General grammatical meaning of the word dreamed. Grammatical meaning

Grammatical meaning

(formal) meaning. A meaning that acts as an addition to the lexical meaning of a word and expresses various relationships (the relationship to other words in a phrase or sentence, the relationship to the person performing the action or other persons, the relationship of the reported fact to reality and time, the attitude of the speaker to the communicated, etc. .). Usually a word has several grammatical meanings. Thus, the word country has the meaning of feminine, nominative case, singular; the word wrote contains the grammatical meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine, perfective. Grammatical meanings find their morphological or syntactic expression in the language. They are expressed mainly by the form of the word, which is formed:

a) affixation. Book, books, book, etc. (case meanings);

b) internal inflection. Collect - collect (imperfect and perfect meanings);

c) accent. At home. (gen. fallen. singular) - at home (named. fallen. plural);

d) suppletivism. Take - take (meanings of the form). Good - better (values of the degree of comparison);

f) mixed (synthetic and analytical methods). To the house (the meaning of the dative case is expressed by a preposition and a case form).

Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms. Ed. 2nd. - M.: Enlightenment. Rosenthal D. E., Telenkova M. A.. 1976 .

See what “grammatical meaning” is in other dictionaries:

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grammatical meaning as opposed to lexical meaning- 1) G.z. is an intralingual meaning, because contains information about relationships, connections between linguistic units, regardless of the presence of these relationships in extra-linguistic reality; L.z. correlates a linguistic unit with an extralinguistic one... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal

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MORPHOLOGY. PART I.

TOPIC 1. MORPHOLOGY AS A SECTION OF THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE

Subject of morphology

Morphology (from the Greek morphe - form and logos - study) is the grammatical study of words. The word is the main object of morphology. Morphology studies the grammatical properties of words, establishes what grammatical meanings certain words and classes of words have, and identifies the specifics of grammatical categories for words belonging to different parts of speech. For example, both nouns and adjectives have the categories of gender, number and case. However, for nouns these categories are independent, and for adjectives they are syntactically determined, depending on the gender, number and case of the noun with which the adjective is combined (cf.: big house, big house, big house and so on.; the big one is ours; large building; big houses and so on.).

The tasks of morphology include determining the range of words that have one or another grammatical category. Grammatical categories either cover the entire lexical base of a certain part of speech, or apply only to the main body of words belonging to it. So, nouns pluralia tantum (scissors, twilight, yeast etc.) do not have a gender category, impersonal verbs do not have a “person category.” One of the most important tasks of morphology is to identify and describe the specific functioning of grammatical categories in the vocabulary of various parts of speech.

Morphology establishes the composition of the grammatical forms of various types of words, identifies the rules for changing words, and distributes words according to types of declension and conjugation.

Morphology includes the study of parts of speech. It examines the semantic and formal features of words of various categories, develops criteria and rules for classifying words by parts of speech, determines the range of words for each part of speech, establishes a system of parts of speech, studies the lexical and grammatical features of words of each part of speech, and identifies patterns of interaction between parts of speech.

Grammatical meanings of words

A word is a complex unity of lexical and grammatical meanings. For example, the word lamp stands for "lighting or heating device of various devices." This is its lexical meaning. Into the semantic content of the word lamp also includes feminine, nominative and singular meanings. These are its grammatical meanings.

The lexical meaning of a word is an individual semantic feature that distinguishes it from other words. Even words that are close in meaning (cf.: lamp, lamp, lantern) have different lexical meanings. Lamp -“a small vessel with a wick, filled with oil and lit in front of the icons”; flashlight has three meanings: 1) “a lighting device in the form of a glass ball, a box with glass walls”; 2) special: “a glass skylight in the roof, as well as a glazed projection in the building”; 3) figurative: “bruise from a beating, from a contusion.”

Grammatical meanings are characteristic of a whole class of words. Thus, the meanings of the feminine gender, singular number, nominative case unite the words lamp, water, fish, room, mermaid, thought and others, which have nothing in common in their lexical meanings. Wed. also: 1) I run, I fly, I read, I lift, I write, I jump; 2) sang, drew, read, thought, danced, shot; 3) run, read, take, fly, wipe, buy. The words of the first row denote different processes, but they all express the grammatical meanings of the 1st person, singular. The words of the second row are united by the meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine. gender, words of the third row - with the meanings of the imperative mood, units. numbers. Thus, grammatical meaning is an abstract meaning, abstracted from the lexical content of a word and inherent in a whole class of words.

Grammatical meanings are not unique. One grammatical meaning necessarily presupposes the presence of another (or others), homogeneous and correlative with it. For example, the singular number implies the plural (bird - birds, nagi - pasha); the meaning of the imperfect form is paired with the meaning of the perfect form (take off- remove, accept - accept); meaning to them pad. enters into relationships with all other case meanings.

Grammatical meanings are not isolated from lexical ones. They seem to be layered on the lexical (real, material) meanings of words and rely on them. Therefore, they are often called accompanying. Thus, the grammatical meanings of gender, number and -case in a noun book accompany its lexical meaning; grammatical meanings of the 3rd person, units. numbers, nes. aspect in verb draws based on its lexical meaning. A. A. Shakhmatov wrote about this: “The grammatical meaning of a linguistic form is opposed to its real meaning. The real meaning of a word depends on its correspondence as a verbal sign to one or another phenomenon of the external world. The grammatical meaning of a word is the meaning it has in relation to other words. The real meaning connects the word directly with the outside world, the grammatical meaning connects it primarily with other words."

Grammatical meanings reflect either certain features of phenomena in the external world, or the attitude of the speaker to the thought he expresses, or intralingual connections and relationships between words. They, notes A. A. Shakhmatov, “can be based (1) partly on phenomena given in the external world: for example, plural. h. birds depends on the fact that we mean the idea of not one, but several birds... (2) Partially, the accompanying meanings are based on the speaker’s subjective attitude to a certain phenomenon: for example, I walked means the same action as me I'm walking but taking place, according to the speaker, in the past tense... (3) Partially, finally, the accompanying meanings are based... on a formal, external reason given in the word itself: thus, the feminine gender of the word book depends only on the fact that it ends in -a.”

1 What is grammatical meaning? Explain with examples. Lexical meaning refers to reality itself and the grammatical meaning complements the lexical meaning. and expresses a relationship to another word (coordination, adjacency). Eg. lex. meaning "country" - designation “state”, a certain territory, and the grammatical meaning of the word “country” is noun, f.r. , units, etc. The grammatical form is a language means that is used to express grammatical meanings. These means are prefixes, suffixes, etc. Eg. there is ch. do - do, redo. Gram category - a class of gram values united by the homogeneity of gram values: for example. syst. conjugations, category of tenses in Russian. language - present, past, future, old, pre-past, etc. Word forms are representatives of a specific grammatical category. The totality of all grammatical forms constitutes a paradigm. The grammatical form has both an external meaning (ending in the case, in the main form) and an internal meaning - a relation to someone. person, other object. One form can have several meanings: Eg. give someone something and someone (objective meaning) became cold (subjective). Sometimes grammatical meaning. superimposed on the semantic and historical. the words lost their meaning: oak - husband. kind, birch - f.r.

2 What are parts of speech? What are the principles of their classification?Parts of speech- the largest grammatical classes of words, which are characterized by 3 features: 1) the unity of a generalized grammatical meaning, it abstracts from the lexical and denotes categories of a more general order: objectivity, procedurality (verb ), quality (adjective) 2) commonality of grammatical categories and inflections. The commonality is determined by the composition of morphological categories, the commonality of their organization when they are arranged into a paradigm (conjugations, declensions)3) the identity of syntactic functions. Those. they appear in sentences and phrases in a general form (i.e., nouns are usually subjects, verbs are predicates, etc.). 10 parts of speech in modern grammar, which are divided into 2 groups - significant (nouns, adjectives and numbers, as well as a pronoun (pronoun-noun only), verb and adverb) and auxiliary (preposition, conjunction and particles, as well as interjection (serves for expressive expression, feelings)).

3 Name the independent and auxiliary parts of speech. In modern grammar there are 10 parts of speech: one group is significant / independent (noun, adjective, number, pronoun, verb and adverb), the other is auxiliary (preposition, conjunction, particles and separately - interjection - their syntactic role is not defined.

4 What are modal words? Give examples. There are interjections introductory words, imitation (jin-jin), motivation, expression of feelings (ah, well, ah, yes)). Modal words are motivating, conciliatory, appreciative (obviously, probably, of course, of course). The functions of introductory words, and semantics - the definition of the relationship to reality, or an additional assessment.

5 Grammatical features of common and proper nouns. Existence is a part of speech, which denotes an object, names saints, abstracted from the bearer, and actions, abstracted from the subject. There are proper and common nouns. Narits are generalized phenomena. Own - individual. Usually the latter are used in the singular (Kyiv, Athens). Proper names can turn into common names, and vice versa (Pisces is a zodiac sign, and fish).

6 Specific and vested noun The first are concrete nouns, when objects appear in the form of individual instances or numbers. individuals, they combine with finite numerals and change in numbers, agreeing in gender, number and case (house, houses, three houses).

7 Grammatical features of collective nouns. Collective - denotes an indefinite set of objects as one indivisible whole: military, junk, animals, relatives, youth. There are complex transitional cases. For example, the words people, group, heap, collective do not belong to the collections, because they denote separate sets and are grammatically plural (peoples, groups).

8 Real noun - they denote a homogeneous mass that can be weighed, but not counted: flour, sulfur, salt, cereal, etc. They have not changed in numbers (although they vary in type: mineral waters, fragrant oils).

9 Eat single among them are singularities: dew - dewdrop, straw - straw. There are abstract ones - they denote qualities, properties, actions (abstract qualities): reading, anger, grief, joy. Words with an abstract meaning do not have plurals, although they can also have individualization, i.e. the meaning is enriched (initiative (general activity) and initiatives (specific proposals)). These beings outwardly not countable, but when there are specific manifestations of this quality, then it can be used in the plural. - the beauty of nature, choose the lesser of two evils.

10 Soulful and inanimate beings. The souls are named. living creatures, mythological animals (dinosaur). To inanimate. rel. named. plants (oak, maple), collective animate names (people, crowd - grammatically they behave like inanimate ones), as well as words such as “dead man (I see a dead man A), dead", but I see a corpse _ (it used to mean “dead, fallen tree”). There are difficult moments: playing Cossack And-robber And(the word behaves like an inanimate, for “a game called Cossacks-robbers”). Buy a crocodile A, but buy "Crocodile". Inanimate. more often refer to s.r.

11 Categories of grammatical gender. In inanimate noun it is defined formally, at the end (tree - s.r., cedar - (m.r.) pine, palm (f.r.)). Common names are belly - (m.r.), belly -s.r., although they are the same. To grammatical The genus is usually referred to by an abbreviation in accordance with that gram. genus, which underlies the core genus. But this is not true in general: university (higher educational institution), but the university is not neuter, but m.r. Ministry of Foreign Affairs - s.r., but for ordinary people - m.r. There is noun. of a general kind - also applies to m.r. and to Zh.R.: crybaby, headman, lecturer. Unmarked nouns - reader, student, i.e. in general these classes of people. “The student is now rude.”

12 Number category. There is singular, plural and dual: eye, eyes (plural), eyes (dual), four tables (dual), but five tables (plural). Words with an abstract meaning do not have plurals, although they can also have individualization, i.e. the meaning is enriched (initiative (general activity) and initiatives (specific proposals)). Joy, stupidity, vulgarity, etc. These beings outwardly not countable, but when there are specific manifestations of this quality, then it can be used in the plural. - the beauty of nature, choosing the lesser of two evils, saying nasty things. At the same time, the meaning changes - shreds (clumps of snow, cotton wool), shreds - small pieces. Forms with stressed plural endings. with “a” began to spread even before the time of Pushkin (before, for example, the house y, but the forms of years, years with different ones have been preserved. meaning).

13 Case categories. Case - (“fall”) - “not a direct meaning.” Historically up to 10 cases. In R.P. there is also a genitive " parts" - drink a glass of tea. In Sentence P. has an explanatory meaning - to talk about tea, about business. Now there are 6 of them. V.P. goes to R.P. in case of denial (“don’t give him your hand”). V.P. used when talking about a specific item (don’t forget a suitcase).

15 Glass of tea- a measure of a substance (i.e. not a liquid, a dry brew poured into a glass). Glass of tea- the liquid we drink.

16. On the edge / on the edge. “On the edge” (more colloquial form) has a connotation of concreteness (to stand on the edge of the abyss (objectivity)). “On the edge” - more lit. the form is of a more generalized nature (meaning “on the outskirts”) (write on the edge (cap) of the board - i.e. in the very corner).

17 Lexico-grammatical categories of adjectives. Adj. - part of speech, which is not a procedural sign of the subject. Select 3 categories of adjectives: 1) qualitative - directly denotes the quality, sacredness of objects (white, red). They can be used in both short and long form. 2) relative - through the relationship to other objects (glass - made of glass). 3) possessive - a relationship of ownership, belonging (father's portfolio).

18 Degrees of comparison of adjectives. Adj. can change according to degrees of comparison (stupid - even dumber), but not all (blind - there is no “blinder”). In addition to the comparative degree (lower), there is also the superlative degree (the dumbest). Elative - superlative degree with a hint of servility, deep. respect: in the shortest possible time.

19 Places of numerals. A numeral denotes a number and expresses a definition. number of homogeneous objects. There are 1) quantitative - this is a quantitative determinant of almost all entities that can be counted (one, two, three). They are divided into simple (two, three, thousand), derivatives (fifteen, four hundred - formed with a suf. or consist of 2 bases) and compound - two or more words (four hundred thirty-five) 2 ) collective (two (pair), three, four). They also have no gender or number. 3) fractional numerals - denote, numerals. in fractional units. (three and two tenths). They are composite in structure. May be f.r. (one sixth).

20 Declension of fractional numbers. When declining, all their constituent words change (twenty-two hundredths - twenty-two hundredths). The word “one and a half, one and a half” stands out. An hour and a half, but one and a half melons, excl. one and a half days (from beat to first syllable). Options: with a thousand rubles (countable nouns), with a thousand rubles (displaces other forms), with a thousand rubles (this is a pure number)

21 Declension of numerals by =ten. Well, it’s like fifty, sixty—decline it yourself.

22 Declension of numerals 40, 90, 100. They have only two case forms. Ninety - stands apart. In I.P. ninety O, and in all indirect ones - ninety A, fourty A, st A. St O books—with two hundred A with books, no three hundred _ books, i.e. Either one part of the word or both can be declined.

24 Collective numbers, their grammatical features. With morphol. That is, numerals have neither gender nor number. Usage with noun m.r. (five men), with the words “children, guys, people, faces”, with the name of baby animals (four cubs), with a noun, which only have a plural form. (two sleighs), with paired nouns. (four stockings, but two pairs of stockings are better) Collect. number not used with noun w.r. (one cannot say three dressmakers, four janitors, four teachers), with noun. which means named. animals (two tigers are not allowed), with noun, called persons high. society provisions (minister).

26 Classes of pronouns. There are 3 categories: 1) pronoun-noun. 2) place-e-adjectives 3) place-e-numerals. The first category includes the words “I, you, you, who, what, this, anyone, someone...”. In the sentence they are either an object or a subject. The second category is “mine, yours, yours, this, some.” In the sentence either the nominal part of the predicate., or defined. In the third category: “how many, as many, several, not at all, several.” Ch. function of places. - replacement of semantically independent words in speech.

27 Morphological categories of the verb. Tense, person, number, voice, mood, aspect, gender - gram. verb categories. Many verb forms are not able to express all these 7 forms (complete). We must not forget about the infinitive - in it the verb reflects the aspect and voice.

31 Verb tenses. Synonymy of times. SV - the use of one tense in another: historical. S.: “I came yesterday and saw” (present tense). So everything can change: the present instead of the future, the past instead of the future. (“So I believed you!”), etc.

37 Adverb, its grammatical features. N. is a part of speech that conveys a quality or circumstance of other qualities or actions. There are qualitative N. (from qualitative adjectives) (to speak red), participle N. (looked questioningly), N. as a function. adj-x (so-so person). N. on “o” and “e” began to be actively formed in the end. XIX century, they have not changed (in absentia, ahead of schedule). N. has subjective assessments (it’s been a while, good). There are comparative degrees (freer, brighter) N. and superlative (to ask most humbly, to bow most deeply). There is an emotional expression of the degree (raspberry, early, very stupid, extremely). There are transitional N. (in a good way, often blindly) these are qualitative and circumstantial shades. N. may refer to adj., moreover, to N. himself.

38 State category words. This is the state of something that does not fall under any part of speech. Ex. The expression on his face is scary(cr. adj.). It was scary (Adverb, which refers to an adverb) and interesting to him. He became scared (the description of the state is the words of the category of the state): boring, it is necessary, it is impossible, it must, it is possible, it is a pity - they are used. in function only predicate ( I miss). State category words can include nouns, pronouns, adverbs of time, place, quantity, and maybe an infinitive.

39 Word combinations, their categories. Types of phrases - substantive (noun - core word), verbal (predictive). The main thing is what the core word is. Word combination. divided according to the structure into: 1) simple (new house, give away a book) 2) complex (uncontrollable desire to wander) 3) combined - i.e. those that consist of several core words, phrases, and those are in a state of adjacency, subordination to each other (enthusiastically reading an interesting book).

40 Sentences, their categories. Sentence categories - simple, complex, complex, repaired, complex, complex, non-union, introductory sentences, direct. speech, etc.

41 What is predicativity. This is the correlation of the statement with reality.

42 Essay as a syntactic connection. Opinion as a syntactic connection is a coordinating connection between equal elements. This is a sentence in which no element can be a component of another.

43 Subordination as a syntactic connection. This is the connection between elements of sentences that are mutually subordinate in meaning.

44 Agreement, its grammatical features. Concord is a type of subordinating connection, which is expressed likening dependent word form of the dominant one.

45 Management, its grammatical features. U. is one of the types of subordinating connections. It can be direct or through prepositions. There are options - to be amazed by something (to admire) and to be amazed by something (to be surprised). The phenomenon of “management” is semantic and grammatical in origin, which means the meaning is important. There is a decomposition. forms: review of something (lit.), review of something. (obsolete).

46 Adjunction, its grammatical features. P. is a subordinating connection, in which the words act as a dependent word immutable(adv., adjectives, infinitive, gerund).

49 Complex syntactic whole. This is a type of text in which the statement is built on the material of sequentially constructed complex sentences and complex syntactic structures. SSC is a unity of complex sentences that are built on the principle of consistency.

50 Text, features and properties. A text is a written or oral statement characterized by internal coherence and completeness. Its mandatory features are 1) completeness 2) connectedness.

51 What is discourse? Discourse - “movement back and forth” - a connected text in combination with extralinguistic (extra-linguistic) factors, i.e. which go beyond the context. Dr. words are speech immersed in life (reporting, live conversation). The discourse is divided into 1) frames - k.-l. typical situations, scenes; this is the structure of data that makes up a person’s knowledge about the world 2) scenarios - show how frames develop in a class. situations. The main functions are persuasion and emotional influence. Discourse is not a text; it cannot be applied to antiquity. Rhema - statement, verb, saying.

Grammatical meanings

In any significant word they combine lexical And grammatical meanings. The grammatical meaning acts as an addition to the lexical one and expresses various relationships (the relationship to other words in a phrase or sentence, the relationship to the person performing the action or other persons, the relationship of the reported fact to reality and time, the attitude of the speaker to the communicated, etc. ). Usually a word has several grammatical meanings. So, a country has the meaning of feminine gender, nominative case, singular; verb read contains the grammatical meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine, imperfective.

Grammatical meanings find their morphological or syntactic expression in the language. They are expressed by the form of a word.

The grammatical meaning of a word can also be expressed using other words with which the word is associated in a sentence.

The term “grammatical categories” refers to a set of homogeneous grammatical meanings. The meanings of individual cases are combined into the case category, the meanings of individual tense forms - into the tense category. The grammatical category relates to grammatical meaning as the general to the particular. Window: category of gender from the meaning of neuter gender. Read: category of mood from a verb form expressing the grammatical meaning of the imperative mood.

When identifying grammatical form, we mean linguistic means used to express grammatical meanings. I'll take it: ending -у indicates 1st person, singular, present tense, indicative mood.

Grammatical form represents the relationship between grammatical meaning and grammatical method in their unity.

2. Parts of speech. Principles of their classification. Independent and service ch.r. Modal words

Parts of speech are the main lexical and grammatical categories (classes) into which the words of a language are distributed based on the following characteristics: 1) semantic (generalized meaning of an object, action or state, quality, etc.); 2) morphological (morphological categories of words); 3) syntactic (syntactic functions of the word).

Parts of speech - independent (notional) and auxiliary.

Special groups include modal words, interjections and onomatopoeic words.

Independent(nominative) parts of speech either name objects, qualities or properties, quantity, action or state, or indicate them. They have independent lexical and grammatical meanings and act as main or secondary members in a sentence. Independent parts of speech - 7 categories of words: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb, state category.

Service parts of speech are deprived of a nominative (nominative) function. They manifest themselves in the relationships and connections between words and sentences (prepositions, conjunctions), as well as in the transmission of semantic and emotional shades of meaning expressed by independent parts of speech (particles). Functional parts of speech: prepositions, conjunctions, particles.

Modal words serve to express the speaker’s assessment of his statement as a whole or its individual parts s.t.z. their relationship to objective reality.

Interjections also lack the naming function. They are exponents of certain feelings (Oh! Chu! Fu! Alas!) and expressions of will (Out! Stop! Shh!).

Onomatopoeic words are, in their sound design, a reproduction of exclamations, sounds, screams, etc.: quack-quack, moo-u, ding-ding, etc.

3. Grammatical features of common and proper nouns

Depending on lexical-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are divided into common and proper nouns.

Common nouns nouns serve as names of homogeneous objects, actions or states: person, mother, island, river, book, holiday, joy, grief, sleep, riding.

Semantically they are opposed to nouns own, which are the names of individual objects, isolated from a number of homogeneous ones: personal names, surnames, geographical, administrative-territorial names, names of literary works, astronomical names, names of historical eras and events, popular movements, significant dates, etc.: Ivan, Elena, Petrov, Vladimirov, Europe, Dvina, Ryazan, “War and Peace”, Mars, Earth, Renaissance, Great Patriotic War, Victory Day.

A formal grammatical feature of proper nouns is that they only have a singular form. The appearance of the plural is associated with the use of the word in a different meaning, therefore the plural form in this case is not correlative in meaning with the singular form.

Proper nouns are used in the plural form: 1) when denoting different persons and objects with the same name (two Ivanovs, both Americas); 2) when designating persons who are related (the Karamazov brothers, Messrs. Golovlevs). When denoting the type of people, the properties of their character, proper names can become common nouns: Manilovs, Chichikovs, Khlestakovs.

4. Grammatical features of concrete and abstract nouns

A noun is a part of speech that combines words with a grammatical meaning of objectivity, which is expressed using independent categories of gender, number, case, animateness and inanimateness. In the sentence i.s. acts as subject and object.

Depending on lexical-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are divided into concrete and abstract (abstract).

Specific nouns are used to name certain objects and phenomena of reality, taken separately and therefore subject to counting: book, school, house, girl.

Distracted(abstract) nouns name an action or sign in abstraction from the producer of the action or the bearer of the holiday. Such names do not form correlative forms of numbers and are not combined with cardinal numerals: study, emergence, departure, whiteness, hatred, selfishness, lyricism, elections, vacations. However, some abstract nouns, acquiring a specific meaning, are used in the plural: winter cold, different destinies, seven troubles - one answer, southern latitudes, different temperatures.

5 . Grammatical features of collective nouns

Depending on lexical-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are also divided into collective nouns.

Collective singular nouns denote a collection of identical persons or objects as one indivisible whole. They are not determined by cardinal numerals, but have special word-forming suffixes: -в(а), -ств(о), -еств(о), - ру(а), -аt: foliage, children, students, teachers, professors, proletariat .

6 . Grammatical features of real nouns

Depending on lexical-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are also divided into real ones.

Real nouns denote a homogeneous mass or substance (liquids, metals, chemical elements and compounds, food products, agricultural crops, etc.): water, lead, amidopyrine, oxygen, sugar, cheese, meat, rye, cotton. They have the form of only one number (either singular or plural): milk, nitrogen; cream, yeast. They are not combined with cardinal numbers, but, like words denoting the substance being measured, they can be combined with words of measure: a kilogram of flour, a hectare of wheat, a liter of milk, a lot of water. In this case, real nouns are used in the genitive singular form, in contrast to immaterial nouns, which in such cases have a plural form. A number of masculine nouns have two forms of the genitive case: sugar - sugar, tea - tea, snow - snow.

7 . Grammatical features of singular nouns

Depending on lexical-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are also divided into singular ones.

Single nouns (singulatives) name individual objects isolated from a mass of matter or a collection of homogeneous objects: pea (peas), pearl (pearl), pine (tesina), snowflake (snow), peasant (peasantry), professor (professorship). In some cases, singularities are formed analytically: a head of onion, a head of cabbage.

8. Grammatical features of animate and inanimate nouns

Depending on lexical-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are divided into animate and inanimate.

Animation-inanimation The meaning of nouns is lexically manifested in the fact that animate nouns denote mainly living beings (people and animals), and inanimate nouns denote objects and phenomena of reality that are not classified as living nature. Grammatically, the category of animateness - inanimateness is manifested in the declension of nouns: the accusative case form of animate nouns coincides with the genitive case form, and the accusative case form of inanimate nouns coincides with the nominative case form: student - animate name (v.p. = r.p. student), table (v.p. = r.p. table).

The category of animacy covers mainly masculine and feminine nouns. In masculine nouns, except nouns. on -a, -i, it appears in both numbers (v.p. = r.p. student, students). For feminine and masculine nouns ending in -a, -ya - only in the plural (v.p. = r.p. students, boys, judges).

Animated nouns of the neuter gender include: 1) nouns with the suffixes -ish-(e), -ovishch-(e), -lish-(e): monster, monster, monster; 2) some substantive adjectives and participles: animal, insect, mammal; 3) nouns child, person (meaning person), creature (meaning living organism).

A number of nouns exhibit fluctuations in the expression of the category of animation - inanimateness (in the names of microorganisms, in nouns image, type, character): consider ciliates and ciliates; kill bacteria and germs; create vivid images and special characters.

The lexico-grammatical category of gender is inherent in all nouns (with the exception of words used only in the plural). it is syntactically independent: the gender of the noun determines the gender form of the agreed words (big house). Nouns of different genders differ in declension paradigm (house - at home, home), word formation structure (brother - brothers, teacher - teacher), and some lexical-semantic features (Tbilisi, lady). For inanimate nouns, the gender is purely formal, for animate nouns it is not only formal, but also significant, because associated with distinguishing the names of male and female persons and animals. The genus category is clearly displayed only in singular forms.

Masculine- this is a type of grammatical gender of nouns, characterized by a special paradigm of declension, and for animate nouns - by the belonging of male creatures to it: table, edge, house, young man.

Feminine - This is a type of grammatical gender of nouns, characterized by a special paradigm of declension, and for animate nouns - by the belonging to it of the names of female creatures: country, Moscow, week, cherry, joy, pea, daughter, sister. The feminine gender includes nouns that have i.p. units endings -а, (-я): book, earth.

Meaning general kind can be correlated with both a male and a female person: orphan, slob, smart girl, Sasha, vis-a-vis, protégé, incognito.

Neuter gender is a type of grammatical gender of nouns, characterized by a special paradigm of declension and the meaning of inanimateness (with a few exceptions): village, gun, child, insect, monster.

Category numbers nouns - a lexical and grammatical inflectional category, which finds its expression in the opposition of correlative forms of singular and plural: student - students, teacher - teachers.

The form of a number denoting one object in a series of homogeneous objects is the form the only one numbers: table, notebook, textbook. The number form denoting an indefinite set of homogeneous objects is the plural form: tables, notebooks, textbooks.

The singular and plural differ in means of expression:

1) the presence of different endings: book - books, house - houses.

2) a change in the ending combined with a change in the place of stress: wall - walls, window - windows.

3) truncation, extension or alternation of suffixes at the base: peasant - peasants, leaf - leaves, foal - foals.

4) using suppletive forms: person - people, child - children.

A number of nouns do not have correlative singular and plural forms.

Nouns that have only singular forms include:

1) abstract nouns (courage, courage, sadness, linguistics)

2) collective nouns (foliage, students)

3) a number of material nouns (silver, hydrogen, raspberry, milk)

4) proper names (Moscow, Don, Ural)

Nouns that have only plural forms are:

1) some abstract nouns (vacations, farewell, twilight)

2) a number of material nouns (cream, cabbage soup, perfume, sweets)

3) individual proper names (Cheboksary, Kuriles, Pyrenees)

4) the names of some games (chess, checkers, blind man's buff, hide and seek)

5) concrete nouns denoting objects consisting of several parts or paired objects (scissors, gates, watches, rakes, railings).

Material nouns in the plural form are used to name various varieties and types of substances (high-quality steels, noble wines, territorial waters), products made from a given material; they can indicate a large amount of substance, a vast space (desert sands, endless snow). Proper names are used in the plural form and to designate the type of people (Kabanikhas, Chichikovs), as well as members of the same family (the Artamonov family).

Case- an inflectional lexico-grammatical category of a noun, which, through a system of case forms opposed to each other, expresses the relationship of the object denoted by the noun to other objects, actions and characteristics. Relationships created with the help of cases appear at the level of phrases and sentences. There are 6 cases in modern Russian, but the number of meanings they convey is much greater than the number of case forms.

The meanings expressed by cases are divided into 4 main groups: subjective, objective, attributive and circumstantial.

Nominative- independent case form. It is not used with prepositions. Meanings: 1) Subjective (the boy is reading); 2)Objective (The lecture is recorded by students); 3) Definitive (he was a peasant).

Indirect cases according to their use are divided into verbs And applied: read a book (verb v.p.); reading a book (noun genitive case). V.P. It can only be a verb.

Or several, i.e. is single-valued or multi-valued.

For example, the word "iceberg" means "a large accumulation of ice or a large block of ice that has broken off from a glacier." The word has no other meaning. Therefore, it is unambiguous. But the word “braid” can have several interpretations. For example, “braid” is “a type of hairstyle” (a girl’s braid), and also “a river bank of a special shape” (I went for a swim on the braid) and, in addition, it is also a “tool of labor” (to sharpen a braid well). Thus, the word "braid" has multiple meanings.

The grammatical meaning of a word is a certain set of features that allow the word to change its form. So, for a verb, these are signs of tense, person, number, etc., and - tense, present or past, gender, number, etc.

If the main component of the lexical meaning is, as a rule, contained in its root, then the grammatical meaning of a word is most easily determined by its ending (inflection). For example, at the end of a noun it is easy to determine its gender, case or number. So, in the sentence “The morning turned out to be cool, but sunny,” the noun has the following: nominative case, neuter gender, singular, second. In addition, we can say that the word is a common noun, inanimate.

If you try to determine the lexical meaning of the word “morning”, then you will probably clarify that this is the time of day following the night, i.e. start of the day.

If you learn to correctly determine the lexical and grammatical meaning of words, you will be able to compose syntactic constructions (and sentences) that are beautiful in expressiveness and correct in terms of grammar and usage.

Sources:

lexical meaning is

During morphological analysis participles need to define it view, which refers to the constant features of a given part of speech. This is very important for the translator, since the one who has changed his view when translated, the participle often changes the meaning of the entire text to the opposite.

You will need

- table of forms of participles.

Instructions

Try putting the full participle into a short form. With the passive this is most often possible, it always has both forms, but with the active you are unlikely to be able to perform a similar operation. In any case, in modern literary real participles They do not have a short form. Some dialects have it. Short form of passive participles varies by gender and number. However, some passive participles also in modern times they are usually not put in a short form. For example, “breakable”, “readable”, etc. In such cases, a short form exists, but rather refers to the archaic style.

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note

Some participles turn into adjectives over time. This occurs in cases where a particular action or state is a permanent feature of a given object. These can be both active and passive participles - a walking excavator, canned peas, etc. In this case, there is, of course, no need to determine their type.

Helpful advice

Usually, to determine the type of participle, one attribute is sufficient. But in doubtful cases, apply them all in turn.

The table of forms of participles can be found in many reference books on the Russian language. But for convenience, compose it yourself. It can consist of only three columns and three rows. In the first line write “Signs”, “Active participle”, “Passive participle”. The following lines will contain suffixes that form one form or another, additional questions, the presence or absence of a short form.

Sources:

what is the type of participles in 2019

A person tries to gain information about himself, his character and his expected future from all available sources. One way to get to know yourself is to find out what your name means. After all, both character and fate depend on this set of letters, which accompanies a person throughout his life.

Instructions

The vast majority of names have their own. There are a lot of ancient Greek and native Russian names in Russian culture. Each name has a meaning - the word from which it was formed. This word will be the main defining factor of a person. In addition, by name you can trace your character, find out interests and inclinations, and even guess what the names of people with whom it is best to build friendly and romantic relationships should be. Books with the meanings of names are sold in any bookstore, in addition, numerous websites will be able to provide the information you are interested in.

According to astrologers, each letter of the alphabet is associated with a constellation or planet and determines some feature of a person. A name is a complex of such letters, therefore, in order to find out the meaning of the name and its influence on a person, it is necessary to decipher each letter individually.

Some experts believe that it is necessary to decipher not the entire name, but only its first letter. And having learned the meaning of the first letters of a person’s last name, first name and patronymic, you will receive extremely clear information about him.

It has been proven that the vibrations that occur during speech, depending on the frequency, have different effects on different parts of the cerebral cortex. A name is something that accompanies a person from infancy and, perhaps, the word that he hears most often. Being under constant influence of certain sounds, a person systematically experiences an impact on areas of the cortex, which shapes his behavioral characteristics and worldview.

You can find out not only the meaning of the name, but also the impression your name makes on others. Every sound evokes associations in people’s minds: big - small, evil - good, active - passive, cold - soft. Numerous websites will help you analyze your name or nickname. You just need to enter it into the search bar, indicating , and you will find out what your name means to others.

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Sources:

how to find out the meaning of your name in 2019

Genus noun determines the ending of the dependent word (for example, an adjective or participle), and in some cases, the form of the subject (verb, in the past tense). In words of Slavic origin and borrowed ones one has to be guided by completely different criteria.

You will need

- Internet access;
- manuals on the Russian language.

Instructions

Put the noun in the initial form ( , nominative case). Highlight the ending. A noun belongs to the masculine gender if (wind, computer) or “a”, “ya” (Sasha, uncle). The feminine gender has the endings “a”, “ya” (column, guest) and the sign (night, stove). The neuter gender ends in “o”, “e”, but there is a group of differently inflected neuter nouns with the ending “i”: time, flame.

Grammatical meaning– this is a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular (standard) expression in grammatical forms. In the field of morphology, these are the general meanings of words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns, procedurality in verbs), as well as the particular meanings of word forms and words in general. The grammatical meaning of a word is not determined by its lexical meaning.

Unlike the lexical meaning characteristic of a particular word, the grammatical meaning is not concentrated in one word, but, on the contrary, is characteristic of many words of the language. In addition, the same word can have multiple grammatical meanings, which are found when a word changes its grammatical form while maintaining its lexical meaning. For example, the word stol has a number of forms (stola, stola, tables, etc.) that express the grammatical meanings of number and case.

If lexical meaning is associated with a generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena of objective reality, their name and expression of concepts about them, then grammatical meaning arises as a generalization of the properties of words, as an abstraction from the lexical meanings of words.

For example, the words cow and bull exist to distinguish between animals based on their biological sex. Gender forms group nouns according to their grammatical properties. The shapes table, wall, window group words (and not objects, phenomena and concepts about them).

1) grammatical meanings are not universal, are less numerous, and form a closed, more clearly structured class.

2) grammatical meanings, unlike lexical ones, are expressed in a mandatory, “forced” order. For example, a Russian speaker cannot “evade” the expression of the category of number of a verb, an English speaker cannot “evade” the category of definiteness of a noun, etc.

3) lexical and grammatical meanings differ in terms of the methods and means of their formal expression.

4) grammatical meanings may not have full correspondence in the extralinguistic sphere (for example, the categories of number and tense usually correspond to reality in one way or another, while the feminine gender of a noun stool and masculine noun chair motivated only by their endings).

The grammatical meanings of words are expressed using various grammatical means. The grammatical meaning expressed using the grammatical means of the language is called a grammatical category.

All words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexical and grammatical categories, called parts of speech. Parts of speech– the main lexical and grammatical categories into which words of a language are distributed based on the following characteristics: a) semantic (generalized meaning of an object, action or state, quality, etc.), b) morphological (morphological categories of a word) and c) s and n t a c h e c o g o (syntactic functions of a word)

. The classification of Academician Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov is one of the most substantiated and convincing. It divides all words into four grammatical-semantic (structural-semantic) categories of words:

1. Name words, or parts of speech;

2. Connectives, function words, or particles of speech;

3. Modal words;

4. Interjections.

1. Name words (parts of speech) denote objects, processes, qualities, characteristics, numerical connections and relationships, are members of a sentence and can be used separately from other words as sentence words. To the parts of speech of V.V. Vinogradov classifies nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, words into the category of state; they are also accompanied by pronouns.

2. Function words are deprived of a nominative (nominative) function. These include connective and function words (prepositions, conjunctions, actual particles, connectives).

3. Modal words and particles also do not perform a denomination function, but are more “lexical” than function words. They express the speaker's attitude towards the content of the utterance.

4. Interjections express feelings, moods and volitional impulses, but do not name and. Interjections differ from other types of words by their lack of cognitive value, intonation features, syntactic disorganization and direct connection with facial expressions and expressive tests.

In modern Russian there are 10 parts of speech: 1) noun,

2) adjective, 3) numeral, 4) pronoun, 5) state category, 6) adverb, 7) preposition, 8) conjunction, 9) particles, 10) verb (sometimes participles and gerunds are also distinguished as independent parts of speech )[i]. The first six parts of speech are significant performing a nominative function and acting as members of a sentence. A special place among them is occupied by pronouns, including words that lack a denominative function. Prepositions, conjunctions, particles - official parts of speech that do not have a denomination function and do not act as independent members of a sentence. In addition to the named classes of words, in the modern Russian language special groups of words are distinguished: 1) modal words, expressing the attitude of the statement to reality from the point of view of the speaker ( probably, obviously, of course); 2) interjections, which serve to express feelings and expression of will ( oh, oh, chick); 3) onomatopoeic words ( quack-quack, meow-meow

Independent (nominative) parts of speech include words naming objects, their actions and signs. You can ask questions about independent words, and in a sentence significant words are members of the sentence.

The independent parts of speech in Russian include the following:

Part of speech	Questions	Examples
Noun	Who? What?	Boy, uncle, table, wall, window.
Verb	what to do? what to do?	To saw, to saw, to know, to find out.
Adjective	Which? whose?	Nice, blue, mom's, door.
Numeral	How many? which?	Five, five, five.
Adverb	How? When? Where? and etc.	Fun, yesterday, close.
Pronoun	Who? Which? How many? How? and etc.	I, he, so, my, so much, so, there.
Participle	Which? (what is he doing? what has he done? etc.)	Dreaming, dreaming.
Participle	How? (doing what? doing what?)	Dreaming, deciding.

Notes

1) As already noted, in linguistics there is no single point of view on the position of participles and gerunds in the system of parts of speech. Some researchers classify them as independent parts of speech, others consider them special forms of the verb. Participle and gerund really occupy an intermediate position between independent parts of speech and forms of the verb.

Functional parts of speech- these are words that do not name objects, actions, or signs, but express only the relationships between them.

Functional words cannot be questioned.
Function words are not parts of the sentence.
Function words serve independent words, helping them connect with each other as part of phrases and sentences.
The auxiliary parts of speech in Russian include the following:

pretext (in, on, about, from, because of);
union (and, but, however, because, so that, if);
particle (would, whether, not, even, exactly, only).

6. Interjections occupy a special position among parts of speech.

Interjections do not name objects, actions, or signs (as independent parts of speech), do not express relationships between independent words and do not serve to connect words (as auxiliary parts of speech).
Interjections convey our feelings. To express amazement, delight, fear, etc., we use interjections such as ah, oh, uh; to express the feeling of cold - br-r, to express fear or pain – Ouch etc.

Independent parts of speech have a nominative function (they name objects, their characteristics, actions, states, quantity, signs of other characteristics or indicate them), have a system of forms and are members of the sentence in a sentence.

Functional parts of speech do not have a nominative function, are unchangeable and cannot be members of a sentence. They serve to connect words and sentences and to express the speaker's attitude towards the message.

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Noun

The significant part of speech, which includes words with an objective meaning that have a gender category, change according to cases and numbers and act as any member in a sentence.