Under “enlightened absolutism” some authors
understand policies that, using social
demagoguery and slogans of French enlighteners,
pursued the goal of preserving the old order."
Other historians have tried to show how the "enlightened
absolutism", meeting the interests of the nobility,
at the same time contributed to bourgeois development.
Still others approach the question of “enlightened
absolutism" from an academic point of view, seeing in it
one of the stages of evolution absolute monarchy.

In the 18th century, French
enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot,
Montesquieu, Rousseau)
formulated the main
public concept
development. One of the ways
achieving freedom, equality,
they saw brotherhood in
activities of enlightened
monarchs - “wise men on the throne”,
who, using their
authorities will help the cause
education of society and
establishing justice.
The ideal of Montesquieu, whose work
“On the Spirit of Laws” was a tabletop
the book of Catherine II, was
constitutional monarchy with a clear
division of legislative
executive and judicial
authorities.

Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century.

The most important task foreign policy facing
In Russia in the second half of the 18th century there was a struggle for
exit to southern seas- Cherny and Azovsky. From the third
quarter of the 18th century in foreign policy activities
The Polish question occupied a significant place in Russia.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789,
largely determined the direction of foreign policy
actions of the Russian autocracy at the end of the 18th century, including
fight against revolutionary France.
The head of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs was
directed by Nikita Ivanovich Panin
(1718 – 1783)
one of the largest diplomats
and government officials
tutor of Tsarevich Paul.

Türkiye, incited by England and
France, in the fall of 1768 declared
war in Russia. Hostilities
began in 1769 and were carried out on
territories of Moldavia and Wallachia, and
also on Azov coast, Where
after the capture of Azov and Taganrog
Russia has started construction
fleet.
In 1770 the Russian army was under
Rumyantsev's command won
victories at the Larga and Cahul rivers and
went to the Danube.
At this time the Russian squadron was under
command of Spiridov and Alexey
Orlov for the first time in Russian history
made the transition from the Baltic
seas around Europe to the eastern
part of the Mediterranean with full
absence of bases along the route and in
conditions of hostility
France. Finding yourself behind Turkish lines
fleet, she June 5, 1770 in
Chesme Bay was destroyed
an opponent who is twice
surpassed the Russian squadron in
numbers and weapons.

In 1771 the Dardanelles were blockaded. Turkish
trade in the Mediterranean was disrupted. In 1771
The Russian army under the command of Dolgoruky captured
Crimea. (Peace negotiations broke down) In 1774
A.V. Suvorov defeated the Grand Vizier's army on the Danube
near the village of Kozludzha. Having opened the main forces under
Rumyantsev's command led the way to Istanbul. In 1774
The Kuychuk-Kaynadarzhik Peace Treaty was concluded -
according to which Russia received access to Chernoy
sea, Novorossiya, the right to have a fleet on the Black Sea,
right of passage through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits.
Azov and Kerch, as well as Kuban and Kabarda passed to
Russia. The Crimean Khanate became independent from
Turkey. Türkiye paid an indemnity of 4
million rubles. The development of Novorossiya (southern Ukraine) began,
the city of Ekaterinoslav was founded - 1776,
Dnepropetrovsk and Kherson - 1778
In response to Turkey's attempt to return Crimea, Russian troops
in 1783 they occupied Crimean peninsula. The city was founded
Sevastopol. G.A. Potemkin for success in joining
Crimea received a prefix to his title “prince
Tauride".
In 1783, in the city of Georgievsk (northern Caucasus) a
agreement - Georgian king Erekle II about the protectorate,
Georgia became part of Russia.

Russian-Turkish War 1768 – 1774

Russian-Turkish War (1787 – 1791)

In the summer of 1787, Türkiye demanded the return of Crimea and began
hostilities. The first period of the war ended with the capture of
1787 Ochakov, after which the Russian army launched an attack on
Danube direction, which resulted in two victories,
won at Focsani and Rymnik (1789).

10.

The second stage was marked by the capture on December 11, 1790.
impregnable fortress Ishmael. Suvorov organized
thorough preparation, interaction between the army and navy.
The disaster on the Danube near Izmail added to the collapse
Turkish fleet.

11.

In 1790, at the head of the Black Sea
the fleet was supplied with one of
outstanding Russian naval commanders
– Rear Admiral F.F. Ushakov. He
developed and applied to
deeply thought out practice
combat training system
personnel, as well as
used a number of new
tactical techniques. At
numerical superiority of forces in favor
Turks, the Russian fleet won three
major victories: in Kerch
strait, near Tendera Island
(September 1790) and Cape
Kaliakria (August 1791) in
as a result of which Turkish fleet
was forced to capitulate. IN
December 1791 in Iasi was
peace treaty signed
who confirmed the accession
Crimea, as well as the territories between
Bug and Dniester. Bessarabia
was returned to Turkey.

12. Partitions of Poland.

In October 1763, the Polish died
King Augustus III. Russia accepted
active participation in the election of a new
king to prevent accession
Poland into a coalition with France,
Turkey and Sweden. After a long time
struggle on August 26, 1764
coronation diet, at
support for Russia, Polish
Stanislav was elected king
Poniatowski. Russian activity
caused the displeasure of Prussia and
Austria. This led to the first section
Poland, which began
laid down by the Austrian occupation
parts of Polish territory. In August
1772 in St. Petersburg was signed
agreement between Russia, Austria and
Prussia. They went to Russia
eastern provinces of Poland,
Austria received Galicia and the city
Lvov, Prussia – Pomerania and part
Great Poland.

13.

On May 3, 1791 it was adopted
Polish constitution, which
strengthened Polish
statehood.
In January 1793 there was
The second partition of Poland was carried out.
Russia received part of Belarus and
right-bank Ukraine, to Prussia
Polish lands with cities went away
Gdansk, Torun and Poznan. Austria in
did not participate in the second section.
In 1794, Poland began
uprising led by T.
Kosciuszko who was suppressed 4
November 1794 by Suvorov.
The third section took place in October
1795. Russia received Western
Belarus, Lithuania, Volyn and
Duchy of Courland. To Prussia
moved away central part Poland
together with Warsaw, Austria received
southern part of Poland. Poland like
independent state
ceased to exist.

14. Domestic policy of Catherine II.

Reform of central authorities.
One of Catherine's first reforms was
division of the Senate into six departments with
certain powers and competence.
Senate reform improved governance of the country
from the center, but the Senate lost its legislative
a function that increasingly shifted to
to the empress. Two departments were transferred
to Moscow.
Created by her during Russian-Turkish war V
1768 council under the highest court"For
considerations of all matters related to the jurisdiction
war" later turned into
permanent advisory and
administrative body under the empress. In his
the sphere included issues not only military, but also
domestic policy. The council existed until
1800, however, under Paul his functions
significantly narrowed

15.

Reform of local authorities.
On November 7, 1755, “Institutions for the management of provinces” were established
All-Russian Empire". The main principles of local government reform
began the decentralization of management and increasing the role of the local nobility.
The number of provinces increased from 23 to 50. On average, 300,400 male souls lived in the province. Capital provinces and large regions were headed by
governors (governors general) with unlimited powers,
answerable only to the empress.
The provincial prosecutor was subordinate to the governor, and the Treasury was in charge of finances.
chamber headed by the lieutenant governor. The provincial land surveyor was engaged
land management.
The provinces were divided into districts of 20–30 thousand male souls. Cities and big
villages, which began to be called cities, became county centers.
The main authority of the county became the Lower Zemstvo Court, headed by a police captain elected by the local nobility. Appointed to counties
county treasurer and surveyor.
Judicial reform.
Catherine separated the judicial and executive bodies authorities. All classes
In addition to serfs, they had to take part in local government.
Each class had its own court. The landowner was to be judged by the Upper
zemstvo court in the provinces and district court in the district. State peasants
judged by the Upper Justice in the province and the Lower Justice in the district, the townspeople -
city ​​magistrate (in the district) and provincial magistrate - in the province. All courts
were elected, with the exception of the lower court, which appointed
governor. The Senate became the highest judicial body in the country, and
provinces - chambers of criminal and civil courts, whose members
were appointed by the sovereign. The governor could interfere in court affairs.

16.

In a separate administrative unit was
the city was taken out. At the head of the city was the mayor,
endowed with all rights and powers. City
divided into areas that were under
supervision of a private bailiff, districts into blocks -
led by the quarterly overseer.
After the provincial reform they stopped
all boards function except
foreign, military and admiralty. Functions
collegiums were transferred to provincial bodies. In 1775
The Zaporozhye Sich was liquidated. Even earlier
in 1764 the hetmanate in Ukraine was abolished, its
The governor general took the place.
The existing system of territory management
countries in new conditions solved the problem of strengthening
local power of the nobility. More than twice
the number of local officials increased.

17.

18.

Orders of Catherine II.
In 1767, Catherine convened in Moscow
special commission for
drafting a new set of laws
Russian Empire.
The leading role in it was played by the nobles
deputies 45% took part in it
representatives of the clergy,
state peasants, Cossacks.
The commission was provided
orders from the localities (1600), empress
prepared her “Order”. He consisted
of 22 chapters and was divided into 655 articles.
Supreme power, according to Catherine II
can only be autocratic.
The goal of the autocracy was Catherine
declared the benefit of all subjects.
Catherine believed that the laws
are created to educate citizens.
Only a court can recognize a person
guilty. Work of the commission
lasted more than a year. Under
as a pretext for the outbreak of war with Turkey
it was dissolved in 1768 on
indefinitely, never
developing new legislation.
But Catherine embodied the ideas of the “Nakaz” in
“Institutions on provinces” and in
"Charter of Complaints."

19.

“Charter of Complaint to the Nobility.”
April 21, 1785 - Catherine published
letters of grant to the nobility and cities.
The publication of two charters by Catherine II
regulated legislation on rights and
duties of the estates.
In accordance with the “letter of liberty”
and the advantages of the noble Russian
nobility" it was freed from
compulsory service, personal taxes,
corporal punishment. The names were announced
full ownership of the landowners, who,
in addition, they had the right to start
own factories and factories. Nobles
could sue only with their equals and without
the court of nobility could not be deprived
noble honor, life and estate. Nobles
provinces and districts elected their own
leaders and officials
local government. Provincial and district
noble assemblies had the right to do
representations to the government about their
needs. Letter of grant to the nobility
consolidated and legally formalized
nobility in Russia. To the dominant
the class was given the name
"noble".

20.

“Certificate of rights and benefits to cities of the Russian Empire”
determined the rights and responsibilities of the urban population, the system
management in cities.
All townspeople were recorded in the city philistine book and
constituted a "city society". The townspeople were divided into 6
categories: 1 – nobles and clergy living in the city; 2 –
merchants (divided into 3-4 guilds); 3 – guild artisans; 4 -
foreigners permanently living in the city; 5 – famous
townspeople; 6 – townspeople who lived by crafts or
work.
Residents of the city elected a self-government body every 3 years -
General city duma, city mayor and judges. General
the city duma elected the executive body -
“six-voice” Duma (one representative from each class). IN
she was in charge of matters related to improvement, education,
compliance with trade rules.
The charter awarded all six categories of city
population under state control. The real power in
city ​​was in the hands of the mayor, the deanery council and
governor.

21. Economic policy of Catherine II. The situation of the peasants.

Population of Russia in the middle of the 18th century. There were 18 million people, by the end of the century - 36
million people. The bulk of the population lived in rural areas. 54% peasants
were privately owned, 40% - state-owned, 6% - owned
palace department.
In 1764, after the secularization of church and monastic lands, almost
2 million peasants moved into the “economic” category, and later
"state".
Agriculture remained the leading sector of the Russian economy, which
was of an extensive nature. The result of this was a significant increase
bread production; the black earth zone (Ukraine) turned into the country's breadbasket.
They sown mainly rye, barley, oats, and wheat. Volume has increased
of exported grain in the 50s it amounted to 2 thousand rubles. per year, in the 80s already 2.5 million.
rub. in year.
In the second half of the 18th century, two large regions with
using various forms of exploitation of peasants: on fertile lands
Black Earth Region - corvée, monthly (the peasant often did not have his own allotment), and in
in areas with infertile soil - quitrent (cash or in kind).
A serf was no longer different from a slave. The decree of 1765 allowed landowners
exile your peasants without trial to Siberia for hard labor, counting them as
recruits. Peasant trade flourished. According to the decree of 1763, peasants must
were themselves to pay the costs associated with the suppression of their speeches. In 1767
a decree was issued prohibiting peasants from filing complaints against their landowners.

22.

Industry.
In 1785, a special “Craft Regulations” was published,
which was part of the “Charter of Letters to Cities”. At least 5
artisans of the same specialty had to unite into a workshop
and elect your foreman.
The government's goal was to turn urban artisans into
one of class groups of the then feudal society.
In the second half of the 18th century there was a further growth of manufactories.
In the middle of the century there were about 600 of them, by the end of the century there were more than 3,000.
Manufactories were for the most part private. In the second quarter of the XVIII
century, the number of merchant enterprises increased, mainly in light
industry. With few exceptions, this industry has been
based on wage labor. The supplier of workers was
the ruined peasantry.
The creators of peasant manufactories were the owners of small
workshops - “svetelok”. As a rule, they were dues
serfs. Sometimes they managed to buy their way out, they entered into
merchant guilds and even received noble titles.
In 1762 it was forbidden to buy serfs for factories. IN
in the same year the government stopped assigning peasants to
enterprises. Manufactories founded after 1762 by nobles
worked exclusively as civilian labor.

23.

The second half of the 18th century is a time of further development and
formation of the all-Russian market. The number has increased
fairs (up to 1600). The largest fairs were
Makaryevskaya on the Volga, Korennaya - near Kursk, Irbitskaya - in
Siberia, Nezhinskaya - in Ukraine.
Russia exported metal, hemp, linen fabrics, sailing
linen, wood, leather, bread. They imported sugar, silk, dyeing
substances, coffee, tea. Exports prevailed over imports.
Strengthening the apparatus of power, spending on war, maintaining the court and
other government needs required large amounts of money
resources. Treasury revenues increased in the second half of the 18th century
4 times, however, expenses also increased 5 times. Chronic
Catherine tried to compensate for the budget deficit
traditional measures. One of them was the issue of paper
money. For the first time since 1769, paper money appeared (by the end
In the 18th century, the paper ruble depreciated and = 68 kopecks. silver).
Also, for the first time under Catherine, Russia turned to external
loans, in 1769 in Holland and in 1770 in Italy.

24. Peasant war led by Pugachev. (1773 – 1775)

The Peasant War of 1773-75 in Russia covered the Urals,
Trans-Urals, Middle and N. Volga region. Headed by E.I. Pugachev,
I. N. Beloborodov, I. N. Chika-Zarubin, M. Shigaev,
Khlopushey (A. Sokolov) and others. Yaik Cossacks took part,
serfs, working people of the Ural factories and
peoples of the Volga region, especially the Bashkirs led by Salavat
Yulaev, Kinzey Arslanov. Pugachev declared himself tsar
Peter Fedorovich (see Peter III), announced to the people eternal
freedom, granted land, called for the extermination of landowners. IN
September 1773 rebels captured Iletsky and others
fortified towns. Nobles and clergy are ruthless
were destroyed. In October 1773 Pugachev with a detachment of 2500
man besieged the Orenburg fortress. In February 1774 it was taken
Chelyabinsk. Under pressure from regular troops, Pugachev went to
Ural factories. After the defeat in the battle for Kazan (July
1774) the rebels moved to the right bank of the Volga, where
unfolded peasant movement. Pugachev called for
transfer of land to peasants, abolition of serfdom,
the destruction of nobles and royal officials. Peasants' War
was defeated. Pugachev was captured and executed in Moscow in
1775.

25.

26.

27. Social and political thought in the second half of the 18th century.

In the second half of the 18th century there is
the origin and gradual formation of the main
currents of Russian social and political
thoughts.
Common to all thinkers of this period
was the idea of ​​slow, gradual development.
Supporters of the moderate direction are the first
education and training in order to prepare for
freedom. Supporters of the democratic direction
- they proposed to start with the abolition of serfdom, and
then enlighten.
Catherine believed that the Russian people have a special
historical mission.
Prince Shcherbatov (aristocratic-conservative
direction) suggested returning to the pre-Petrine
Rus'.

28.

Another direction of Russian
social thought of this period
closely related to Freemasonry. In the XVIII
century the ideas of Freemasonry are strong
changed and now it was striving
influence state policies.
Catherine entered into a fight with
Freemasonry and in particular with Nicholas
Ivanovich Novikov. (1744 – 1818
gg.) Publisher, publicist – j-l
"Drone", "Painter". Catherine
also published a magazine - “Every
stuff." Ultimately Novikov
was imprisoned for 15 years
Shlisselburg.
In the second half of the 18th century, within
enlightenment arises
revolutionary ideology. – Radishchev
(1749 - 1802), he criticized
serfdom and spoke out for them
destruction, through revolutionary
coup. He was exiled to Ilimsk in
1790

29. Culture of Russia in the second half of the 18th century.

Reform of the education system. Efforts were aimed at
creation in the country of a system for educating a “new breed of people”,
capable of serving as a support for the throne and implementing
the monarch's plans. The most energetic conductor of this
course became Betskoy, an outstanding teacher and organizer of educational
affairs in Russia. In 1764, Catherine approved what he developed
“General institution on the education of both sexes
youth", which outlined the main pedagogical principles
author. Created closed educational institutions
boarding school type. He called for linking mental and
physical education.
In 1782 - 1786 school reform was carried out in Russia,
which created a system of uniformly organized educational
establishments with common curriculum and general methodology
training. These were the so-called “public schools”, the main ones in provincial cities and small ones in district ones. Small
were a two-year school and provided basic knowledge.
The main ones were 4 – great. By the end of the 18th century in Russia
there were 188 schools, where 22 thousand people studied.

30.

At Moscow University
the teachers' lounge was opened
seminary - the first in Russia
pedagogical educational
institution. In 1783 there was
Russian
academy. This institution
brought together outstanding
writers, scientists and there were
intended as a humanitarian
science Center.
Since 1783 director
St. Petersburg Academy
becomes Princess Catherine
Romanovna Dashkova, she
showed great
administrative talent and
put things in order
academy.

Development of crafts, manufactories, domestic and foreign trade in Russia in the 50s - 80s. XVIII century dictated the active economic policy of the government of Catherine II. It was determined by the interests of the nobility and partly large merchants and industrialists. The proclamation of freedom of trade and industrial activity contributed to the development of peasant trade and manufacturing, which undoubtedly was beneficial to the nobility, because “capitalist peasants” were serfs and paid large quitrents and were bought out for freedom for a lot of money. During the reign of Catherine II, 2/3 of the manufactories registered in the second half of the 90s were created. XVIII century

IN social sphere Catherine II's policy was called "enlightened absolutism". “Enlightened absolutism” is a pan-European phenomenon that has formed a natural stage state development many European countries. This option public policy arose under the influence of ideas French Enlightenment. The main slogan of the Enlightenment was the achievement of the "kingdom of reason." Belief in the limitless powers of the human mind gave rise to ideas about the possibility of building a society on reasonable, fair principles. Many figures of the era pinned their hopes on an enlightened monarch who would be able to put their ideas into practice. The policy of "enlightened absolutism" in Russia was an attempt to prevent popular movements against the serfdom system and adapt the landowner economy to new bourgeois relations.

Under the influence of the ideas of the European Enlightenment, Catherine II decided to develop a new Code of Laws, which, while keeping autocracy and serfdom intact, would give grounds to speak of Russia as a state of law. For this purpose, in 1767, Catherine II convened the Legislative Commission in Moscow. Elections of deputies were class-based. The most heated discussion at the commission meetings was peasant question. The disputes over this problem became so protracted that the empress became disillusioned with the expediency of the commission's work and came to the conclusion of its dissolution. Under the pretext of war with Turkey in 1768, the commission was dissolved without drawing up a new Code.

A clear tilt of the internal political course towards protecting interests noble class(Charter granted to the nobility in 1785; Charter granted to cities in 1785) led to the outbreak of the bloodiest and most brutal peasant war - the war led by Emelyan Pugachev (1773-1775), which demonstrated the presence of deep social contradictions in Russian society. Pugachev uprising dealt a severe blow to the provincial administration. Catherine II took steps to restore and improve local government, publishing in 1775 the “Establishment on the Governorates.” The new provincial administration relied on the nobility, which increased the empress's dependence on him. Thus, the alliance of the most conservative elements of society against all the rest was in Once again strengthened, which slowed down the development of the trading bourgeoisie and exacerbated the contradictions of serfdom.

Since the dissolution of the Statutory Commission, an important feature has emerged in Russian politics: periods of internal reforms began to alternate with periods of active foreign policy. Reforms in Russia were, as a rule, alarming, while the sphere of foreign policy provided a more relaxed and reliable field of activity for energetic supporters of enlightened absolutism.

The most important foreign policy task facing Russia in the second half of the 18th century was the struggle for access to the Azov and Black Seas. There has long been a great danger for southern borders The empire was represented by the Crimean Khanate. From there, with the support of Turkey, Tatar military raids were constantly carried out. At the end of the century, Catherine II held two victorious wars with Turkey - in 1768-1774. and 1787-1791, as a result of which Russia received Crimea and access to the Black Sea. On its coast were created port cities Chersonesus, Odessa, Sevastopol, which became a military base of the Russian black sea fleet. Russia's centuries-old task of strengthening its southern borders and gaining the opportunity for active foreign policy actions in the south has been solved.

Simultaneously with the Russian-Turkish wars, Europe was shocked by the events of the Great french revolution. Revolutionary processes turned out to be closely intertwined with the Polish question. Russia showed a very active position in its decision. As a result of three divisions of Poland (1772, 1793 and 1795) between Austria, Prussia and Russia, the latter took over Belarus, right-bank Ukraine, Lithuania, Courland, and part of Volyn. The unification of Belarusian and Ukrainian lands was a progressive act for the development of these peoples.

Russia's influence also grew in the east. Economic and cultural connections Russia and Kazakhstan, the development of Siberia continued. In the first half of the 18th century. Russian travelers reached Alaska, and in 1784 the construction of permanent Russian settlements began on its territory.

After the death of Catherine II, the throne passed to her son, Paul I (1796-1801). Paul sought to further strengthen autocracy and personal power. Transformations of the emperor in the army, his desire to follow military doctrine Prussian king Frederick II, caused serious hostility in the guard, which led to the last palace coup in the history of Russia: Paul I was killed by conspirators, the Russian throne passed to his eldest son Alexander I (1801-1825).

conclusions

Completing short excursion V XVII era- XVIII centuries, the following changes in the development of the Fatherland can be distinguished:

For of this period For economic policy The state was characterized by a policy of mercantilism and protectionism. The development of elements of capitalism, however, was hampered by the deepening of serf relations and their penetration into the emerging industry, which led to Russia's growing lag behind the advanced countries of Western Europe.

The state's social policy was aimed at eliminating those social institutions that limited the absolutism of the tsarist power, as well as at creating new social strata and their unification.

The state-legal system of Russia has evolved from an estate-representative monarchy to absolutism. This was expressed in the creation of an extensive bureaucratic apparatus, a new service ideology, the concentration in the hands of the monarch of all legislative, executive and judicial powers, and the absence of any bodies or legislative acts limiting his powers.

During the XVII - XVIII centuries. There have been significant changes in the spiritual life of Russia. The Church came under the control of secular authorities and lost part of its wealth as a result of the secularization of church land ownership. Internal church life was complicated by the schism caused by the reforms of the mid-17th century.

This period is associated with the formation of a new class secular culture and education, the penetration of Enlightenment ideas into Russia, the formation of various trends in socio-political life.

In the XVII - XVIII centuries. We are witnessing a significant increase in Russian territory as a result of an active foreign policy. The tasks of breaking out of economic isolation and strengthening state borders were solved, which led to a change geopolitical situation Russia and the formalization of its imperial status.

However, despite the efforts state power, Russia remained an agrarian country, entangled in serfdom (feudal) relations, with absolute power monarch. This led to the fact that public life elements of unfreedom were strengthened, and the shoots civil society were harshly suppressed. Despite the significant success of modernization processes, Russia at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. remained a traditional society.

Tables. "Distinctive features of traditional and industrial societies"

Traditional society Industrial society - predominance of subsistence farming; -the presence of a class hierarchy; -structure stability; -sociocultural regulation of processes is based on tradition; - the dominance of religion. - the spread of large-scale machine production; -urbanization; -statement market economy; -emergence social groups entrepreneurs and employees; -the formation of democracy, civil society and the rule of law.

"Phases of modernization"

Phases of modernizationContent of the modernization processChronological frameworkEuropeRussiaPre-industrial or proto-industrialTransition from natural productive forces to social ones; from individual agricultural and handicraft production to manufacture; from personal dependence to market relations. XVI-XVII centuries. II half of the XVII - early XIX centuries. Industrial revolution or early industrial transition from manufacture to machine or factory production; from hand tools to mechanical ones; stratification of society into the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. XVII-XIX centuries. 40s. XIX - early XX centuries *In the USSR - expansion of factory production; - increase in mechanical tools; -elimination of social stratification. 20s - 40s. XX century.Industrial - Transformation of the labor process based on scientific and technological revolution and scientific engineering organization; - the emergence and development of flow-conveyor production; - *softening of class contradictions. 1900-1929. - USA; 1930-1950 - Western Europe 1950-1960 - Japan 50s - end of the 20th century * In the USSR - absence of class contradictions

Diagram "Dynastic tree of the House of Romanov"

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1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….4

2. Social and economic development of Russia in the second half

XVIII C.………………………………………………………………………………..6

3.Catherine II and “enlightened absolutism”……………………………………………………7

4. Peasant war led by E.I. Pugachev………………11

5. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………...15

6. List of references…………………………………………….16

Introduction

As a result of the palace coup on June 28, 1762, Catherine II, one of the brightest figures in Russian history, ascended the throne.

The empress’s political program was based on the ideas of European philosophers and educators, which is why Catherine’s era was called “enlightened absolutism.”

The empress's ideal was a strong state with a controlled, structured society, subject to reasonable laws. In this vein were its first administrative and economic transformations - the reform of central government agencies, unification of the management system, secularization of the land holdings of the church, nationwide general land surveying, proclamation of freedom of economic activity in Russia.

One of the central events during the reign of Catherine II was the convening in 1767 of a Commission of elected deputies to draft a new set of laws - the Code. For the deputies of the Commission, Catherine wrote her own Mandate, the most important act of the reign, which determined the main guidelines for the policy of “enlightened absolutism.” Discussions at the Commission meetings highlighted the main contradictions of serf Russia, and the draft laws prepared by the deputies were used in the further legislative work of the Empress.

In the 1770s - 1780s. Catherine II implements her two main reforms - administrative-territorial and class. As a result, a new system of local government was created, the judiciary was reformed, and bodies of class self-government of nobles and townspeople were created. The charters granted to the nobility and cities in 1785 completed the process of legislative registration of the class rights of nobles and various strata of the urban population.

Catherine II considered the most important task of her reign to be the development of education, which, in her opinion, could educate “a new breed of people.” For this purpose, in the 1760s. closed estates were created educational establishments – Smolny Institute, educational homes for orphans in Moscow and St. Petersburg, a school at the Academy of Arts, gentry buildings were reformed. In the 1780s. public schools were established in district and provincial cities, working according to unified program Thus, for the first time in Russia, a system of primary and secondary education was created.

The era of Catherine II became the heyday of Russian culture. The Empress herself gave a powerful impetus to the rise of intellectual life in Russia, raising the task of shaping the cultural environment to the rank of state policy. In the last third of the 18th century. The process of formation of Russian national identity is accelerating, accompanied by growing interest in the historical past of Russia, reflections on its place in world history, interest in folk culture, music, and folklore.

The successes of the Enlightenment existed in Russia simultaneously with serfdom, which had already begun to be recognized by advanced social thought as a brake on the country's development. In 1773-1775 the country was shocked by the performance of the grassroots under the leadership of E.I. Pugachev, which still amazes the imagination with its scale.

1. Social and economic development of Russia in the second halfXVIIIIN.

In the second half of the 18th century. Russia remained one of the largest states in the world. Despite the great merits of Peter I in the field of industrial development, the country maintained the agrarian nature of the economy. Agriculture developed extensively, the increase in production was due to the plowing of new lands in the Black Sea region, the Middle and Lower Volga region, the Urals, and Siberia. The peasantry made up 90% of the Russian population. Traditional forms of its exploitation were preserved. Despite the dominance of the feudal-serf system, new features appeared in the socio-economic development of the country. In the second half of the 18th century. Bread became a commodity and landowners and peasant farms began to work for the market. From the end of the 18th century. Grain exports expanded. The growth of lordly farming led to a decrease and sometimes to the disappearance of the peasant allotment. As a result, the system of otkhodnichestvo developed. The separation of peasants from their allotment and the need to earn money to pay rent contributed to the formation of a labor market. In order to increase the profitability of their farms, landowners used new agricultural technology, ordered fertilizers from abroad, etc. All these new phenomena indicated the first signs of the decomposition of the corvee economy.

In the 50s and 60s of the 18th century, private entrepreneurship actively developed. The presence of large reserves of their own raw materials (flax, hemp, leather, wool, grain) and free labor, as well as the opportunity to profitably sell their products, pushed landowners to set up patrimonial manufactories. But by the end of the 18th century. The number of noble manufactories based on forced labor, decreased sharply. The number of peasant and merchant manufactories increased. The development of entrepreneurship was facilitated by the prohibition in 1762 of the purchase of peasants for factories and the permission in 1775 of peasant industry.

By the end of the 18th century. In Russia there were about 100 large industrial enterprises in the most dynamically developing industry - the cotton industry, which was almost entirely based on civilian labor. The process of forming the all-Russian market continued. This was facilitated by the proclamation of free trade in 1762. Fair trade predominated.

Thus, in the Russian economy the second half of the XVIII V. The capitalist structure began to take shape, but it could not firmly establish itself on Russian soil. The main obstacle to this was the absolutist system, which preserved serfdom and strengthened the position of the nobility.

2. EkaterinaIIand "enlightened absolutism".

In 1762, as a result of a coup d'etat, Catherine II ascended to the Russian throne. Her reign marked the beginning of the era of “enlightened absolutism.” There is no single point of view on the issue of the policy of “enlightened absolutism”. Some historians believe that flirting with philosophers was a kind of coquetry on the part of the monarchs, and not real politics. Others see this as a certain stage in the development of the absolute monarchy, which tried to reform in order to prevent the impending bourgeois revolutions. Historians define the chronological framework of enlightened absolutism differently. The most generally accepted point of view is I.A. Fedosov, who considers the beginning of enlightened absolutism in Russia to be 1762, and its completion to be 1815.

Enlightened absolutism is a pan-European phenomenon. This policy had wide use in Prussia, Sweden, Austria, France. XVIII century went down in history as the age of enlightenment. The philosophy of the Enlightenment was developed by such thinkers as A. Voltaire, D. Diderot, J.-J. Rousseau, C. Montesquieu, I. Kant, etc.

It was based on the ideas of rationalism and reflected the belief that the human mind is capable of comprehending not only the laws of development of nature, but also of society. The idea of ​​progress, steady movement along the path leading to an order based on law and reason, permeated the works of all enlightenment philosophers.

The triumph of rationalism was associated with the “secularization” of spiritual life. Enlightenment scholars mercilessly criticized the church, which kept parishioners in fear and ignorance. Philosophers did not deny God, but were only against the idea of ​​​​divine predestination. Their main idea was that man is the creator of his own destiny. Recognition of the personal independence and freedom of the individual by his natural rights is the main thesis of the Enlightenment. This is how the theory of “natural rights” appeared, the essence of which is that a person is born to be free, to have his own and to be protected by the state and its fair laws. This resulted in criticism of the old feudal order, which violated natural human rights and freedoms, as well as justification for the need for democratic changes in society.

On the issue of power, Enlightenment scholars shared John Locke's theory of the social contract. A government that violates the personal rights and freedoms of citizens and the terms of the social contract cannot remain in power. Any state exists to provide for the common good. The highest value of every society is the person. French Enlightenment philosophers believed that Russia was a barbaric, despotic country. The absolute monarchy made its inhabitants slaves. Catherine considered autocracy the only possible form of government for the vast territory of the country. All others were not only ruinous for her, but also destructive. In addition, the empress was confident that if citizens were law-abiding, then general prosperity would come. Therefore, work to improve the legislation of the Russian Empire occupied an important place in its domestic policy. The old Council Code, in force since 1649, did not at all correspond to those historical conditions, in which Catherine II ruled the country. The Empress herself worked for about two years on the “Order” - special instructions for the future commission on drawing up new legislation. The main text of the “Nakaz” was the first to be particularly humane in nature. It proclaimed the peasants' ownership of movable property and proposed the establishment of a peasant elective court. The Empress condemned the cruel treatment of serfs, the use of torture and the death penalty in the state. Catherine's closest aides persistently recommended that she return to real life and abandon her dreams, so by the beginning of 1767 she prepared a second, more moderate version of the “Nakaz”, which was translated into German, Latin and French. The “Mandate” was a document in which the ideas of “enlightened absolutism” were substantiated and outlined in detail. The main points in it were the substantiation of the inviolability of the absolute monarchy and the assertion that the sovereign in Russia is the source of all state and civil authority. All subjects are obliged to unquestioningly carry out the sovereign's will.

Approving the ideas of unlimited absolutism, Catherine called for moderation in laws and government policies. Any punishment not justified by necessity is a manifestation of tyranny. The death penalty is not at all desirable and can be applied in exceptional cases only to incorrigible and dangerous criminals. The most serious crime is a crime against the monarch.

The empress called the nobility the support of the state, which stipulated that belonging to the nobility gives not only certain rights and property, but also imposes obligations to the monarch and the state.

Violation of a nobleman's honor leads to exclusion from the ranks of the nobles and deprivation of the nobility. The content of the “Nakaz” spoke of Catherine II’s desire to largely follow the policy of “enlightened absolutism.” He must show the whole of Europe the enlightenment, humanity and education of the empress.

The laid down commission, convened to draw up new legislation, began its work on July 30, 1767 in the Moscow Kremlin. It was attended by 564 deputies from all segments of the Russian population, except serfs. The discussion of the peasant question caused the greatest urgency. The disputes over the peasant issue became so acute and protracted that Catherine II began to be inclined to dissolve the commission. At the end of 1768, the war with Turkey began, a significant part of the deputies were recalled to the active army, and the empress, taking advantage of this, dissolved the commission for an indefinite period. Her work was not completely useless. The materials prepared by the commission and the ideas expressed during the discussion were subsequently used by Catherine II in legislative and administrative work.

An integral part of the policy of “enlightened absolutism” was the policy of secularization of church property. In 1764, a decree was issued according to which monastic and church estates with the peasants who inhabited them were transferred to the college of economics. The meaning of this decree was that, firstly, the clergy was deprived of its economic base, secondly, monasteries and dioceses became completely dependent on the state, and finally, the situation of the peasants, freed from dependence, improved significantly. They became state peasants. State institutions created by Peter I significantly narrowed their powers. In 1763, the Senate was divided into 6 departments. The colleges came out of the control of the Senate and were later abolished. The Senate lost legislative initiative and increasingly turned into a judicial institution.

Historical-materialist theory evaluates “enlightened absolutism” as liberal demagoguery of the government, maneuvering in the face of the crisis of the feudal-serf system in order to expand the privileges of the nobility and avoid popular unrest. The historical-liberal approach is characterized by an assessment of the named period as a time of gradual reform of society without sudden shocks, while monarchical law dominated. It was a regulatory mechanism for exercising control over society; its function was to enforce obedience, and not to protect individual and civil rights. From the point of view of the modernization approach, the reforms of the era of “enlightened absolutism” formed new aspirations of legislative policy, a special state-legal structure, which remained unchanged until the beginning of the 19th century, and in certain features of state-political principles - even later.

Serfdom already reached its apogee at the beginning of Catherine’s reign. In the 60s, a series of decrees were issued that deprived peasants of any minimal rights: they were prohibited from owning real estate, taking contracts and farming out, acting as guarantors, trading without special permission, and leaving their place of residence without written permission. In 1765, landowners received the right to exile peasants to hard labor, and peasants were forbidden to complain about landowners: their complaints were considered a false denunciation, and the one who filed it was subject to severe punishment.

3. Peasant war led by E.I. Pugachev

The strengthening of serfdom, the powerless situation of all segments of the population of the Russian Empire, except for the nobility, became the cause of a powerful peasant war led by E.I. Pugachev (1773-1775). It was attended by Cossacks, serfs, workers of Ural factories and factories, the national composition of which was Russians, Bashkirs, Tatars, Maris, Kalmyks, etc. The traditions of naive monarchism have always been strong among the Russian people, which is why ordinary people so readily responded to the appearance of the “resurrected” Peter III, under whose name Emelyan Pugachev acted. The center of the rebels became the Yaitsky town. There, Pugachev’s Manifesto was proclaimed, in which he promised to “bless the people with lands, waters, forests, fish catches, dwellings, meadows, seas, bread, faith, your law, salaries, lead and gunpowder, etc.” The promises of E.I. Pugachev fell on fertile soil. The number of his supporters grew all the time. In October 1773, when he approached Orenburg, he had only 3 thousand people at his disposal, and a few weeks later the number of Pugachev’s troops increased to 15 thousand people.

E.I. Pugachev firmly adhered to his royal title, he organized something like a royal court, ordered the production of a seal with the inscription “Great State Seal of Peter III, Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia,” established a brass order, which he awarded to particularly distinguished associates. A feature of this peasant war was its great organization and the widespread participation of working people of the Urals in it. But still, like other peasant wars, it did not have clear political goals or a constructive program; it turned into a bloody, merciless destruction of the ruling classes, their servants, plunder and division of their property. In the Manifesto of July 31, 1774, Pugachev granted freedom to all serfs, promised to free the peasants from the oppression of villainous nobles and bribe-taking judges, from conscription, poll tax and other taxes. But here he declared the peasants “liberated” by him to be his faithful slaves and gave them, along with their lands, to his associates as property. Thus, they again became serfs, but under new masters. This war, according to a number of historians, was not anti-feudal in nature; E.I. Pugachev did not have a clear idea of ​​the ultimate goals of his movement.

The Peasant War led by E.I. Pugachev caused a number of government reforms. Already in November 1775, the “Institution for the Administration of the Province” was published. According to it, the country was divided into 50 provinces, which, in turn, were divided into 10-12 districts (provinces were abolished). The provinces and districts had identical institutions and approximately equal staffs of officials. At the head of the province was a governor appointed by the emperor; he also headed the main institution of the province - the provincial assembly. He had executive power, control over the activities of all institutions and officials, and ensuring law and order. All military units on the territory of the province were also subject to the governor. In the counties, executive power was transferred to the county noble assembly. New judicial institutions were created, which were class-based: for the nobles, the upper (in the provinces) and lower (in the districts) zemstvo court, for the state peasants - the upper and lower justice (serfs were judged at their own discretion by the landowner himself).

Power, therefore, is administrative-police, financial-economic and judicial. But this was only the first step towards the separation of powers, since all power still remained in the hands of the empress.

In 1775, Cossack self-government on the Don was liquidated and the Zaporozhye Sich was abolished. Soon the Zaporozhye Cossacks were resettled to Kuban. The Yaik Cossacks were renamed Ural Cossacks and police surveillance was established over them. On the Don, the government introduced a special civil administration, subordinate to St. Petersburg. The suppression of the peasant war, the fear of the possibility of its repetition, forced Catherine II to further strengthen the position in society of the noble class - the only support of autocratic power. On April 21, 1785, the “Certificate on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble Russian nobility” was published. This was a set of noble privileges, which received the unofficial name of the Charter of the Nobility. The nobles could not serve, did not pay taxes to the treasury, the land, together with the peasants sitting on it, became their private property, a nobleman could not be subjected to corporal punishment, he could not be deprived of noble dignity, honor, life and property. Thus, the Russian nobility turned into a special corporation. It received the right to make representations through the governor about its various wishes. From now on and forever, the nobility became the first estate of the Russian Empire.

At this time, the Letter of Commendation to the cities was issued. According to it, the entire population of cities was divided into 6 categories. The first included householders, nobles and clergy. They were all called “real city dwellers.” The second category included the merchants of the three guilds; the third category consisted of artisans registered in guilds, the fourth - foreign and out-of-town merchants, etc. The population of cities had the right to elect the mayor and members of the city duma once every three years at their meeting. Citizens who had reached the age of 25 and owned capital on which they paid a tax of at least 50 rubles could participate in the elections.

Conclusion

Under Catherine II, Russia joined the union of European states. All rulers, without exception, sought the location of Russia; the country sailed all the desired seas, blossomed in art, and became covered with a network of schools.

Catherine's time became not only the golden age of Russian statehood, but also the flowering of the arts and sciences in Russia. Catherine never raised her voice to her servants, unlike other emperors. She forbade her nobility from beating slaves.

Wanting to succeed everywhere, she did not forget anything. Having ascended the Russian throne, she wished well and tried to bring happiness and freedom to her subjects.

She forgave easily and bore no ill will towards anyone. She loved art and adored being in public. “All the years of Catherine’s reign were golden,” as many historians say. Ekaterina stayed in people's memory a shining star of the era, rightly called Catherine’s. Neither before nor after Catherine was there a stronger, smarter or more brilliant ruler in Russia in the 18th century.

Bibliography:

1. Borzikhina I.V., Zapetskaya N.D., Konopleva L.A. Domestic history / Ed. A.V. Trofimova. 3rd ed., revised. and additional Ekaterinburg: Ural Publishing House. state econ. Univ., 2002. – 492 p.

2. Zhuravlev V.V. Political history of Russia: Textbook/Ed. ed. prof. V.V. Zhuravlev. – M.: Lawyer, 1998. – 696s

3. Lichman B.V. History of Russia from ancient times to the second half of the 19th century. Course of lectures/Under. ed. prof. B.V.Lichman. Ekaterinburg: Ural. state un - t. 1995. - 304 p.

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The policy of Catherine II (1762–1796) was called “enlightened absolutism.” European politicians of that period, Catherine II was viewed as an enlightened head of state and nation, caring for his subjects on the basis of the laws he established.

In the concept of Catherine II, autocracy was not questioned. It was this that was supposed to become the main instrument of gradual reform in all spheres of life Russian society. And the entire system of state institutions, according to Catherine II, is only a mechanism for implementing the supreme will of an enlightened autocrat.

One of the first undertakings of Catherine II was the reform of the Senate.

On December 15, 1763, a decree appeared, in accordance with which its powers and structure were changed. The Senate was deprived of legislative powers, retaining only the functions of control and the highest judicial body.

Structurally, the Senate was divided into 6 departments with strictly defined competence, which made it possible to increase the efficiency of this central authority state power.

The main historical document, which sets out political doctrine Catherine II, became the “Order of the Commission on the drafting of a new Code,” written by the empress herself in 1764–1766. and representing the talented processing of the works of Sh.L. Montesquieu and other philosophers and jurists. It contains a lot of discussion about the nature of the laws that must comply historical features people. And the Russian people, according to Catherine II, belonged to the European community.

The Order stated that the enormous extent of Russia’s territories requires only an autocratic form of government; anyone else could lead the country to destruction. It was noted that the goal of autocracy is the benefit of all subjects. The monarch rules in accordance with the laws established by him. All citizens are equal before the law.

The order was intended for a commission convened from all over the country to develop a draft of a new Code, which began to meet in Moscow in July 1767. The commission consisted of 572 deputies elected on the class-territorial principle from nobles, townspeople, Cossacks, state peasants, non-Russian peoples of the Volga region and Siberia.

But it soon became clear that the deputies of the Legislative Commission were poorly prepared for legislative work. The main reason for the failure of the commission’s activities was the contradictions between representatives of different social, regional and national groups, which were not overcome during the work. In December 1768, the Empress issued a decree on the dissolution of the Statutory Commission under the pretext of the outbreak of another war with Turkey. As a result, Catherine II independently took up law-making and continued governing the state with the help of personal decrees and manifestos, replacing in this sense the entire Statutory Commission.

Another important transformative element of Catherine II's policy was the secularization reform. In February 1764, the empress issued a decree according to which the monastery lands, together with the population, were confiscated from the church and subordinated to the College of Economy. Now the peasants, by their legal status, became state-owned and paid taxes no longer to the church, but to the state. They got rid of the monastic corvee. The land holdings of peasants increased, and it became easier for them to engage in crafts and trade. As a result of this reform, spiritual power was finally transferred to the maintenance of secular power, and the clergy turned into civil servants.

Catherine II eliminated the remaining elements of liberties and privileges national territories, which became part of Russia. Were unified and brought into line with Russian laws governing bodies and administrative-territorial division of Novgorod land, Smolensk, Livonia (Russian Baltic possessions). In 1764, the hetmanate in Ukraine was abolished and P.A. was appointed as governor general. Rumyantsev. The remnants of autonomy and the former Cossack freemen were eliminated. In 1783, Catherine II issued a decree banning the transfer of Ukrainian peasants from one landowner to another, which finally consolidated serfdom here.

In 1791, the Empress established the Pale of Settlement for the Jewish population, which limited the rights of Jews to settle in certain territories.

What was new in the national policy of the state was the invitation to Russia of German colonists, mostly ordinary peasants. In the mid-1760s. more than 30 thousand migrants began to develop the territories Lower Volga region, the Urals, and subsequently the Crimea and the North Caucasus.

IN general structure Catherine's reforms occupied an extremely important place with the reform of the local government system.

As a result of the provincial reform (1775), local government acquired a clearer and more organized structure. The number of provinces increased to 50. The province was a territory with a population of 300–400 thousand people, which was divided into districts, each with a population of 20–30 thousand people. In county towns, power belonged to the appointed mayor. Administrative and judicial functions were separated. Special provincial chambers of criminal and civil courts were created. Some positions became elective.

Provincial reform strengthened local authorities, the center of management activity was moved here, which made it possible to gradually abolish some boards.

In 1782, a police reform was carried out, according to which police and church-moral control were established over the population.

The management reform was completed by the adoption of two most important documents - Charters granted to the nobility and cities (1785), which became fundamental legal acts in the sphere of the empress's class policy.

The charter granted to the nobility legislated for it all the rights and privileges as the main class of society. The service file confirmed the right to choose or refuse service; special rights were retained in matters of land ownership, court, taxation, and corporal punishment. The criteria for inclusion in the nobility were strictly defined, and the compilation of genealogical books placed all nobles in their places. The corporatism of the nobles was strengthened through the legal registration of noble assemblies and the election of provincial and district leaders. Only one issue concerning the rights and ownership of serfs was not covered in the Charter. The Empress seemed to leave this problem open.

The charter granted to the cities was aimed at forming a “third estate” in Russia. A new body of city self-government was created - the city duma, headed by the city mayor. City residents were elected and could be elected to it, divided into six categories depending on property and social differences. Thus, in Russian cities an elective representative institution of government appeared. The charter provided city dwellers (burghers) with a structure of rights and privileges close to that of the nobility. The burghers were defined as a special class, and this title, like the nobility, was hereditary. The right of ownership of property and its inheritance, and the right to engage in industrial and commercial activities were guaranteed. The merchants of the first and second guilds as the most significant part townspeople were exempted from corporal punishment, as well as from poll tax and conscription. In return, they paid a tax of 1% on capital and contributed 360 rubles per recruit.

In 1786, an educational reform was carried out: a system of educational institutions was created.

Catherine II spoke out against the extremes of serfdom, condemning them in her works. But objectively, during her reign, there was an increase in serfdom in the country (the final spread of serfdom in Ukraine, the tightening in 1765 of Elizabeth’s decree on the right of landowners to exile serfs without trial to Siberia for settlement and hard labor, the ban on peasants filing complaints against the nobles), which was one of the main reasons for the intensification of popular uprisings, which resulted in the largest in the 18th century. Cossack-peasant war.

9.2. Cossack-peasant war led by E.I. Pugacheva (1773–1775)

During the reign of Catherine II, the situation in the country worsened social contradictions, caused by the strengthening of serfdom against various categories of peasants and the expansion of the privileges of the nobility. Quite often, popular protests broke out under anti-serfdom slogans, and the flight of desperate peasants from the landowners became widespread.

The southern regions of the state became the center of social discontent. The movement began among the Cossacks. It was headed by Emelyan Ivanovich Pugachev. Serfs, working people, as well as foreigners of the Volga region (Bashkirs, Tatars, Mari, Udmurts, etc.) came under his banner.

In the territories under the control of the Pugachevites, authorities were created similar to the Cossack circle (community) with elected atamans, elders and other officials.

The war had three main stages:

Stage I (September 1773 - March 1774): unsuccessful 6-month siege of Orenburg by E. Pugachev and defeat by government troops at the Tatishchev Fortress.

Stage II (April-July 1774): movement of Pugachev’s troops from Orenburg through the Urals and the Kama region to Kazan; battle for Kazan (July 12–17, 1774). The capture of the city by the rebels, and then defeat by the troops of Colonel I.M. Mikhelson.

Stage III (July 1774 - January 1775): On July 31, 1774, E. Pugachev issued a decree on the liberation of peasants from serfdom and taxes; movement of E. Pugachev from Kazan to the south; unsuccessful siege of Tsaritsyn by E. Pugachev; August 25, 1774 - decisive defeat rebels at the Salnikov plant; E. Pugachev’s army ceased to exist; September 18, 1774 - the capture of E. Pugachev by the Cossack elite and his extradition to the tsarist authorities; January 10, 1775 E.I. Pugachev and his closest associates were executed in Moscow.

Peasant war in Russia in the second half of the 18th century. was the largest uprising of the masses against serfdom and was, in essence, a type of civil war. All this testified to the crisis of the feudal-serf system in the country.

9.3 Foreign policy of Catherine II

In the second half of the 18th century. Russia's foreign policy was focused on solving problems in two main directions: southern and western.

In the southern direction there was an intense struggle between Russia and the Ottoman Empire for the Northern Black Sea region and ensuring the security of the southern borders. This led to two Russian-Turkish wars.

Russo-Turkish War 1768–1774 The cause of the war was Russian interference in the affairs of Poland, which displeased Turkey. On September 25, 1768, Türkiye declared war on Russia.

The fighting began in the winter of 1769, when the Crimean Khan, an ally of Turkey, invaded Ukraine, but his attack was repelled by Russian troops under the command of P.A. Rumyantseva.

Military operations were carried out on the territory of Moldova, Wallachia and at sea. The decisive year in the war was 1770, in which they won brilliant victories Russian army.

The fleet under the command of Admiral G.A. Spiridov and Count A.G. Orlova circumnavigated Europe, entered the Mediterranean Sea and in Chesme Bay off the coast of Asia Minor on June 24–26, 1770, completely destroyed the Turkish squadron.

On land, the Russian army led by P.A. won a number of victories. Rumyantsev. In the summer of 1770, he won victories on the tributaries of the Prut - the Larga and Cahul rivers, which made it possible for Russia to reach the Danube.

In 1771, Russian troops under the command of Prince V.M. Dolgorukov took Crimea. In 1772–1773 A truce was concluded between the warring parties and peace negotiations began. However, they did not end in anything. The war resumed. The Russians crossed the Danube; in this campaign, A.V.’s corps won brilliant victories in the summer of 1774. Suvorov. Türkiye started talking about making peace. On July 10, 1774, at the headquarters of the Russian command, in the town of Kyuchuk-Kainarzhi, a peace treaty was signed, according to which Russia received the Black Sea lands between the Dnieper and the Bug; the right to build a Russian navy on the Black Sea; indemnity from Turkey in the amount of 4.5 million rubles; recognition of the independence of the Crimean Khanate from the Ottoman Empire.

Russo-Turkish War 1787–1791 The confrontation between Russia and the Ottoman Empire continued. Turkish Sultan Selim III began to demand the return of Crimea, recognition of Georgia as his vassal, and inspection of Russian merchant ships passing through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. On August 13, 1787, having received a refusal, he declared war on Russia, which was in alliance with Austria.

Military operations began with repelling an attack by Turkish troops on the Kinburn fortress (near Ochakov). The general leadership of the Russian army was carried out by the head of the Military Collegium, Prince G.A. Potemkin. In December 1788, Russian troops, after a long siege, took the Turkish fortress of Ochakov. In 1789 A.V. Suvorov, with smaller forces, achieved victory twice in the battles of Focsani and on the Rymnik River. For this victory he received count's title and began to be called Count Suvorov-Rymniksky. In December 1790, troops under his command managed to capture the Izmail fortress, the citadel of Ottoman rule on the Danube, which was the main victory in the war.

In 1791, the Turks lost the Anapa fortress in the Caucasus, and then lost sea ​​battle at Cape Kaliakria (near the Bulgarian city of Varna) in the Black Sea to the Russian fleet under the command of Admiral F.F. Ushakova. All this forced Turkey to conclude a peace treaty, which was signed in Iasi in December 1791. This treaty confirmed the annexation of Crimea and the protectorate over Eastern Georgia to Russia; Russia receiving lands between the Dniester and the southern Bug; withdrawal of Russian troops from Moldova, Wallachia and Bessarabia.

The implementation of the policy in the western direction was to strengthen Russia's position in Europe and was associated with participation in the partitions of Poland, as well as with opposition to France, in which in 1789–1794. a bourgeois revolution took place and whose revolutionary influence was feared by the European monarchical states, and above all the Russian Empire.

The initiator of the division of weakened Poland was Prussia. Its king, Frederick II, proposed to Catherine II to divide the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth between its neighbors, especially since Austria had already begun the division, since its troops were located directly on the territory of this state. As a result, the St. Petersburg Convention of July 25, 1772 was concluded, which authorized the first partition of Poland. Russia received the eastern part of Belarus and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia. In 1793, the second partition of Poland took place. Russia took control of central Belarus with the cities of Minsk, Slutsk, Pinsk and Right Bank Ukraine, including Zhitomir and Kamenets-Podolsky. This caused an uprising of Polish patriots led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko in 1794. It was brutally suppressed by Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov. The third happened and last section The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795. The lands of Courland, Lithuania, and Western Belarus went to Russia. As a result, Russia captured more than half of all Polish lands. Poland lost its statehood for more than a hundred years.

As a result of the partitions of Poland, Russia acquired huge territories, moved state border far west to the center of the continent, which significantly increased its influence in Europe. The reunification of the Belarusian and Ukrainian peoples with Russia freed them from the religious oppression of Catholicism and created opportunities for the further development of peoples within the framework of the East Slavic sociocultural community.

And finally, at the end of the 18th century. main task Russia's foreign policy became the struggle against revolutionary France. After the execution of King Louis XVI, Catherine II broke off diplomatic and trade relations with France, actively helped the counter-revolutionaries and, together with England, tried to exert economic pressure on France. Only the Polish national liberation uprising of 1794 prevented Russia from openly organizing an intervention.

Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century. was of an active and expansionist nature, which made it possible to include new lands in the state and strengthen its position in Europe.

9.4 Russia under Paul I (1796–1801)

Paul's views were formed under the influence of many factors and underwent a certain evolution during his life. The heir to the throne grew up as a romantic young man and believed in the ideals of enlightened absolutism until he saw many inconsistencies in the policies of Catherine II in comparison with the proclaimed ideals. Gradually, a critical attitude towards the actions of his mother grew in him. Other factors were soon added to this: the alienation between Paul and Catherine II, who did not intend to share power with him and even thought about depriving her son of the throne and handing it over to her beloved grandson Alexander. All this led to a change in his views and character. He becomes nervous, hot-tempered, suspicious and tyrannical.

With the accession of Paul I to the throne, a reorientation of domestic policy and, above all, the system of public administration began.

Centralization, based on administrative and bureaucratic methods, began to play a predominant role in this area. Paul I replaced noble elected positions with appointed bureaucratic-official ones and strengthened the control functions of the prosecutor's office. He restored a number of government departments involved in the economy: berg, manufactory, chamber, and commerce boards.

Entered new system succession to the throne. On April 7, 1797, he issued a decree on succession Russian throne, in accordance with which the decree of Peter I of 1722 on the appointment of his heir as acting emperor was cancelled. Now a principle was introduced (in force until 1917), providing for the transfer of the throne by inheritance according to the right of primogeniture by male line.

The system of local government underwent a serious change: city councils were closed, the chambers of civil and criminal courts were again merged into one, and some courts were abolished.

The administrative-territorial division of the country and the principles of managing the national borderlands were revised. 50 provinces were transformed into 41 provinces and regions of the Don Army; traditional governing bodies were reintroduced in Ukraine and the Baltic provinces.

The tendency in Pavlovian politics towards centralization included such extreme manifestations as the desire for complete unification and regulation in the life of society. Special decrees prescribed the wearing of certain styles of clothing; it was forbidden to wear round hats, shoes with ribbons instead of buckles, etc. Censorship is increasing. In 1797–1799 639 publications were banned. The production of books in Russia sharply decreased, and a ban was introduced on their import from abroad.

Paul I paid special attention to the army, deciding to reform it in the Prussian manner. He introduced into the army new uniform, completely copying the Prussian one, brought order to drill training, new regulations were developed, and discipline was tightened.

Estate policy was also based on principles different from Catherine’s. For Paul I, class freedom, which the nobles enjoyed thanks to the reforms of Catherine II, was unacceptable. He obliged the nobles to serve, allowed them to be subjected to corporal punishment, abolished provincial noble assemblies, and the district ones lost many powers. Restrictions were introduced when nobles transferred from military to civilian service: to choose civil service instead of military service, permission from the Senate, approved by the Tsar, was required. The nobles were subject to a tax for the maintenance of the provincial administration.

There is a certain amount of historical facts that can be interpreted as the monarch’s concern for the people, for example: a manifesto appeared on a three-day corvee per week; for the first time in the history of the country, serfs were ordered to swear allegiance to Paul I, who ascended the throne, along with freemen; some recruitments were canceled (in 1796 and 1800); arrears of poll taxes were removed from peasants and townspeople; the sale of serfs without land was prohibited; peasant complaints were resolved. But others are also known historical facts. At the beginning of his reign, peasant unrest broke out in a number of provinces and was brutally suppressed. The peasants were required to submit submissively to the landowners.

The reign of Paul was characterized by the massive distribution of state-owned peasants to private individuals as a reward.

There are no archived historical documents, testifying to Paul’s ardent desire to abolish serfdom.

Generally domestic politics Paul I was of a contradictory nature and was aimed at leveling Catherine’s reforms, which, in principle, could not be done, since the period of Paul I’s stay in power was short-lived.

The foreign policy of Paul I was inconsistent. At the beginning of his reign, he declared neutrality towards revolutionary France and refused to send a Russian corps there to carry out military operations. However, after Napoleon captured the island of Malta in 1798, Paul I decided to participate in the fight against France as part of a coalition with England, Austria and the Kingdom of Naples. But in 1800 he moved towards rapprochement with France, at the same time becoming an enemy of England, since its troops captured the island of Malta “dear” to the Russian autocrat.

Violating international rules, Paul ordered the arrest of all English merchant ships.

In December 1800, Paul I sent 40 regiments without forage, without the necessary maps, without knowledge of the terrain Don Cossacks(22,500 people) to conquer British India, dooming them to death.

The unpredictable and contradictory policies of Paul I, the uncertainty of senior dignitaries and those around them about their future led to the emergence of hidden opposition and the formation of a political conspiracy. The heir to the throne, Alexander, was also informed about the conspiracy. On the night of March 11-12, 1801, the conspirators entered the residence of Paul I - Mikhailovsky Castle - and killed the emperor.

On March 12, 1801, a manifesto on the death of Paul I and the accession of Alexander I to the throne was published.

1762-1796 - The reign of Catherine II.

The reign of Catherine II is usually called the era of “enlightened absolutism” - this is a special political course associated with the use of the ideas of French, English and Italian thinkers - ideologists of the Enlightenment (C. Montesquieu, Voltaire, C. Beccaria); main goal politics was the adaptation of the old absolutist regime to new conditions, emerging bourgeois relations. “Enlightened absolutism” as a special stage of state-political development was associated with the search for new forms of relationship between the dominant social stratum and the state organization.

1762 - Palace coup, the beginning of the reign of Catherine II.

The German princess Sophia of Anhalt-Zerbst, in Orthodoxy Ekaterina Alekseevna, the wife of Peter III, with the support of the guard, overthrew her husband, who was unpopular among the political elite.

1764 - Issuance of a decree on the secularization of church lands.

This replenished the treasury and made it possible to stop the unrest of the monastery peasants. The clergy lost their property independence and found themselves supported by the state. Catherine’s policy towards the church included: firstly, the influence of the anti-clerical (secular, anti-church) positions of the ideologists of the Enlightenment; secondly, the continuation of the process begun by Peter of transforming the clergy into a special detachment of bureaucrats.

1767-1768 - Work of the Statutory Commission.

In Russia, the Council Code of 1649 was still in force. It was necessary to create a new set of laws, selecting realistically current provisions. The commission included representatives of all classes, except serfs. Russia has not seen such a representative assembly for almost a century.

The commission did not live up to the empress's hopes: each class defended its corporate privileges, often contradictory friends to a friend. Realizing that the Statutory Commission could not fulfill the tasks assigned to it, Catherine dissolved it under the pretext of starting a war with Turkey in 1769. The commission was finally abolished in 1774.

1768-1774 - The first Russian-Turkish war.

A factor in the deterioration of relations with the Ottoman Empire was the growth of Russian influence in Poland and the introduction of Russian troops into the territory of Poland (Rzeczpospolita). In 1770, a battle took place on the Larga River (a tributary of the Prut, the territory of Moldova), where the Russian army under the command of Pyotr Rumyantsev put to flight Turkish troops and Crimean cavalry. The second famous battle in which Rumyantsev distinguished himself took place on the Cahul River. Here it was possible to defeat the enemy, whose numbers were 5 times greater than the Russian forces. The actions of the Russian fleet were successful. Baltic Fleet under the command of Admiral Grigory Spiridov, he circled Europe and in the Mediterranean Sea attacked the Turkish fleet in Chesme Bay, near Chios Strait. The Turkish squadron was destroyed. According to the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty, Russia received a strip of the Black Sea coast between the mouths of the Dnieper and Southern Bug, Kerch and Yenikale in Crimea, Kuban and Kabarda; Crimea became independent from the Ottoman Empire; Moldavia and Wallachia came under Russian protection; Türkiye paid indemnity to Russia.

1772, 1793, 1795 - Russia's participation in the sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

The decline of the power of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, torn by internal contradictions, during the 18th century predetermined the division of its territory by Russia, Austria and Prussia. As a result of the third, final partition, Austria took possession of Lesser Poland with Lublin; went to Prussia most of Polish lands with Warsaw; Russia received Lithuania, Western Belarus, Volyn (Ukrainian lands).

1773-1775 - Peasant war under the leadership of E. Pugachev.

A large-scale Cossack-peasant uprising under the leadership of Emelyan Pugachev, who declared himself Peter III, began in Yaik (Ural), and acquired such a scale that historians call it a peasant war. The ferocity and massive scale of the uprising showed the ruling circles that the situation in the country required change. The consequence of the war was new reforms that led to the strengthening of the system against which popular indignation was directed.

1775 - Regional (provincial) reform.

The number of provinces increased from 23 to 50, the provinces were eliminated, and the provinces were divided into districts. Each province was headed by a governor, and a group of 2-3 provinces (government) was headed by a governor or governor-general. The provincial government consisted of the Treasury Chamber, which was in charge of industry, income and expenses, and the Order of Public Charity, which was responsible for the maintenance of schools and hospitals (charitable institutions). An attempt was made to separate judiciary from administrative. The judicial system was built on the class principle: each class had its own elected court.

The provincial reform led to the liquidation of many collegiums (except for the Foreign, Military, and Admiralty), since their functions were transferred to local provincial bodies. Thus, an attempt was made to decentralize power. The provincial reform led to an increase in the number of cities, since all centers of provinces and districts were declared them.

1783 - Annexation of Crimea to Russia; signing of the Treaty of Georgievsk on the Russian protectorate over Eastern Georgia.

In 1777, as a result of the invasion of Russian troops in Crimea, the Russian protege Shagin-Girey was elected to the khan’s throne, but to strengthen the position in Crimea, Catherine sent Grigory Potemkin. After negotiations, the Crimean Khan abdicated the throne and handed Crimea over to Russia. For his diplomatic victory, Potemkin received the title “Prince of Tauride” (Crimea - Tauris in ancient times). In 1783, Eastern Georgia declared its desire to come under the protection of Russia, which was recorded by the Treaty of Georgievsk. The Georgian king Irakli II sought to secure the country from Muslim Turkey and Persia.

1785 - Publication of the Charter to the nobility and the Charter to the cities.

Trying to realize fundamental principle philosophy of the Enlightenment - the supremacy of law and law, Catherine takes steps to regulate the legal status of the estates. Nobles are granted freedom from corporal punishment, poll tax, and compulsory service; the right of unlimited ownership of estates, including land with its subsoil, the right of commercial and industrial activities; deprivation of noble dignity could be carried out only by decision of the Senate with the approval of the head of state; the estates of convicted nobles were not subject to confiscation; The powers of class institutions of the nobility expanded. Essentially, the nobility received self-government: noble assemblies headed by provincial and district leaders.

It is no coincidence that Catherine’s reign is often called the “golden age of the nobility.” The charter granted to the cities confirmed the exemption granted to the rich merchants from the poll tax and conscription. Eminent citizens and merchants of the first two guilds were exempt from corporal punishment. Urban population was divided into six categories that made up the “city society”: merchants, petty bourgeois (small merchants and artisans), clergy, nobles and officials. The townspeople elected the mayor, members of the magistrate and members of the general city council.

1787-1791 - Second Russian-Turkish war.

Causes of the war: 1 - the desire to return Crimea; 2 - conclusion of the Russian-Austrian alliance. Russia and Austria planned to dismember Turkey and create a “Greek Empire” led by a representative of the Romanov dynasty on its territories with an Orthodox population. Outstanding Victory was reached by troops under the leadership of Suvorov near the river. Rymnik. The commander used surprise tactics, which helped put the 80,000 people to flight. Turkish army. The victories of the land army were picked up at sea. In 1790, the fleet under the command of F. Ushakov won the battle near Tendra Island; the Turks lost 4 battleships. In the summer of 1791 F.F. Ushakov defeated the Turkish fleet at Cape Kaliakria. The Treaty of Jassy was concluded in December. He confirmed the transfer of Crimea to Russia and Russian patronage of Georgia; Bessarabia, Moldavia, and Wallachia had to be returned to Turkey so as not to aggravate relations with European powers, dissatisfied with the strengthening of Russian positions on the Danube.

1788 - Capture Turkish fortress Ochakov.

The Ochakov fortress was considered the key to the Black Sea.

1790 - Capture of the Turkish fortress Izmail by troops under the leadership of A. Suvorov; publication of A. Radishchev’s book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow.”

The main event of the Russian-Turkish war was the capture of the Izmail fortress in December 1790. Suvorov organized an assault on the fortress, which was considered impregnable. According to legend, the commandant of Izmail, in response to Suvorov’s ultimatum, said: “The Danube would rather flow backward than the walls of Izmail fall.”

In the book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” Radishchev first defined serfdom as a terrible and unconditional evil. Radishchev's work went beyond the framework of educational ideology with its ideas about a peaceful, evolutionary path of development. Catherine II called Radishchev “a rebel, worse than Pugachev.”

1796-1801 - Reign of Paul /.

Paul revised many of Catherine II's reforms: he streamlined and tightened the noble service, in particular long-term leave; canceled the exemption of nobles from corporal punishment by court, liquidated noble assemblies. The order of succession to the throne was changed: the throne was passed through the male line to the eldest son of the reigning emperor or the next senior brother, which led to stabilization of the situation in this matter.

1797 - Manifesto on the three-day corvee.

The manifesto established a three-day corvee, and also prohibited landowners from forcing peasants to work on weekends and holidays. With this manifesto, Paul I “put the first limitation on landowner power” (S.F. Platonov).

1798-1799 - Russia’s participation in anti-French coalitions, the Italian and Swiss campaigns of A. Suvorov.

Russia became a participant in the anti-French alliance with England and Austria (1795), and then in 1798-1799 in the anti-French coalition along with England, Austria, Turkey and Naples. The goal of the coalition was to expel the French from Northern Italy, conquered by General Bonaparte during a campaign in 1797. The Russian-Turkish squadron led by F. Ushakov expelled the French from the Ionian Islands as a result of the capture of the fortress of Corfu.

In the same year, the offensive of the Russian-Austrian army began under the command of A. Suvorov in Northern Italy(Italian campaign). Having defeated the French, the troops liberated Milan and Turin. Suvorov was preparing to enter France, but Austria insisted that Suvorov’s troops be sent to Switzerland to join the Russian corps of A. Rimsky-Korsakov.

Russian soldiers made a unique crossing through the snow-capped Alps and captured the St. Gotthard Pass. But Rimsky-Korsakov’s corps and the Austrians were defeated by the French, and Suvorov and his army found themselves surrounded, from which they had difficulty escaping. Paul I recalled the Russian army to his homeland, as he regarded the behavior of the British and Austrians as betrayal.