Alienation- this is the process of separating from people the process and results of their activities (activity is understood broadly, as any social activity), which become beyond the control of a person and even dominate him. As a result, people become alien to the world in which they live. For example, the Marxist theory of alienation was not singled out by Marx himself. For Marx, alienation is the loss of the meaning of existence by the worker in the labor process in the era of capitalism. Conceptualized in early works, including "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844". Marx identified 4 types of alienation: from the labor process, from the product of labor, from one’s own essence and people from each other. K. Marx considered the worker in a capitalist society, due to the development of machine production and the corresponding level of division of labor, turned into a “part” of a huge machine mechanism, into an “appendage”. Labor power turns into a commodity that is sold for wages. To survive, a worker must work for a capitalist who owns the means of production. The product produced by the worker “went” to the capitalist (the owner of the means of production), and as a result, it seemed to be an alien object, separated from the worker. Alienation was considered both in the process of separating the product of labor, and in the production activity itself, and in the attitude of the worker to himself and to other people.
Freedom- an idea that reflects the attitude of the subject to his actions, in which he is their determining cause and they are not directly caused by natural, social, interpersonal-communicative and individual-generic factors.
Responsibility- subjective obligation to be responsible for actions and actions, as well as their consequences.
Back in the 18th century, the relationship between these two concepts was considered Benedict Spinoza. The dialectic of freedom and responsibility of the individual, according to his reasoning, boiled down to the fact that responsibility- this is a necessity, and where there is a need there can be no freedom. Spinoza also argued that man, as a part of nature, is always subordinate to necessity, but in order to remain free, man, as the only thinking being, is obliged to cognize the world around him and be aware of his existence. Thus, a person cannot change the laws of nature and the course of time, but by organizing his activities, relying on them, he can become above these laws and gain dominance over the surrounding reality. However, not everyone accepts this approach to combining freedom and personal responsibility. Therefore, there are several models of the relationship between man and society:
freedom fight– open and irreconcilable conflict between a person and society; adaptation to the environment– a person voluntarily submits to the laws of nature and the surrounding reality, sacrificing his desire to become free; escape from the world- behavior in which a person, unable to gain freedom in society, withdraws “into himself” or goes to a monastery.
Personal self-realization, freedom and responsibility interact harmoniously only if a person is aware of the motives of his activities and does not go against the rules and norms established in society. A person can be realized only when he fully uses freedom as the right to choose. The higher the chosen life goal, the better the means of achieving it will correspond to the laws of development of the surrounding reality. Responsibility, in turn, is associated with the need to choose the means and methods through which the goal will be achieved. Thus, freedom contributes to the emergence of personal responsibility, and responsibility is the guiding incentive for freedom.
Nudity and alienation. Philosophical essay on human nature Ivin Alexander Arkhipovich
Chapter 4 Alienated Man
Chapter 4
Alienated man
1. The concept of alienation
The concept of alienation is found in clear form in the theory of the social contract (T. Hobbes, J. J. Rousseau, etc.), formed in the 17th–18th centuries. It means the process of depersonalization, deindividuation of social relations, resulting from the transfer of individual rights to the state.
G. Hegel made alienation the central category of his philosophy. On the one hand, alienation is the discovery of an absolute idea (God) in nature and history, on the other hand, alienation means the objectification, institutionalization of the essential forces of man.
The second of these meanings was used by the German philosopher L. Feuerbach to explain the origin of religion. Man alienates his own essence and opposes it to himself as a god perfect in all respects.
According to K. Marx, alienation is a state of war between a person and his own essence, with the products of his own labor and with other individuals. Man by nature is homo faber (“producing man”). Its essence is realized in work, in joint creative activity, through which people transform the world around them. In the production process, material objects are created that embody the inherent creativity of man and objectify his essence. Alienation occurs when, in the course of his own objectification, a person ceases to recognize himself in his product. The latter turns into a stranger, “not our own”, becomes something opposing its creator as an independent force. Objectification, or objectification, by a person of his plans is accompanied by alienation in any society with antagonistic classes. However, capitalism with particular force distorts and perverts the process of objectification and turns man’s normal objectification of himself in his creations into a particularly destructive alienation.
According to Marx, the basis of all forms of alienation is the alienation of labor. In his early work "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844" Marx writes: “What is the alienation of labor? Firstly, that labor is something external for the worker, not belonging to his essence; in that in his work he does not affirm himself, but denies, feels not happy, but unhappy, does not freely deploy his physical and spiritual energy, but exhausts his physical nature and destroys his spirit. Therefore, the worker only feels like himself outside of work, and in the process of work he feels cut off from himself. He is at home when he is not working; and when he works, he is no longer at home. Because of this, his work is not voluntary, but forced; this is forced labor. This is not the satisfaction of the need for labor, but only a means to satisfy needs other than the need for labor. The alienation of labor is clearly reflected in the fact that as soon as physical or other coercion to work ceases, people flee from labor like the plague. External labor, labor in the process of which a person alienates himself, is self-sacrifice, self-torture. And, finally, the external nature of labor is manifested for the worker in the fact that this labor does not belong to him, but to another, and in the process of labor he himself belongs not to himself, but to another.”
Beginning in the world of work, alienation covers all aspects of a worker’s life. Marx identifies four forms of manifestation of alienation:
1) the worker is alienated from the product of his labor, since what he produced is appropriated by others and is no longer under his control;
2) the worker is alienated from the production process; work becomes an alien activity, imposed from the outside and does not bring internal satisfaction; forced labor, labor at someone's order actually becomes a sold commodity;
3) the worker is alienated from his human nature, since the first two forms of alienation erase those specific qualities that define human nature and distinguish his creative activity from the activity of animals;
4) the worker is alienated from other people, since capitalism transforms social relations into purely market ones and forces people to be assessed not by their human qualities, but in accordance with their market position.
Marx intended to eliminate the philosophical and religious meanings of the term “alienation” and use the term as a sociological concept. Alienation is rooted, according to Marx, in the nature of certain social structures that deform the human essence. Marx believed that to eliminate alienation it was necessary to overthrow the capitalist system of private property and replace production for profit with a system of production that satisfies natural human needs. This will be followed by the replacement of distribution based on market regulation with a reasonable and humane system of distribution according to need. These changes will be accompanied by changes in the division of labor, so that all people will move on to new, more creative activities.
In a communist society, Marx said, where no one is limited to an exclusive circle of activity, and everyone can improve in any field, society regulates all production and that is why it creates for me the opportunity to do one thing today and another tomorrow, to hunt in the morning, to fish in the afternoon, garden in the evening, criticize after dinner.
Over time, the concept of alienation has lost much of the sociological meaning that Marx tried to put into it. In modern sociology, the term “alienation” is rarely used due to its vagueness.
In social philosophy it is used quite often, but mainly in a subjective and psychological sense.
This aspect of alienation, such as “powerlessness,” refers to the feeling of the impossibility of a person’s influence on his social environment; “loss of meaning” means the feeling that illicit means are needed to achieve meaningful goals; “isolation” occurs when people feel alienated from the prevailing values in society; “Self-withdrawal” speaks of the inability to engage in activities that would bring psychological satisfaction.
The heterogeneity of individuals in capitalist society, their lack of a global, uniting and inspiring goal, their inequality, and, above all, inequality in property, ultimately leads many of these individuals to a feeling of dissatisfaction with the existing order of things and to a weakening of social communication .
The concept of alienation, which became in the middle of the 20th century. quite popular, sometimes used in a broad and rather vague sense. It may mean that individuals in modern post-industrial society have a feeling of isolation from the social environment and dissatisfaction with this; a sense of moral decline in society; a feeling of powerlessness in the face of omnipotent social institutions; impersonality, dehumanization of large, bureaucratic social organizations, etc.
The heterogeneity of people, their diversity and discrepancy with each other in the structure of thoughts, feelings and behavior is a necessary prerequisite for the effective development of both capitalist and post-capitalist societies. At the same time, this disparity also has its negative consequences. Dissimilarity can give rise to painfully experienced alienation. The alienated person is characterized by a feeling of powerlessness, a feeling that his own destiny is out of his control and is determined by external forces; a feeling of the meaninglessness of existence and the impossibility of achieving the desired result even as a result of any active activity; perception of society as a world in which mutual obligations of people to comply with social regulations have been lost, institutionalized culture has been destroyed, and the dominant value system is disintegrating; the individual’s feeling of loss of his “true self,” destruction of personality, or self-alienation.
The key to the topic of nudity and alienation is the question of their relationship with freedom, and in particular the question of the ratio private property and freedom.
According to the point of view shared by supporters of a closed society, the condition for freedom is the complete absence of private property and, more generally, the complete nakedness of individuals in a perfect society or community (Plato, Francis of Assisi, Marx, etc.). From the point of view of supporters of an open society, private property is one of the main conditions of freedom, and the diversity of individuals, their heterogeneity and, as a consequence, their alienation from each other are prerequisites for the stability of society and its sustainable, dynamic development (J. Locke, J.S. Mill, K. Popper, F. A. Hayek, etc.).
There are, as already noted, two types of freedom. Collectivistic, or utilitarian, freedom is the freedom to act in the direction of a global goal chosen by society (creating a prototype of a heavenly community on earth, building communism, creating a purely Aryan society, etc.). This freedom, as a conscious historical necessity, is incompatible with private property and requires the utmost nakedness of the individual. Nothing external (property, family, knowledge, fashion, etc.) should distract a person from serving the global goal facing society. Individualistic freedom presupposes that an individual, bound by a minimum of collective values and norms, has the opportunity to determine his own life tasks and bears personal responsibility for the results of his activities. This kind of freedom, which presupposes a high degree of independence of individuals from society, is impossible without private property. The freedom of the individual to act in accordance with his own goals, desires and whims requires the diversity of individuals, their diversity and non-nudity. The consequence of this is alienation. At times it escalates to such an extent that it threatens to cut off communication between individuals and sectors of society.
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And first of all, we have to answer the question: what is freedom? Personal freedom is a multifaceted, multifaceted concept.
We are talking primarily about economic freedom, that is, to a large extent, about freedom from exploitation, which in turn also cannot be reduced only to unequal relations between the owners of the means of production and the owners of labor power deprived of them. Unequivalent exchange has been and remains characteristic of relations between the region of developed countries and the third world today, and it is often found in relations between city and countryside. The transition to patriarchy, which meant the world-historical defeat of women, testified to the emergence of another type of exploitation - discrimination against half of humanity, restrictions on women’s rights in owning property, in obtaining an education and profession, in remuneration, etc.
But economic freedom in its scope significantly exceeds freedom from exploitation, including, in particular, such an important point as freedom to make economic decisions, freedom of economic action. An individual (and only he) has the right to decide which type of activity is preferable for him (entrepreneurship, hired labor, etc.), which form of ownership participation seems most appropriate to him, in which industry and in which region of the country he will be active.
Political freedom is extremely important, that is, a set of civil rights that ensures the normal functioning of an individual. At the same time, political freedom cannot be considered only as a means of realizing other freedoms - economic, ideological, etc. Being a means, political freedom at the same time has intrinsic value, because a civilized society is unthinkable without universal and equal suffrage, a fair national-state structure, and the direct participation of the people in resolving issues that vitally affect them. The need for political comfort provided by democracy is an integral feature of the mentality of a modern civilized person.
Another aspect of social comfort is ensured by spiritual freedom - freedom to choose a worldview, ideology, and freedom to propagate them. A special place in the system of spiritual freedom is occupied by what is called “freedom of conscience” both in official documents and in social science literature.
A very specific facet of human freedom is what can be conventionally called epistemological freedom. It can be defined as a person’s ability to act on an increasingly large scale and successfully, as a result of knowledge of the laws of the surrounding natural and social world.
And yet, freedom is only one side that characterizes the social status of an individual. It cannot be absolute, since the individual lives in a society like him, and therefore his freedom should not limit him or interfere with the freedom of others. The relative nature of freedom is reflected in the responsibility of the individual to other individuals and society as a whole. The dependence between freedom and responsibility of the individual is directly proportional: the more freedom society gives a person, the greater his responsibility for using these freedoms. Otherwise, society-corroding anarchy sets in.
Justifying the position about the relationship between individual freedom and the objective conditions of people’s lives in society, Marxism believes that the true basis of all freedoms is “freedom to live,” freedom from want, freedom from exploitation and from uncertainty about the future. They characterize history as the process of realizing freedom, humanity is becoming more and more free in relation to natural and social laws, cognizes them, using this knowledge to realize its goals, but under the conditions of the power of private property and the exploitation of man by man, the growth of freedom for society turns into a loss of it by most people. Marxism sees the reason for this in the alienation of people.
The concept of “alienation” has many meanings. This concept is used in Marxist literature. in at least three basic meanings:
- 1) Any objectification of human activity, when every manifestation of human activity, any result of labor takes on some material form and, therefore, is separated, alienated from him as a creator.
- 2) Reification of the subject, limitation of his active-creative beginning, enslavement of man by the products of his own activity.
- 3) Alienation denotes the mental state of a person who does not feel free in his actions, who is aware of himself as an object of manipulation by some external forces.
All these meanings are interrelated and at the same time differ significantly, which allows them to be used in a fairly broad sense.
In essence, the idea of alienation was embedded in the concept of a “social contract”, based on the transfer by individuals of a significant part of their rights to the state.
In a society with an established social division of labor, and even more so with established and reproduced private property, alienation is inherent in the very act of production, in the production activity of the individual. Alienation characterizes a certain type of connections between opposite parties in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods, and the most important feature of this type is the fundamental divergence of these parties (the owner of the means of production and the owner of the labor force, producer and consumer, etc.). Worker's work belongs to another; in the process of labor he himself belongs not to himself, but to another; labor is something external for the worker, not belonging to his essence. Thus, a person does not satisfy his need for work.
Having arisen in the sphere of material production, alienation extends to all other spheres of social life. Political institutions, production and consumption of spiritual goods, and institutions of the social sphere (education, healthcare) are alienated from the individual. Moreover, alienation is not only the lot of the masses; in a number of aspects it also affects the “top” of society.
Alienation can be represented as a two-stage rocket, the first stage of which takes society onto a trajectory in which their strengths, abilities and the results of their activities are separated from people, as members of social groups. But the “flight” is not completed here: the alienated results of people’s activities themselves become an independent factor, get out of control and turn into a force dominating society. Often this dominance leads to destructive consequences.
The degree of severity of alienation as a social relationship depends not only on the objective reasons that determine it, but also on the sociocultural and psychological background against which it is realized.
- 32.90 KbThe primary task for law enforcement agencies is the protection of personal,
state and public property, established the status of the individual,
guarantees of rights and freedoms. This emphasizes the increasing role of the individual in
modern conditions for its development in society.
Concept of alienation
Alienation(English) alienation, German Entfremdung
Alienation is also a process “characterized by the transformation of human activity and its results into an independent force that dominates him and is hostile to him.” The concept of alienation was first formulated in the 15th-18th centuries by authors and supporters of the social contract theory (Thomas Hobbes, Pierre Gassendi, Benedict (Baruch) Spinoza, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau).
Alienation(English) alienation, German Entfremdung) is the process of separating from people the process and results of their activities (activity is understood broadly, as any social activity), which become beyond the control of a person and even dominate him. As a result, people become alien to the world in which they live.
The essence of Hobbes's concept came down primarily to the understanding and interpretation of alienation as an act of transferring certain human rights to a social system (in general), and in the particular - as a voluntary limitation (alienation) by people of their rights to create, through an agreement, an “artificial body” - the state. Hobbes considered the root cause of people's readiness to resort to mutual alienation of their own rights to be their fear of returning to the natural state that existed before the unification of individuals in society, i.e. to war, and not just war, but “a war of all against all.” The product of early mutual alienation - the state - Hobbes represented as a mass of individuals united into one person. Hobbes thus, perhaps unwittingly and without even realizing the likely consequences of such an approach, combined the problem of alienation with a broad personal problematic.
Marxist theory of alienation
Marx did not stand out on her own. For
Alienation- this is a phenomenon of the mental organization of a person, originally inherent in the genetics of his nature, allowing individual manifestation and individual development.
On the one hand, alienation gives a person a feeling of dissatisfaction, and on the other hand, it is a natural impulse in the search for a feeling of happiness and satisfaction. Human alienation manifests itself in different ways: closedness in relationships with other people, loss of unity with one’s own nature, a keen sense of one’s individuality, contrasting oneself with others. This condition gives rise to many problems and internal conflicts for a person, sometimes leading to an unhappy existence.
In the works of A.V. Petrovsky and V.A. Petrovsky, the phenomenon of alienation can be seen as a problem of the unrepresentation of the subject in the Other and Others V.A. Petrovsky, M.V. Polevoy today is attempting to actualize the problem of alienation in psychology. They interpret the phenomenon of alienation as a person’s loss of his own subjectivity in communication with significant others (and with himself, when a special case is meant - a person’s self-alienation). This view, they believe, corresponds to the intuitive meaning of this word: “... to be alienated” means to feel self-loss, not to feel your connection with loved ones.
However psychology of alienation- this is not a deviation from the norm and not the inevitability of fate. The pace and rhythm of modern life, most often, does not give a person the opportunity to pay sufficient attention to loved ones, limiting his time and connections, allowing him to fully realize such feelings as friendship, love, community and unity.
Conclusion
The phenomenon of alienation attracts the close attention of philosophers, sociologists, psychologists, which is due to the actualization of the problem of the loss of human self-identity, the conflict between actual existence and potential existence, loss of control over the products of labor, the destruction of social relationships, etc.
Sources
- Abramenkova V.V. The problem of alienation in psychology // Questions of psychology. 1990. No. 1. pp. 5-12.
- Abramenkova V.V. Development of collective identification and personalization in childhood // Psychology of the developing personality. M., 1987.
- Abulkhanova-Slavskaya K.A. Activity and consciousness of the individual as a subject of activity // Psychology of personality in socialist society. M., 1989. T.1.
- Philosophy: Textbook / Edited by Doctor of Philosophy, Professor V. I. Lavrinenko - 2nd edition - Moscow: Lawyer, 1998
- Philosophy: Textbook / Edited by Doctor of Philosophy V. P. Kokhanovsky - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1997.
- Philosophy: Historical and systematic course: textbook for universities, 3rd edition - Moscow: Logos Publishing Corporation, 2000. Personality in a rule of law……………………………………………...8
The concept of alienation………………………………………………………………10
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………..13
Sources………………
Personal alienation: causes, forms of manifestation and ways to overcome
The essential characteristics of a person, his interaction with society, will be incomplete without an analysis of the nature, causes and mechanisms of his alienation as a special social phenomenon.
It should be emphasized that the problem of personal alienation in modern social, including sociological, science is one of the least developed. The reason for this was that in the Soviet years, the official ideology was dominated by the opinion that alienation as a social phenomenon is immanent and inherent only in capitalism and that socialism makes alienation of the individual impossible. This was precisely one of the main reasons that our scientists did not address this topic for a long time.
A general definition of alienation was first given by K. Marx and F. Engels in their work “German Ideology”. (See: Marx K., Engels F. Soch. - Vol. 3. - P. 32.) Alienation, in their opinion, is “the consolidation of our own product into some kind of material force dominating us, emerging from - under our control, contrary to our expectations and nullifying our calculations.” In other words, alienation is a state of relations between the individual and society in which the product of the individual’s labor is alienated from it and turns into a force opposing it.
There are various sources and causes of alienation. These, for example, are property relations. Socio-economic alienation is possible in conditions when, on the basis of the existing various forms of ownership, property and social stratification occurs, the interests of the majority of society members are opposed to the interests of the minority, in the hands of which is the bulk of the national wealth, used not in the interests of society, but in their own interests.
The basis and cause of alienation can also be subjective factors. Thus, the economic and social policy of the state, pursued not in the interests of all citizens, but in the interests of the corrupt layers and groups of society, leads to the opposition of the economically and politically dominant elite to the bulk of the population.
Speaking about alienation in Russia in the recent past, it should be said that it was based on processes characteristic of totalitarian systems. Under the conditions of administrative-command management methods, when state forms of ownership were absolutized, a situation arose in which a person was alienated from property. State property found a meaningless form that excluded real interest in its effective use and increase, which led to the loss of the sense of ownership, which led to economic alienation.
A similar thing happened in socio-political and spiritual life. The concentration of economic and managerial functions in the hands of the party and political leadership led to the exclusion of the bulk of society members from real participation in the exercise of power and in solving state and public affairs. And the deformation of social values, the discrepancy between words and deeds led to psychological alienation, a decrease in the status of knowledge, and the professionalization of the significance of the moral content of work. As a result, people withdrew from public affairs, and the individual appeared in the role of a passive performer.
As for the reasons for spiritual alienation, it should be emphasized that it was generated by negative processes in the spiritual sphere and is associated primarily with the deformation of consciousness. Under the influence of a complex of economic, socio-political factors, a certain process took place in the consciousness and behavior of the individual, which was reflected in the loss of faith in ideals, a change in value orientation, the development of indifference, etc. And one of the main reasons for this is total control over the spiritual sphere, restriction of freedom of social creativity. Thus, the dominance of the administrative-command system, the deformation of economic, political and spiritual relations led to the alienation of the individual with all the ensuing consequences.
Radical transformations in all spheres of life marked the beginning of overcoming personal alienation. And today the ways to solve this problem are more or less clearly visible. All renovations carried out in the country should help eliminate the origins and causes of personal alienation.
And this problem is being solved in the following areas:
Economic alienation is overcome as a result of economic reforms (denationalization, privatization, introduction of diverse forms of ownership, etc.), which contribute to the revival and development of a sense of ownership;
Reform of the political system and democratization of all spheres of public life ensure overcoming political alienation. As a result of transformations in the field of political life (improvement of the electoral system, expansion and guarantee of the rights and freedoms of citizens), a reliable basis is created for the creation of genuine democracy and the transformation of every person into an active subject of political life;
Problems of overcoming social exclusion must be solved by radically improving the social conditions of people's work and life, creating the necessary prerequisites and opportunities to satisfy the basic social demands and needs of citizens;
Alienation in the spiritual sphere is overcome on the basis of the moral revival of the people, preventing the commercialization of culture, ensuring wide access of people to art, science, education, and comprehensively raising the level of public and individual consciousness.
So, we have made an attempt to consider the most important aspects of the problem of the relationship between the individual and society, to give a holistic description of the individual, his place in the system of social connections, to show the mechanisms of interaction between the individual and society, the origins and causes of personal alienation, the forms of its manifestation and ways to overcome it.
In-depth knowledge of these issues, in our opinion, should help the student to correctly understand the extremely complex mechanism of interaction between the individual and society, to clearly define his life position, his place in the system of real social relations.
Questions for discussion and discussion