The development of anatomy and physiology is determined primarily by the needs of practical medicine. To be able to provide assistance with various diseases, you need to know the structure and functions of the body. Over the course of many centuries, various facts have accumulated in this area of human knowledge.
Fragmentary information on anatomy and physiology was known in ancient times, but they were not of a systematic, scientific nature.
Considerable interest in anatomy and physiology, as in all medicine, was shown in Ancient Greece. The famous Greek thinker and physician Hippocrates (460 - 377 BC) owns several works on medicine, which contain individual information on anatomy and physiology.
Thus, he described the bones of the skull relatively correctly. Some of Hippocrates' ideas were wrong. In particular, he believed that the arteries contain air, and the main function of the brain is the secretion of mucus.
In the Roman Empire, an outstanding physician was Claudius Galen (130 - 200 AD). He performed experiments on animals and dissected their corpses. His works report the presence of nerves in the muscles, describe 7 pairs of cranial nerves, some joints, the oval foramen between the atria in the fetuses of domestic animals, etc. At the same time, these works contain many erroneous statements about the structure and functions of the human body. Thus, Galen constructed an incorrect blood circulation scheme, according to which central authority The circulatory system is the liver. Galen's big mistake is that he transferred data on the structure of the body of animals to humans without changes.
The Middle Ages were characterized by stagnation in science, including medicine. The Church organized a persecution of science, fiercely persecuted scientists who sought to scientific discoveries. One of the manifestations of church oppression was the categorical prohibition of dissecting corpses, which posed huge obstacles to the development of medicine. During the Middle Ages, only individual scientists managed to make their contribution to science. These include the outstanding Tajik scientist, doctor and philosopher Ibn Sina (Avicenna), who lived in 980 - 1037. n. e.
IN famous book Avicenna's "Canon of Medicine" contains all the medical information of that time, including data on anatomy and physiology.
Anatomy and physiology emerge as special scientific disciplines during the Renaissance, which is associated with general development natural sciences during the formation of bourgeois society. Anatomy how independent science dates back to the 16th century. Its founder was the scientist Andrei Vesalius (1514 - 1564). He performed numerous autopsies on human corpses and studied the structure of the human body. The result of his work was outstanding treatise"On the structure of the human body", which later academician. I. P. Pavlov highly appreciated: “Vesalius’s work is the first human anatomy in modern history humanity, not repeating only the instructions and opinions of ancient authors, but relying on the work of a free, exploring mind."
Physiology as an independent science was founded in the 17th century, which is associated with the name of the English physician William Harvey (1578 - 1657), who discovered blood circulation. I. P. Pavlov in 1927 assessed this discovery as follows: “... the doctor William Harvey spied one of the greatest functions of the body - blood circulation and thereby laid the foundation for a new department of precise human knowledge - animal physiology.”
The further development of anatomy and physiology was determined by new methods of scientific observation and the general development of science. In the 19th and 20th centuries, various branches of medicine, in particular physiology, achieved particularly great success. These successes are largely associated with the works of our domestic scientists.
The first medical school in Russia was organized in the middle of the 17th century. Already at that time there were manuals in Russian containing information on medicine. Anatomy was studied on skeletons. Since the 18th century (under Peter I), systematic training of medical workers began, from among whom outstanding domestic scientists later emerged. Great importance The development of natural science and medicine in Russia was influenced by the work of the brilliant Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov. He achieved the opening of the first Russian university in Moscow, which included a medical faculty. The works of M. V. Lomonosov contain many provisions that are directly related to physiology.
In the 19th century, many Russian scientists worked in the field of anatomy and physiology. The works of P. A. Zagorsky, I. V. Buyalsky and N. I. Pirogov had a great influence on the development of domestic anatomy.
Professor of anatomy and physiology P. A. Zagorsky (1764 - 1846) studied the vascular system. He wrote an anatomy textbook in Russian and trained the first Russian anatomists from his students. Among them is I.V. Buyalsky (1789 - 1866), the author of original works on anatomy and surgery. The most important merit of I.V. Buyalsky is that through his works he revealed the importance of anatomy for practical surgery.
The brilliant Russian scientist N.I. Pirogov (1810 - 1881) worked in the field of surgery, anatomy and other areas of medicine. He introduced a new research method into anatomy - sequential cutting of frozen corpses. Using this method, N.I. Pirogov developed the basics of topographic anatomy 1. Among the most famous works N.I. Pirogov on anatomy owns his book “Surgical Anatomy of Arterial Trunks and Fascia”. The works of N. I. Pirogov emphasize the importance of anatomy for practical medicine, especially for surgery. During heroic defense Sevastopol in 1854. Pirogov was directly involved in organizing communities of nurses and attracted nurses to help the wounded on the battlefield.
1 (Topographic anatomy is an applied science that studies the relative position of organs.)
In our country, a functional direction in anatomy arose and developed. This direction considers each organ as component a single whole - a living organism in connection with its functions and historical development.
At the same time, the formative role of the external environment is emphasized - the influence of living conditions, both social and biological. P. F. Lesgaft (1837 - 1909), V. P. Vorobyov (1876 - 1937), V. N. Tonkov (1872 - 1954) and many other domestic scientists did a lot in the development of this direction. Thus, P.F. Lesgaft used, in particular, functional approach when studying the structure of the organs of movement. V.P. Vorobyov, together with his students, conducted great research on the morphology of the nervous system and other organs; he also developed a special method for embalming and preserving the body of V.I. Lenin. V.N. Tonkov made a great contribution to the functional anatomy of the circulatory system - he developed the doctrine of collateral (roundabout) circulation.
Of the Russian scientists working in the field of physiology in the 19th century, it should be noted A. M. Filomafitsky, V. A. Basov, N. A. Mislavsky, F. V. Ovsyannikov, A. Ya. Kulyabko, S. P. Botkin and others. Some of them made discoveries in the field of physiology of blood and blood circulation, others studied the functions of digestion, others - respiration, the nervous system, etc. Scientists I. M. Sechenov and I. P. Pavlov played a special role in the field of physiology.
Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov (1829 - 1905) - the founder of Russian physiology. Associated with his name outstanding discoveries in various branches of this science. Suffice it to say that I.M. Sechenov discovered the phenomena of inhibition in the central nervous system, for the first time studied the composition of blood gases, found out the role and significance of hemoglobin in the transfer carbon dioxide etc. I.M. Sechenov’s book “Reflexes of the Brain,” published in 1863, was of exceptional importance. It was the first to state the position that all brain activity is reflexive in nature. Consequently, the mental processes inherent in humans have a physiological basis, and not some unknowable reasons. I.M. Sechenov is one of the founders of the principle of the unity of the organism with external environment. He wrote: “An organism without an external environment that supports its existence is impossible; therefore, the scientific definition of an organism must also include the environment that influences it...”
I.M. Sechenov is the creator big school physiologists. His students were N. E. Vvedensky, M. N. Shaternikov and other prominent scientists.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849 - 1936) - a great materialist scientist who devoted his entire life to serving science. For more than 60 years he developed various problems of physiology and created works that have great value for all medicine and biology.
Even in his youth, I. P. Pavlov’s worldview was greatly influenced by the advanced materialist ideas of the great revolutionary democrats N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov, D. I. Pisarev. In the formation of natural science views of I. P. Pavlov big role The works of I.M. Sechenov were also played, especially his book “Reflexes of the Brain”.
In his scientific work, I. P. Pavlov, like I. M. Sechenov, proceeded from the principle of the integrity of the organism and its unity with surrounding nature. In accordance with this, he considered the activity of individual organs not in isolation, but in connection with the entire organism and the external environment. Before I.P. Pavlov, it was common among physiologists analytical method scientific knowledge. Observations were usually made on animals that were subjected to the so-called acute experience, i.e., a surgical operation intended to carry out scientific observations immediately after surgery. Thus, an acute experience is, for example, an autopsy chest animal to study the functioning of the heart.
I. P. Pavlov created a synthetic method based on a holistic view of the activity of the body. He usually carried out his scientific observations on animals that were subjected to so-called chronic experience. The necessary operation was performed on animals in such a way that the animal remained alive and scientific observations could be carried out on it for a long time (months and even years).
I. P. Pavlov made greatest discoveries in various branches of physiology. His main works are devoted to the physiology of blood circulation, digestion and the cerebral hemispheres. I. P. Pavlov's research in the field of circulatory physiology led to the creation of the doctrine of regulation of the activity of the cardiovascular system.
The result of almost twenty years of work studying organ function digestive system was the creation of the doctrine of the physiology of digestion. I. P. Pavlov established that the activity various organs The digestive system is regulated by the nervous system and depends on various phenomena external environment.
The works of I. P. Pavlov found brilliant confirmation of the idea expressed by I. M. Sechenov about the reflex nature of organ activity. Various irritations from the external environment that affect the body are perceived through the nervous system and cause changes in the activity of certain organs. Such responses of the body to irritation, carried out through the nervous system, are called reflexes.
Of particular importance are the studies of I. P. Pavlov, devoted to the study of the functions of the cerebral cortex. These studies showed that human mental activity is based on physiological processes occurring in the cerebral cortex. Before I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov, the essence of mental activity was not known and was considered unknowable. The study of the functions of the cerebral cortex, with which our mental activity is connected, became possible only after I. P. Pavlov established that the basis of the activity of the cerebral cortex is the process of formation of conditioned reflexes.
The doctrine of higher nervous activity created by I. P. Pavlov is deeply materialistic and refutes religious and idealistic ideas about the “soul” and unknowable “mental work.”
The teachings of I.P. Pavlov are one of the natural scientific foundations of a materialistic worldview that recognizes the objectivity and knowability of the world.
Nowadays, various problems of the structure and vital activity of human tissues and organs and living matter are being developed by scientists in numerous institutes and laboratories.
Not only morphologists and physiologists take part in the study of these problems, but also representatives of other branches of science - chemists, physicists, mathematicians, etc. New scientific directions have emerged, for example, molecular biology. A characteristic feature of many scientific directions recent years is that research on the so-called molecular submicroscopic and cellular level. For this purpose, very subtle and complex experiments and techniques are used to study the processes occurring inside the cell and in the individual structures that make up its composition. At the same time, the interdependence of various tissues, organs and organ systems is studied.
This nature of research is determined by the need to uncover the nature of all processes that determine the vital activity, growth and development of cells and tissues in a healthy body, as well as in various disease states, for example, malignant tumors, and to learn how to control these processes.
Outstanding Russian scientists - anatomists
The first stages of the development of anatomy and medicine Russian state The 18th century was illuminated by the genius of Peter I, who showed interest in training doctors in Holland, where he attended lectures and anatomical theaters of professors F. Ruysch, G. Burgave and A. Van Leeuwenhoek. To educate Russians, Peter the Great acquired an anatomical collection for the Kunstkamera, which, by his decree, has been constantly replenished since 1718 with embryological and teratological preparations, which have been preserved in St. Petersburg to this day. Upon returning from abroad to Moscow, the tsar organized a series of lectures and dissections for the boyars, and studied at the Moscow Anatomical Theater to dissect corpses and perform surgical operations. Subsequently, such events became regular and were carried out in hospitals, a medical school organized by Peter at the Academy of Sciences.
In Moscow, St. Petersburg, Barnaul, Kronstadt and other cities (more than 30), medical schools were opened at hospitals, in which doctors were initially trained by foreign anatomists and surgeons: N.L. Bidloo, A. De-Tils, L.L. Blumentrost and others. D. Bernoulli, I. Weitbrecht, I. Duvernois, and subsequently the great M.V. contributed to the formation of anatomy and physiology at the Petrine Academy of Sciences. Lomonosov is a candidate of medicine at the University of Magdeburg.
A student and follower of Academician M.V. Lomonosov was A.P. Protasov, who also became an academician, teaching a university course in anatomy. He is known for his work on the anatomical and physiological structure of the stomach, the compilation of an anatomical dictionary in Russian, and forensic medical autopsies of corpses.
K.I. Shchepin- one of the first Russian anatomist professors, taught anatomy, physiology and surgery in Russian. At the St. Petersburg and Moscow hospital schools he created programs for these disciplines and introduced a clinical focus into them. In his lectures he used data from microscopic anatomy for the first time. He died in Kyiv during the elimination of the plague epidemic.
M.I. Shein- translated from German the anatomy textbook of Ludwig Geister, which was published for the first time in 1757 in St. Petersburg. At the same time, he believed that correct knowledge of the human structure is useful for health, healing, and treatment. He introduced new anatomical terms in Russian, which have survived to this day, and created the first Russian anatomical atlas.
N.M. Maksimovic-Ambodik- Professor of midwifery (obstetric) sciences, prepared the first Russian anatomical nomenclature and wrote the “Anatomical and Physiological Dictionary”. Modern names of organs did not appear immediately, for example, the pancreas was called “all-meat”, “tongue-shaped”, the artery was called the vein, the vein was called the vein. That is why the work on the selection of scientific anatomical names, carried out over a whole century, was so important.
As a result from the first anatomical terminology Many Old Slavic designations have disappeared, such as lyadovia - lower back, ramo - humerus, stechno - femur, lucotic vein - pulmonary vein, ridge - spine, spinal marrow - spinal cord. But many new names were immediately fixed in Russian nomenclature: clavicle, ankle, etc., and some were recognizably modified: tibia - tibia, epigastric region from the old name of the xiphoid process of the sternum - spoon. Thus, the origins of Russian anatomical names were Russian vocabulary and Greco-Latin terminology.
P.A. Zagorsky- Academician, when compiling a Russian anatomy textbook, he carefully selected the main Russian terms. He founded an anatomical school in St. Petersburg and studied teratology and comparative anatomy. Prepared a worthy student - Professor I.V. Buyalsky, who published “Anatomical and Surgical Tables”, wrote a textbook with anatomical justification for surgical operations, invented many instruments, and proposed new methods of embalming. I.B. Buyalsky was engaged in the preservation of anatomical preparations, using solutions of mercuric chloride to inject blood vessels, and its powder was poured into body cavities. Contributed to the development of anatomy at the St. Petersburg school A.M. Shumlyansky, who discovered capsules around the vascular glomeruli of the kidney (nephron capsule), establishing direct connections between arterial capillaries in the vascular glomerulus. Academician K.F. Wolf long time headed the anatomical department of the St. Petersburg Kunstkamera. His teratological collections formed the basis for work on defects and deformities, which gave rise to the development of a new anatomical science - teratology.
Professor E.O. Mukhin taught anatomy at Moscow University. After the invasion of Napoleon and the fire in Moscow, the anatomical museum was restored, containing up to 5,000 preparations. In 1812, his textbook “Anatomy Course” was published, in which the author promoted Russian anatomical terminology.
Professor D.N. 3ernov for many years he headed the Moscow Department of Anatomy; successfully studied the sense organs, the variability of the sulci, convolutions of the brain and criticized Cesaro Lombroso's theory of hereditary factors criminal personality, about the correspondence of certain types of face and brain to aggressive and malicious behavior.
V.A. Betz- a representative of the Kyiv anatomical school, who discovered large pyramidal cells in the convolutions of the brain, named after his last name. Professor in Kharkov A.K. Belousov studied the innervation of blood vessels, proposed a new method of injection of anatomical drugs.
The formation of anatomy as a science and educational subject in the 18th and 19th centuries happened at first thanks to foreign specialists invited by Peter I, who very soon trained students and followers in St. Petersburg and Moscow. Both schools became leading ones; they sent their graduates to provincial universities, who founded departments, established anatomical science, and trained doctors.
The development of healing in eastern Russia was influenced by Tibetan and Chinese medicine, traditional medicine of the peoples of the North and Far East. In Buryatia, from the middle of the 18th century, medical schools (mamba-datsans) appeared under Buddhist monasteries. They use medical literature, diagnostic and treatment methods, and tools from Mongolia, Tibet, India and China for training. Thus, the Atsagat school was founded by Emgi-Lama Ireltuev, a skilled healer and teacher. Full course training took 6 years, and the structure of a person was always considered under the leading influence of function. In the middle of the 19th century, the Badmaev brothers Tsultim and Zhamsadin studied Tibetan medicine in the Aginsky datsan (monastery), who later converted to Orthodoxy under the names of Alexander and Peter (godsons of Emperor Alexander III). They received university medical education in St. Petersburg. Both had extensive practice in the capital in aristocratic and noble circles, and participated in political and palace intrigues.
Other scientists and practitioners also made a certain contribution to the development of oriental medicine in Russia. So the famous Altai geographer and ethnologist G.N. Potanin published an article about Buryat names medicinal plants, used in Tibetan and folk medicine. Kalmyk Dambo Ulyanov – chief physician and Lama Donskoy Cossack army- translated medical treatises “Chzhud-shi”, “Lhantab” and others from Tibetan into Russian.
In Siberia, the first university was opened in the city of Tomsk in 1870. The medical faculty has been operating there since 1876 under the leadership famous professors Kazan school A.S. Dogel and A.E. Smirnova. All subsequent Siberian and Far Eastern medical institutes and faculties opened in the years Soviet power. The Altai Medical Institute appeared in Barnaul in 1954 in connection with the massive development of virgin and fallow lands. His professional development took place under the influence and direct participation of scientists and teachers from the capital and Tomsk medical universities, but in a certain sense, he became the legal successor of the Barnaul medical school of the 18th century, opened at the behest of Peter I.
Exercise:
- Read the proposed text;
- Write down the names and surnames of scientists and figures who made a significant contribution and influenced the development of anatomy as a science (full name, years of life, contribution to science)
The development and formation of ideas about anatomy and physiology begin in ancient times.
Among the first famous history anatomists should be called Alkemona from Cratona, who lived in the 5th century. BC e. He was the first to dissect (dissect) the corpses of animals in order to study the structure of their bodies, and suggested that the sense organs communicate directly with the brain, and the perception of feelings depends on the brain.
Hippocrates(OK. 460 - approx. 370 BC BC) - one of the outstanding medical scientists of Ancient Greece. He attached paramount importance to the study of anatomy, embryology and physiology, considering them the basis of all medicine. He collected and systematized observations about the structure of the human body, described the bones of the roof of the skull and the connections of the bones with the help of sutures, the structure of the vertebrae, ribs, internal organs, organ of vision, muscles, large vessels.
The outstanding natural scientists of their time were Plato (427-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC). Studying anatomy and embryology, Plato discovered that the brain of vertebrates develops in the anterior sections of the spinal cord. Aristotle, opening the corpses of animals, he described their internal organs, tendons, nerves, bones and cartilage. In his opinion, the main organ in the body is the heart. He named the largest blood vessel the aorta.
Had a great influence on the development of medical science and anatomy Alexandria School of Physicians, which was created in the 3rd century. BC e. The doctors of this school were allowed to open the corpses of people in scientific purposes. During this period, the names of two outstanding anatomists became known: Herophilus (b. c. 300 BC) and Erasistratus (c. 300 - c. 240 BC). Herophilus described the meninges and venous sinuses, cerebral ventricles and choroid plexuses, optic nerve and eyeball, duodenum and vessels of the mesentery, prostate. Erasistratus described the liver, bile ducts, heart and its valves quite fully for his time; knew that blood from the lung enters the left atrium, then into the left ventricle of the heart, and from there through the arteries to the organs. Alexandria school Medicine is also responsible for the discovery of a method for ligating blood vessels during bleeding.
The most outstanding scientists in different areas medicine after Hippocrates became a Roman anatomist and physiologist Claudius Galen(approx. 130 - approx. 201). He first began teaching a course in human anatomy, accompanied by dissections of animal corpses, mainly monkeys. Dissection of human corpses was prohibited at that time, as a result of which Galen, facts without due reservations, transferred the structure of the animal's body to humans. Possessing encyclopedic knowledge, he described 7 pairs (out of 12) of cranial nerves, connective tissue, muscle nerves, blood vessels of the liver, kidneys and other internal organs, periosteum, ligaments.
Important information was obtained by Galen about the structure of the brain. Galen considered it the center of sensitivity of the body and the cause of voluntary movements. In the book “On the Parts of the Human Body,” he expressed his anatomical views and considered anatomical structures in inextricable connection with function.
A Tajik doctor and philosopher made a great contribution to the development of medical science Abu Ali Ibn Son, or Avicenna(c. 980-1037). He wrote the “Canon of Medical Science,” which systematized and supplemented information on anatomy and physiology, borrowed from the books of Aristotle and Galen. Avicenna's books were translated into Latin and reprinted more than 30 times.
Since the XVI-XVIII centuries. Universities are opening in many countries, medical faculties, the foundation of scientific anatomy and physiology is laid. An especially great contribution to the development of anatomy was made by the Italian scientist and artist of the Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519). He anatomized 30 corpses, made many drawings of bones, muscles, and internal organs, providing them with written explanations. Leonardo da Vinci laid the foundation for plastic anatomy.
A professor at the University of Padua is considered the founder of scientific anatomy. Andras Vesalius(1514-1564), who, based on his own observations made during autopsies of corpses, wrote a classic work in 7 books “On the structure of the human body” (Basel, 1543). In them he systematized the skeleton, ligaments, muscles, blood vessels, nerves, internal organs, brain and sense organs. Vesalius's research and the publication of his books contributed to the development of anatomy. Subsequently, his students and followers in the 16th-17th centuries. made many discoveries and described in detail many human organs. The names of some organs of the human body are associated with the names of these scientists in anatomy: G. Fallopius (1523-1562) - fallopian tubes; B. Eustachius (1510-1574) - Eustachian tube; M. Malpighi (1628-1694) - Malpighian corpuscles in the spleen and kidneys.
Discoveries in anatomy served as the basis for deeper research in the field of physiology. The Spanish physician Miguel Servetus (1511-1553), a student of Vesalius R. Colombo (1516-1559), suggested that blood passes from the right half of the heart to the left through the pulmonary vessels. After numerous studies, the English scientist William Harvey(1578-1657) published the book “Anatomical Study of the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals” (1628), where he provided evidence of the movement of blood through the vessels great circle blood circulation, and also noted the presence of small vessels (capillaries) between arteries and veins. These vessels were discovered later, in 1661, by the founder of microscopic anatomy, M. Malpighi.
In addition, W. Harvey introduced vivisection into the practice of scientific research, which made it possible to observe the functioning of animal organs using tissue sections. The discovery of the doctrine of blood circulation is considered to be the founding date of animal physiology.
Simultaneously with the discovery of W. Harvey, a work was published Casparo Azelli(1591-1626), in which he made an anatomical description of the lymphatic vessels of the mesentery of the small intestine.
During the XVII-XVIII centuries. not only new discoveries in the field of anatomy appear, but a number of new disciplines begin to emerge: histology, embryology, and somewhat later - comparative and topographic anatomy, anthropology.
For the development of evolutionary morphology, the teaching played an important role C. Darwin(1809-1882) on influence external factors on the development of forms and structures of organisms, as well as on the heredity of their offspring.
Cell theory T. Schwann (1810-1882), evolutionary theory Ch. Darwin set a number of new tasks for anatomical science: not only to describe, but also to explain the structure of the human body, its features, to reveal the phylogenetic past in anatomical structures, to explain how his individual characteristics developed in the process of historical development of man.
To the most significant achievements of the 17th-18th centuries. refers to what was formulated by the French philosopher and physiologist Rene Descartes the idea of “reflected activity of the body.” He introduced the concept of reflex into physiology. Descartes' discovery served as the basis for further development physiology on a materialistic basis. Later ideas about the nervous reflex, reflex arc, the importance of the nervous system in the relationship between the external environment and the body were developed in the works of the famous Czech anatomist and physiologist G. Prohaski(1748-1820). Advances in physics and chemistry have made it possible to use more precise research methods in anatomy and physiology.
In the XVIII - XIX centuries Particularly significant contributions to the field of anatomy and physiology were made by a number of Russian scientists. M. V. Lomonosov(1711-1765) discovered the law of conservation of matter and energy, expressed the idea of the formation of heat in the body itself, formulated a three-component theory of color vision, gave the first classification taste sensations. Student of M. V. Lomonosov A. P. Protasov(1724-1796) - author of many works on the study of the human physique, structure and functions of the stomach.
Professor of Moscow University S. G. Zabelin(1735-1802) lectured on anatomy and published the book “A Tale on the Structures of the Human Body and How to Protect Them from Diseases,” where he expressed the idea of the common origin of animals and humans.
IN 1783 I. M. Ambodik-Maksimovich(1744-1812) published the “Anatomical and Physiological Dictionary” in Russian, Latin and French, and in 1788 A. M. Shumlyansky(1748-1795) in his book described the capsule of the renal glomerulus and urinary tubules.
A significant place in the development of anatomy belongs to E. O. Mukhina(1766-1850), who taught anatomy for many years, wrote tutorial"Anatomy Course".
The founder of topographic anatomy is N. I. Pirogov(1810-1881). He developed original method studies of the human body on cuts from frozen corpses. Author of such famous books as “A Complete Course in Applied Anatomy of the Human Body” and “Topographic Anatomy Illustrated by Sections Drawn through the Frozen Human Body in Three Directions.” N.I. Pirogov especially carefully studied and described the fascia, their relationship with blood vessels, giving them great practical significance. He summarized his research in the book “Surgical Anatomy of Arterial Trunks and Fascia.”
Functional anatomy was founded by an anatomist P. F. Les-gaft(1837-1909). Its provisions on the possibility of changing the structure of the human body through exposure physical exercise on body functions are the basis of theory and practice physical education. .
P. F. Lesgaft was one of the first to use the radiography method for anatomical studies, experimental method on animals and methods of mathematical analysis.
The works of famous Russian scientists K. F. Wolf, K. M. Baer and X. I. Pander were devoted to the issues of embryology.
IN XX century functional and experimental directions in anatomy were successfully developed by such research scientists as V. N. Tonkov (1872-1954), B. A. Dolgo-Saburov (1890-1960), V. N. Shevkunenko (1872-1952), V. P. Vorobyov (1876-1937), D. A. Zhdanov (1908-1971) and others.
The formation of physiology as an independent science in the 20th century. significantly contributed to advances in the field of physics and chemistry, which gave researchers precise methodological techniques, which made it possible to characterize the physical and chemical essence physiological processes.
I. M. Sechenov (1829-1905) entered the history of science as the first experimental researcher of a complex phenomenon in the field of nature - consciousness. In addition, he was the first who managed to study gases dissolved in the blood, to establish the relative effectiveness of the influence of various ions on physical and chemical processes in a living organism, to find out the phenomenon of summation in the central nervous system (CNS). I.M. Sechenov gained the greatest fame after the discovery of the process of inhibition in the central nervous system. After the publication of I.M. Sechenov’s work “Reflexes of the Brain” in 1863, the concept of mental activity was introduced into the physiological foundations. Thus it was formed A New Look on the unity of the physical and mental foundations of man.
The development of physiology was greatly influenced by the work I. P. Pavlova(1849-1936). He created the doctrine of the higher nervous activity of humans and animals. Studying the regulation and self-regulation of blood circulation, he established the presence of special nerves, some of which strengthen, others delay, and others change the strength of heart contractions without changing their frequency. At the same time, I.P. Pavlov also studied the physiology of digestion. Having developed and put into practice a number of special surgical techniques, he created a new physiology of digestion. Studying the dynamics of digestion, he showed its ability to adapt to excitatory secretion when consuming various foods. His book “Lectures on the work of the main digestive glands” became a guide for physiologists around the world. For work in the field of digestive physiology in 1904, I. P. Pavlov was awarded Nobel Prize. Opening to them conditioned reflex allowed us to continue studying mental processes, which underlie the behavior of animals and humans. The results of many years of research by I. P. Pavlov were the basis for the creation of the doctrine of higher nervous activity, according to which it is carried out by the higher parts of the nervous system and regulates the relationship of the body with the environment.
Physiology XX century characterized by significant achievements in the field of revealing the activities of organs, systems, and the body as a whole. Feature modern physiology is a deep analytical approach to membrane research, cellular processes, description of the biophysical aspects of excitation and inhibition. Knowledge about the quantitative relationships between various processes makes it possible to implement them math modeling, to find out certain disorders in a living organism.
ANATOMY IN RUSSIA
IN feudal Russia There was no secular medical school and medicine developed in monasteries, in which the clergy established hospitals (monastic medicine).
In the 17th century (in 1620) a medical administration was established - the Pharmacy Order, and with it in 1654 - the first medical school. Anatomy in this school was taught according to the above-mentioned manual of Vesalius “On the structure of the human body”, translated from Latin into Russian by the famous cultural figure of that time Epiphanius Slavinetsky in 1658, i.e. more than 100 years earlier than in a number of others countries of Europe.
Thanks to this, the first Russian medical students studied the scientific anatomy of Vesalius, and not the scholastic anatomy of Galen, as was the case in European universities XVII century
IN early XVIII V. In Russia, the era of transformations began under Peter I, who “cut a window to Europe.”
Peter I himself was interested in anatomy, which he studied during his trips to Holland from the famous anatomist Ruysch. From him he acquired a collection of anatomical preparations, which, together with the freaks (“monsters”) collected by the population by decree of Peter I, served as the basis for the creation of the first natural science museum in St. Petersburg - the “Kunstkammer of Natural Things” (museum of natural rarities). Some of these drugs have survived to this day.
In 1725, a Russian Academy sciences, in which anatomy received a solid foundation for its development.
The brilliant Russian scientist and founder of natural science in Russia, M.V. Lomonosov, worked at the Academy of Sciences, who, being a materialist, called for the study of anatomy through observation and thereby indicated the correct prospect for its development. He also appreciated the importance of the microscope for studying structures invisible to the eye. The general materialistic worldview of M.V. Lomonosov was the philosophical basis for the idea of nervism - an overdose and progressive trend characteristic of domestic medicine.
A student and pupil of M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Protasov was the first Russian academician-anatomist.
The development of anatomy was also promoted by other followers of M. V. Lomonosov: K. I. Shchepi, who was the first to teach anatomy in Russian, M. I. Shein, the author of the first Russian anatomical atlas “Syllabus”, and N. M. Maksimovich - Ambodik, who created the first Russian dictionary of anatomical terms called “Anatomical and physiological dictionary in Russian, Latin and French.”
In the 18th century The foundations of microscopic anatomy began to be laid, which in Russia is associated with the name of A. M. Shumlyansky. A. M. Shumlyansky completed the correct understanding of blood circulation, which is why his name should be on a par with Harvey and Malpighi.
Outstanding revolutionary, scientist, writer and philosopher of the 18th century. A. N. Radishchev expressed materialistic views on the structure and development of the human body, which surpassed the views of the most advanced philosophers of his era - the French materialists. He struggled with the biblical legend of the creation of man by God and with the theory of racism. Almost 100 years before Darwin, he wrote that man comes from the monkey and differs from it in speech and in a public way life.
The activities of A. N. Radishchev were highly appreciated by V. I. Lenin. At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. in 1798 the St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy was established.
The unified department of anatomy and physiology created at the academy was headed by P. A. Zagorsky, who wrote the first anatomy textbook in Russian: “Abbreviated anatomy or a guide to knowledge of the structure of the human body for the benefit of students of medical science” (1802) and created the first Russian anatomical school. It was engraved in his honor Golden medal and the P. A. Zagorsky Prize was established.
An outstanding student of P. A. Zagorsky and his successor in the department was I. V. Buyalsky. In the manual “Brief General Anatomy of the Human Body,” he was one of the first to national science outlined general laws structure of the human body and was a pioneer of the doctrine of individual variability, later developed by the Soviet anatomist V. N. Shevkunenko. In his work “Anatomical and Surgical Tables,” he connected anatomy with surgery. This work brought national anatomy world fame.
In connection with the growing needs of surgery, surgical, or rather topographical, anatomy is being created as an independent science, which owes its emergence to I.V. Buyalsky and especially N.I. Pirogov, the brilliant Russian anatomist and surgeon. Thanks to the work of N.I. Pirogov, medicine in general and anatomy in particular made a giant leap in its development.
N.I. Pirogov was the creator of topographic anatomy. N. I. Pirogov’s essay “Surgical Anatomy of Vascular Trunks and Fascia” created world fame. He introduced a new research method into anatomy - successive cuts of frozen corpses (“ice anatomy”) - and on the basis of this method he wrote “A Complete Course of Applied Anatomy” and the atlas “Topographic Anatomy from Cuts through Frozen Corpses.” These were the first manuals on topographic anatomy.
All the activities of N. I. Pirogov constituted an era in the development of medicine and anatomy. After the death of N. I. Pirogov, his body was embalmed by Vyvodtsev, and 60 years later it was re-embalmed by Soviet anatomists and installed in the museum-estate of N. I. Pirogov near Vinnitsa.
The idea of nervism applied to anatomy. In the second half of the 19th century, an advanced trend in domestic medicine called nervism finally took shape.
Nervism is the idea of the integrity of the organism, its unity with the environment. At the same time, the unification of the body into a single whole and its connection with the outside world is carried out with the help of the nervous system (especially its higher department - the brain), which plays a leading role in the body and is in charge of all its processes.
Nervism, says I.P. Pavlov, is “a physiological trend that seeks to extend the influence of the nervous system to the possible large quantity activities of the body.
The idea of nervism originated in our country in the 18th century and became a main road for the development of domestic medicine. Philosophical basis This idea gave rise to the materialistic worldview of M.V. Lomonosov: his atomistic theory of the structure of matter. Subsequently, N.I. Pirogov considered the body as a single whole, controlled by the nervous system. He considered the main mechanism of life processes to be a reflex, in which he distinguished three members. The views of N. I. Pirogov were the link connecting pre-Sechenov nervism with the nervism of I. M. Sechenov and I. P. Pavlov.
The development of the idea of nervism in the middle of the last century was greatly influenced by the ideas revolutionary democrats A. I. Herzen, V. G. Belinsky, N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov, D. I. Pisarev. At that time hot issue ideological struggle was the question of whether the brain is the substrate of neuropsychic activity. The revolutionary democrats answered this question positively. They looked at the body as a single whole, inextricably linked with the environment. In their view, the spirit and body are in unity, and the soul is a function of the bodily organ - the brain. The latter is the most important part body, which controls all its processes.
Under the influence of revolutionary democrats, the views of the physiologist I.M. Sechenov were formed. In his epoch-making work “Reflexes of the Brain,” he showed that all the most complex shapes Nervous activity, by its method of origin, is reflexes.
Among anatomists, a special role in the development of the idea of nervism was played by V. A. Betz, who discovered giant pyramidal cells (Betz cells) in the 5th layer of the cerebral cortex and discovered a difference in cellular composition various parts of the cerebral cortex. Based on this, he introduced a new principle into the division of the bark - the principle cellular structure and laid the foundation for the doctrine of the cyto-architectonics of the cerebral cortex.
Another anatomist who did a lot in the field of brain anatomy was Moscow University professor D. N. Zernov, who gave the best classification of the sulci and convolutions of the brain. Showing that there is no difference in the structure of the brain various peoples, including the “backward,” he created an anatomical basis for the fight against racism.
A major contribution to the anatomy of the brain and spinal cord was made by the outstanding neuropathologist and psychiatrist V. M. Bekhterev, who expanded the doctrine of the localization of function in the cerebral cortex, deepened reflex theory and created an anatomical and physiological basis for the diagnosis and clinic of nervous diseases. V. M. Bekhterev discovered a number of brain centers and conductors that received his name, and wrote a major work, “Conducting Pathways of the Brain and Spinal Cord.”
The idea of nervism received its final completion in the works of I.P. Pavlov, who showed the leading role of the nervous system and especially the cerebral cortex in the unification of the body and in its unity with the environment.
I. P. Pavlov, being a physiologist, at the same time contributed a lot of new and valuable things to anatomy, especially the nervous system. He radically changed the idea of think tank And cerebral cortex, showing that the entire cerebral cortex, including the motor zone, represents a collection of perceptive centers. He significantly deepened the understanding of the localization of functions in the cerebral cortex, introduced the concept of an analyzer, and created the doctrine of two cortical signaling systems.
The teaching of I.P. Pavlov as a whole is the natural science basis of Lenin’s theory of reflection, the philosophy of dialectical materialism.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the center of the proletarian revolutionary movement moved to Russia, which also became the center of advanced scientific thought. Leninism emerges - the highest achievement of world culture. By this time, in medicine, I.M. Sechenov, S.P. Botkin and I.P. Pavlov created a solid materialistic basis for it - nervism.
In biology, K. A. Timiryazev and I. V. Michurin develop Darwinism, transforming it from a science that only explains organisms into a science that remakes them. Under the influence of this development of evolutionary teaching, the old descriptive anatomy, which was concerned only with the description of individual structures without connecting them with development and function and was limited to a contemplative, passive attitude towards nature and man, began to experience a crisis. The first crushing blow was dealt to her by P. F. Lesgaft, the most important anatomist of pre-revolutionary Russia after N. I. Pirogov.
Based on the idea of the unity of the organism and the environment and recognizing the inheritance of acquired characteristics, he put forward the position of the possibility of targeted influence on the human body through physical education and connected anatomy with the practice of physical culture and sports. Instead of a passive contemplative attitude towards the human body, anatomy in the hands of P. F. Lesgaft acquired an effective character.
P. F. Lesgaft widely used experiment, and also called for the study of the anatomy of a living person and was one of the first to use x-rays in anatomy.
All the works of P. F. Lesgaft, based on materialist philosophy, on the idea of the unity of the organism and the environment, the unity of form and function, laid the foundation for a new direction in anatomy - functional. For his progressive ideas, P. F. Lesgaft was subjected to attacks by reactionary elements and persecution by the tsarist government all his life.
The functional direction of anatomy created by P. F. Lesgaft continued to be developed by his immediate students and followers, especially in Soviet times.
Thus, at the beginning of the 20th century, at the time of the Great October Socialist Revolution, the level of biology and medicine in Russia was quite high. Several advanced trends have emerged in anatomy: 1) functional; 2) applied; 3) evolutionary; 4) the idea of nervism.
Among the most prominent Soviet anatomists are the following.
V. P. Vorobyov, academician, professor of anatomy at Kharkov University medical institute, considered the human body in connection with its social environment. Using a binocular loupe, he developed a stereomorphological technique for studying the structure of organs and laid the foundations for macro-microscopic anatomy, especially the peripheral nervous system. V.P. Vorobyov wrote a number of textbooks on anatomy and published the first Soviet atlas in 5 volumes. He developed (together with B.I. Zbarsky) a special preservation method, with the help of which V.I. Lenin’s body was embalmed and preserved for generations. This is the greatest merit of V.P. Vorobyov to the Soviet people and the working people of all countries. V.P. Vorobyov created a school of Soviet anatomists, of whom R.D. Sinelnikov became his successor in the department and successfully developed the work of his teacher in the field of embalming and macro-microscopic anatomy; he also published an excellent anatomical atlas.
V. N. Tonkov, Academician of the Academy medical sciences, professor at the Military Medical Academy, used experiments on living animals to study the vascular system and was the creator of experimental anatomy. Together with his students, he developed the doctrine of collateral circulation.
V. N. Tonkov wrote a textbook on anatomy, which went through 6 editions, and created a numerous school of Soviet anatomists, the outstanding representative of which and V. N. Tonkov’s successor in the department was B. A. Dolgo-Saburov, who successfully developed the work of his teacher together with his employees. After the discovery of X-rays, V. N. Tonkov was one of the first to use them to study the skeleton and outlined the path along which anatomists A. S. Zolotukhin, and then M. G. Prives and his colleagues, as well as radiologists, developed a new area of anatomy called X-ray anatomy.
V. N. Shevkunenko, academician of the Academy of Medical Sciences, professor of topographic anatomy at the Military Medical Academy, developed the applied direction in anatomy created by N. I. Pirogov. Together with his students, he developed the doctrine of extreme forms of individual variability. The variants of the structure of the nervous and venous systems he studied in detail were presented in the large “Atlas of the Peripheral Nervous and Venous Systems,” for which V. N. Shevkunenko and his student and successor in the department A. N. Maksimenkov were awarded the State Prize.
G. M. Iosifov, professor of anatomy at Tomsk and then Voronezh Medical Institute, significantly expanded knowledge of anatomy lymphatic system. His monograph “Anatomy of the Lymphatic System” brought G. M. Iosifov world fame and showed high level Soviet anatomy. G. M. Iosifov created a school of anatomists, the outstanding representative of which was D. A. Zhdanov, academician, professor of the 1st Moscow Medical Institute.
D. A. Zhdanov, based on the work of his own and his colleagues, published a number of major monographs on functional anatomy lymphatic system, one of which, “Surgical anatomy of the thoracic duct,” was awarded the State Prize. This direction was later developed by his students.
V. N. Ternovsky, academician of the Academy of Medical Sciences and the International Academy of the History of Medicine, in addition to his works on the anatomy of the nervous system, is known for his works on the history of anatomy and his translation into Russian of the works of Vesalius and Ibn Sina. Since the translation of Vesalius made by E. Slavinetsky in the 17th century has not survived, the translation by V. N. Ternovsky should be considered the only one. The students of V. N. Tepnovsky, especially V. N. Murat, as well as A. G. Korotkoe and others, deepened the anatomy of the autonomic nervous system.
N. K. Lysenkov, professor Odessa University, studied all the main anatomical disciplines that study the normal structure of a person: normal anatomy, topographical and plastic, on which he wrote manuals, including “Normal Human Anatomy”. Ya. B. Zeldovich, professor of the 2nd Medical Institute, was one of the first to use X-rays in anatomy and raised a galaxy of anatomists. Outstanding Representative of this school, S. N. Kasatkin, professor of the Volgograd Medical Institute, Honored Scientist, together with his collaborators, developed the anatomy of the digestive organs and their vessels.
It is necessary to mention a number of Soviet anatomists who are successfully working: in the field of anatomy of the movement apparatus, respiratory organs, genitourinary organs, circulatory system, lymphatic system, nervous system, sensory organs.
S.I. Lebedkin and his students contributed to embryology. A major representative of this school, D. M. Golub, professor at the Minsk Medical Institute, academician of the Belarusian Academy of Sciences, and his collaborators carried out valuable research on the anatomy and embryology of the autonomic nervous system and organ reinnervation. He published a special atlas on the development of the nervous system. A. G. Knorre, P. G. Svetlov, and A. P. Dyban also contribute to the successes of embryology.