures aimed at regulating the behavior of economic agents or the consequences of their activities for effective achievement set economic goals.

System of economic sciences:

· economic theory;

· branch economic sciences (industrial economics, agro-industrial economics, trade economics, construction economics, banking, insurance, etc.);

· functional economic sciences (finance, money and credit, accounting, economic analysis, statistics, marketing, management, etc.);

· intersecting economic sciences ( economic history, economical geography, environmental economics, demography, economic sociology, economic psychology, etc.).

Basic methods of understanding economic phenomena include:

· dialectical method;

· general scientific methods.

Dialectical method means that economic phenomena and processes are considered in relation to each other and in a state of continuous development.

Method of scientific abstraction involves abstraction from the unimportant, isolated, random in the processes and phenomena being studied; highlighting in them the durable, stable, typical.

Tools of the Scientific Abstraction Method:

· formulation economic categories;

· analysis and synthesis;

· historical and logical approach;

· induction and deduction.

Rice. 1.2. Methods of understanding economic phenomena

Economic laws– necessary, essential, stable, objective interdependencies and cause-and-effect relationships of economic relations, processes and phenomena; contrary to the laws of nature they wear historical character(not eternal).

Types of economic laws (1):

by scope:

o general economic laws;

o laws of reproduction phases (production, exchange, distribution, consumption);

o laws of private spheres (credit, finance, money circulation and etc.).

Types of economic laws (2):

by historical length:

o general (valid throughout human history);

o special (act during several stages of economic development);

o specific (act only at one stage of economic development).

Analysis– ascent from the concrete to the abstract. All variety specific phenomena economic life is divided into component parts and sides, which are consistently studied and analyzed.

Synthesis– ascent from the abstract to the concrete. Different sides cognizable phenomena are connected with each other, a single whole is recreated from individual parts.

Historical approach presupposes a reliable description of the history of economic relations.

Logical approach- This historical approach, but “purified” of random influences, deviations from the general trend determined by the action of economic laws.

Induction– derivation of theoretical provisions (patterns, principles) from facts.

Deduction– building hypotheses based on the application of theory to facts.

Systems approach involves considering any object as a system consisting of elements and having a certain structure.

Tools systematic approach :

· system;

· element;

· structure.

System– a set of elements interconnected with each other and with environment and forming a certain integrity, unity.

Element- relatively indivisible component systems with a certain independence.

Structure– a way of organizing interconnections and relationships between elements of the system.

Experimental method in the study of economics involves testing theoretical concepts in economic activities, as well as laboratory experiment(including mathematical modeling).

TO mathematical methods used in economics include:

· calculation of nominal and real values;

· calculation of general, average and limiting values;

· statistical methods;

· linear programming and etc.

Among other methods knowledge of economic phenomena:

· method of comparisons and analogies;

· taking into account the time factor (short-term and long-term), etc.

Characteristics economic way of thinking:

· comprehensiveness;

· depth;

· analyticity;

· scientific character.

a) Aristotle

b) Xenophon

c) Socrates

d) Euripides

2. The first school of political economy is considered to be:

a) classical political economy

b) school of physiocrats

c) monetarism

d) mercantilism

3. Physiocrats considered the source of public wealth:

a) all production

b) trade

V) Agriculture

d) physiology

4. The initiator of the rejection of the term “political economy” in favor of the more neutral “economics (economics)” was:

a) P. Samuelson

b) K. Marx

c) A. Marshall

d) J. Keynes

5. The main functions of economic theory do not include:

a) practical function

b) ideological function

c) methodological function

d) technical function

6. Towards functional economic sciences not applicable:

a) finances

b) accounting

c) economic geography

d) statistics

7. Finish the phrase by K. Marx: “When analyzing economic forms, you cannot use either a microscope or chemical reagents. Both must be replaced by force […]"

a) imagination

d) abstractions

8. The essence of the method of scientific abstraction can be expressed by the formula:

a) “after this, therefore, because of this”

b) “other things being equal”

c) “the criterion of truth is practice”

d) “the economy should be economical”

9. The way of organizing interconnections and relationships between elements of the system is:

a) integrity

b) subordination

c) structure

d) orderliness

10. Constructing hypotheses based on the application of theory to facts is:

a) analysis

b) synthesis

c) induction

d) deduction

11. Initially, economics was understood as

a) the science of industrial relations and economic laws

b) the doctrine of the principles of conduct household

c) the doctrine of national accounting

d) section of theology

12. Mercantilists believed that the subject of political economy should be:

a) relations of production

b) exchange relations

c) productive forces

a) K. Marx

b) A. Smith

c) M. Lomonosov

d) A. Montchretien

14. Which of the following is not included in the subject of economic theory?

a) industrial relations

b) economic laws

c) production technology

d) forms of rational management

15. The following does not apply to branch economic sciences:

a) industrial economics

b) economics of the agro-industrial complex

c) labor economics

d) economics of trade

16. Interface economic sciences include:

a) theory of money and credit

b) microeconomics

c) economic psychology

d) macroeconomics

17. Abstraction is a distraction from:

a) insignificant

b) significant

c) sustainable

18. The condition for the successful application of economic and mathematical methods is:

a) a combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches

b) a combination of historical and logical approaches

c) a combination of induction and deduction

d) a combination of economics and politics

19. Creation of free economic zones in Russia in the 90s. was carried out in the following order:

a) scientific abstraction

b) system analysis

c) economic experiment

d) economic and mathematical model

20. The ascent from the concrete to the abstract characterizes the process:

a) analysis

b) synthesis

c) studying microeconomics

d) studying macroeconomics