India in modern times. The socio-economic development of India at the beginning of the modern era was uneven. Some mountain and forest areas were inhabited by tribes of nationalities who were at various stages of the formation of class society.
In general, India was at the stage of developed feudalism. The features of feudalism were: ownership of land and large irrigation structures by the feudal state; the distinctive character of the Indian community; widespread preservation of remnants of the communal tribal system and slavery; caste system. Commodity-money relations have reached a significant level of development.
In 1526, the Timurid Babur invaded India and became the founder of the Mughal Empire, which at its height united almost all of India under its rule. The golden age of the Mughal Empire was the reign of Padishah Akbar (1556-1605), who carried out a number of reforms that laid the foundations for governing the country. Tax reform was carried out, as part of the land reform, the land cadastre was completed and the system of jagirs and zamindars was introduced.
The basis of the economy of the Mughal Empire was agriculture. In the XVI - XVIII centuries. it had a fairly high level of productivity, which was facilitated by the use of fertilizers and crop rotation techniques by peasants. The share of industrial crops in agriculture was steadily growing, which stimulated the development of commodity-money relations.
The rural community - the main unit of the agrarian society was complex structure and included several social levels. All lands in the Mughal state were divided into three main categories. From the state domain (Khalis), the Shah distributed military fiefs (jagirs) to officials for their service. From the Khalis lands, the sovereigns distributed tax-free grants to temples, mosques and other religious institutions. A significant layer of the feudal class was made up of zamindars - small feudal lords who came from the community elite, or the Hindu nobility, who retained their ownership rights to land under the Muslim rulers in exchange for submission and payment of tribute. In addition to state lands and military fiefs, there were lands that were privately owned; they were designated by a special term (milk). The main form of taxation was small - land rent - a tax that full-fledged community members paid either to the state, if the land was part of the Khalisa fund, or to the feudal holder. For India XVI - XVIII centuries. There was a high level of trade. The entire country was covered by a network of interconnected markets. Cities were centers of trade exchange - from local to international
The aggravation of the contradictions of feudal society resulted in popular movements. At the same time, some peoples of India fought for their ethnic, territorial and linguistic unity. Wars of liberation Marathas and Jats, the anti-feudal action of the Sikhs had very important consequences. They undermined the power of the Mughal padishahs. This created favorable conditions for the development of feudal separatism. The Mughal governors of a number of regions (Bengal, Oudh, Dean) felt their strength and ceased to obey the Great Mogul. Relying on the local nobility, they began to transform their governorships into states virtually independent of Delhi. The collapse of the Mughal state took place within 30 years, separating the death of Shah Aurangzeb from the invasion of the Persian Shah Nadir. The invasion of Nadir Shah brought the Mughal Empire to the brink of destruction. Political collapse The Mughal state, the signs of which were already clearly visible in the first quarter of the 18th century, ended in the 40s - 60s. By the 60s of the 18th century. the real power of the Great Mughals extended only to a few areas.
The first Europeans to establish themselves in India were the Portuguese. Not wanting to penetrate deep into the country, the Portuguese limited themselves to capturing strongholds on the coast. However, at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries. Portugal lost hegemony on the sea routes to India. It was captured by Holland and England. The English campaign for trade with India was created in 1600 and received a charter from Queen Elizabeth for a monopoly trade with the countries east of the Cape of Good Hope.
In India itself, the campaign sought trade privileges from the Mughals and the elimination of their Portuguese and Dutch competitors. From 1615, the rapid growth of English trading posts began. During the 17th century. The English East India Campaign built a number of trading posts in India and achieved other privileges from the Mughals. The main English trading post in the 17th century. was Madras. The second destination was Bombay.
The first French merchants appeared in India at the beginning of the 17th century. The French campaign for trade with India was created in 1664, it was the brainchild of an absolutist government. In the middle of the 18th century. The most powerful European campaigns in India were the English and French. Their rivalry led them to armed conflict.
By the middle of the 18th century. The English campaign became a very rich organization, which had not only trading posts and a large staff of employees, but also ships and troops. In addition, she enjoyed the support of the government; the powerful English fleet could always provide her with assistance from the mother country. The French campaign was significantly weaker in resources. In her trade wars with England, the weakness of absolutist France at sea played a decisive role. The French government, having ruined its country, was unable to defend its overseas possessions from its stronger English rivals. In 1756 it began Seven Years' War, in which England and France again found themselves adversaries. Moreover, the struggle took place not only in Europe, but spread to America and India. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 effectively ended French rule in India.
England's victory was reflected in its economic strength. Despite the activity and talents of many representatives of the French campaign, they were defeated, since France did not have such a fleet, such money, such an understanding by the government of the value of the colonies, such a well-paid army, as in England.
The conquest of Bengal was important in Indian history. On June 23, 1757, at the Battle of Plassey, the troops of Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah were defeated by the British. The day of this battle is considered by the British to be the date of the founding of their empire in India. Under the guise of gifts and extortion, the robbery of the Bengal feudal lords began. If before this there was trade between India and Great Britain, now the transfer of wealth from India to England began. Perestroika began economic life Bengal. The monopolization of Bengal trade by the British had the most severe consequences for the Bengal economy. Districts captured by the British and too far from Calcutta were difficult to govern. Therefore, a dual control system was introduced civil cases, justice, maintenance of order, etc. were in charge of the local Bengal authorities, and the campaign took into its own hands the collection of land tax. In 1773, the Indian Governance Act was passed. According to this document, all power in India remained in the hands of the campaign. However, the main change was the recognition of the company not just as a trading organization, but as a ruler on Indian territory, and therefore the supervision of its activities passed to the English government. And the highest officials in India - the governor general and four members of his council were to be appointed not by the campaign, but by the government.
In 1784, the major issues of Indian governance shifted largely from campaigning to a board of control appointed by the Prime Minister. The Council gradually began to turn into a kind of department for Indian affairs.
IN further question on the governance of India became the subject of parliamentary struggle during the revision of the campaign charter in 1813. At this time, Mysore and the main Maratha possessions had already been conquered and the preconditions were created for the transformation of India into a sales market. Therefore, the entire English bourgeoisie opposed the trade monopoly of the East India Campaign. The Act of 1833, passed on the initiative of the ruling Whig party, reserved the right of government of India to the campaign, but brought it under further government control by introducing into the Bengal council a crown-appointed official specifically charged with drafting legislation for the whole of India.
The apparatus of colonial oppression in India was created gradually, without a radical overhaul. When the trade campaign actually became the government of India and completely new problems arose before it, it did not create a new mechanism for solving them, but began to adapt the old one. Its trading apparatus gradually turned into an bureaucratic apparatus - a bureaucratic apparatus for managing a huge country.
Three English possessions- Bengal, Madras and Bombay acted almost independently of each other. Each presidency had the right to conduct independent correspondence with the Board of Directors and issue its decisions, which had the force of law in the territory of this presidency. Thus, Bengal, Madras and Bombay had different laws.
The most important element of the colonial apparatus of power was the sepoy army. With its help, the British conquered all of India and also kept the country in check. The sepoy army consisted of three armies - Bengal, Madras and Bombay.
The judicial system played a great role in the oppressive apparatus of India. The Supreme Court was considered the highest judicial body. At the beginning of the 19th century. there were three supreme courts separately in each presidency.
The administration of India was actually in the hands of military and civil officials - the British. However, the lower apparatus consisted of Indians. First, in Bengal, collectors - the British - were placed over the Indian tax collectors, and until the introduction of the permanent zamindari system, the Indian tax apparatus remained under British control.
At the end of the 18th century, the British introduced the system of permanent zamindari. Representatives of the old feudal nobility (zamindars), tax farmers, and moneylenders were given hereditary ownership of land, from which they had to collect a fixed tax once and for all. As a result of the creation and maintenance of such a complex mechanism, the British received a sufficiently strong social support in India to strengthen colonial oppression. However, the ownership rights of the zamindars were limited by a number of conditions. Thus, in case of arrears, the colonial authorities could confiscate the zamindar's estate and sell it at auction.
In the first quarter of the 19th century. On the lands that originally constituted the Madras Presidency, a land tax system was introduced, called rayatvari. In 1818-1823, this system extended to those lands of the Madras Presidency where a permanent zamindari had not yet been introduced. The campaign, through its tax apparatus, leased land in small plots to peasants on an indefinite lease basis. The peasants found themselves virtually attached to the land.
In the first third of the 19th century. In the regions of central India, a slightly modified system was introduced, called Mausavar. Under it, the village community as a whole was considered the fiscal unit and owner of the land.
This policy led to the pauperization of the Indian peasantry and the destruction of the community. The irrigation system is being destroyed.
The customs policy of England, with the help of low duties, encouraged English exports to India, and with the help of high duties, it discouraged the import of Indian handicrafts into England. The transformation of India into a market for British goods also proceeded through the destruction of Indian local production where it competed with English products. In the first third of the 19th century. British colonialists began exploitation Indian colony not only as a sales market, but also as a market for raw materials. This caused an increase in the marketability of peasant farming.
Back in the 18th century. The campaign forced Bengali peasants to sow poppies to export opium to China. At the end of the 18th century. The British began to force Indian peasants to grow indigo as well. Due to the growth of textile production in England, the campaign attempted to widely develop cotton culture. In connection with the growing export of raw silk from India to England, the colonialists made some attempts to expand sericulture.
The intensified exploitation of India by British capitalism and new forms of colonial oppression caused spontaneous resistance from the peoples of India, which broke out in different parts of the country. The uprisings were spontaneous. local, scattered, which made it easier for the East India Campaign to defeat them.
The struggle of the peoples of India against colonial oppression in the last third of the 19th century. The advent of the era of imperialism entailed the intensification of the exploitation of India by new forms and methods, and the growth of its national oppression by the British colonialists. In the 70-90s of the XIX century. In India, the construction of large capitalist enterprises proceeded at a relatively rapid pace. The development of capitalism in India, many decades late compared to European countries, was uneven and one-sided. Grew up mainly light industry, mainly textile, as well as the agricultural processing industry. Of the heavy industries, only mining developed. Industrial enterprises were concentrated mainly on the sea coasts. The brakes on the development of Indian industry were its dependence on the import of British equipment, the lack of cheap capitalist credit, the system of railway tariffs, customs policies favorable to British importers, etc.
The level of agricultural development was extremely low. Feudal-landowner property and semi-serf-like forms and methods of exploitation of the peasants continued to dominate in the countryside. Capitalist relations penetrated into the countryside, mainly into plantation farming (growing tea, jute, etc.) very slowly. The specialization of agriculture rapidly increased, and areas of monocultures emerged. The growth in the marketability of agriculture in the conditions of colonial, semi-feudal India was not due to improved technology and culture of land cultivation, but due to increased tax oppression and semi-serf exploitation of the population.
The colonial regime made the formation of nations in India extremely difficult and slow. The strongest obstacle on this path was the existence of about six hundred feudal principalities, protected in every possible way by the English authorities. Remnants of the caste system and the power of religion greatly hampered the political consolidation of nationalities and the development of national self-awareness. The strengthening of colonial oppression with the approach of the era of imperialism determined that the tasks of the struggle against foreign colonialists came to the fore. The small but influential bourgeois intelligentsia acted as the ideologist of the emerging all-Indian national liberation movement. In the 70s and early 80s, bourgeois-landowner organizations of various political trends arose one after another in Bengal, Bombay and other economically most developed provinces of the country.
The further development of the national liberation movement was greatly influenced by spontaneous peasant uprisings. The beginning of the wave peasant uprisings against the “dirty troika” (as the British rulers, landowners and money lenders were called in India) were the events of 1872 in Punjab. The struggle of the working masses of the villages and urban lower classes was led by a sect called “Namdhari”. In 1879, another uprising of the Maratha peasantry began, which this time was both anti-feudal and anti-British in nature. It was led by a minor official from the city of Pune, patriot-revolutionary Vasudev Balwant Phadke. In the early 1980s, uprisings took place in Rajputana, Bihar, the Madras province (“five disturbances” of the Moplah people), etc. The British colonialists were able to crush all these scattered uprisings. But the determination with which the peasants fought against foreign enslavers, for the elimination of zamindarism and usury, and armed forms of struggle forced the authorities to make some concessions.
The Ottoman Empire in modern times.
Ottoman Empire in the 16th - early 19th centuries. At the beginning of the 16th century. The Ottoman Empire, having made huge territorial gains in Europe and the Middle East, became the largest power in the east. Since 1517, the absolute monarch of the Ottoman Empire combined in himself the titles of head of secular power and spiritual ruler of all Muslims living within his state. The Ottoman Empire included almost all the lands of the former caliphate (Arabia, Iraq, the Maghreb and even part of the Transcaucasus, not to mention noticeable new acquisitions (the Balkans and Crimea). The powerful Ottoman Empire became a threat to Europe, including Russia.
In Turkey, the military-feudal Timariot system of land tenure dominated. The right of inheritance was associated with the heir's obligation to serve in the army. It was prohibited to transfer timar into the wrong hands on other grounds. The Timariots constituted the main military force of Turkey.
All lands were divided into state lands, which belonged to private individuals under certain conditions, and lands of religious institutions (waqf), while the Sultan was the supreme owner of all lands of the empire.
As the empire grew, its internal structure became more complex. The internal management system also changed. A layer of civilian officials appeared, equated to warriors, and an influential layer of senior officials appeared from among the dignitaries and the Sultan’s relatives. The government of the country - the highest council (diwan-i-humayun) was appointed by the sultan and was responsible to him. It consisted of several ministers - viziers and was headed by the grand vizier. The activities of the government were regulated by the code of laws of Kanun-name adopted under Mehmed II (1444 - 1481), as well as by Islamic law - Sharia. The military administrative system was headed by the Grand Vizier. Country by the 16th century was divided into 16 large regions - eyalets, headed by a governor - beylerbey, who was subordinate to the grand vizier.
In the 16th century The area of cultivated lands of the empire practically stopped growing, while population growth continued at a very rapid pace. On the one hand, this led to the fragmentation of timars and, consequently, to a decrease in their profitability. On the other hand, to the deterioration of the quality of life of paradise, to the appearance in their midst of everything more landless. Unprofitability of small timar at the turn of the 16th - 17th centuries. was aggravated by the wave of price revolution that reached Turkey, caused by the influx of cheap American silver into Europe. All this caused a series popular uprisings. Urgent reforms were needed.
At first, the authorities took the easiest path. The Sipahi decided to compensate for the decline of the corps by increasing the Janissary corps, but relying on the Janissaries had the opposite effect. Expenditures on the army increased sharply; the treasury was not always able to pay the Janissaries' salaries on time. In response, they began to rebel and even remove unwanted sultans. In 1656, Mahmed Köprülü became the Grand Vizier, who introduced the first series of necessary reforms to Turkey. Their meaning was reduced to restoring the combat effectiveness of the timars and reviving the decaying timar system. The Timaras were restored by infringing on certain other categories of land tenure. This led to strengthening of discipline in the army, increased authority central government and there were even some victories won. In particular, in 1681 the empire was annexed right bank Ukraine. However, these successes were short-lived.
At the turn of the XVII - XVIII centuries. Türkiye suffered a number of serious defeats in wars. Increasingly, one or another European power, as a result of the war with Turkey, sought certain benefits or advantages in trade (the first such benefits - capitulation - were granted to the French in 1535). In 1580, the British achieved such benefits; at the beginning of the 18th century. - Austrians. From about 1740, capitulations began to turn into unequal treaties.
The collapse of the Ottoman Empire began in the 18th century, when, as a result of a series of wars with Austria, Russia and Iran, Turkey lost some peripheral territories - part of Bosnia, Tabriz, Azov and Zaporozhye. In addition, she was forced to agree to renounce political control in some other countries (Georgia, Moldova, Wallachia). By the end of the 18th century. local dynasties of the Maghreb countries, Egypt, Arabia, Iraq were also very loosely controlled by the Turkish Sultan, Napoleon's Egyptian expedition at the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries. was another sensitive blow to the prestige of the Ottoman Empire. The Wahhabi uprising finally tore Arabia away from Turkey, which soon found itself in the hands of the powerful Muhammad Ali of Egypt.
First, the decline of military power, and then the economic and political lag of Turkey from the rapidly developing capitalist Europe led at the end of the 18th century. to the fact that for the European powers, which previously had difficulty fighting off the onslaught of the Turks, the so-called Eastern question arose. Starting from this time, Turkey actually lost its former independence in international affairs, and the very preservation of the empire as a large military-political association largely began to depend on disagreements between the powers.
Last third of the 18th century. is a turning point in the history of wrestling Balkan peoples against the Turkish yoke. One of the factors of the national liberation movement was the appearance of Russian troops in the Balkans, the victories won by Russia over Turkey on land and at sea in the wars of 1768-1774. and 1787-1791 During the reign of Selim III, almost all oppressed peoples fought in a powerful movement, including the Greeks, Bulgarians, Montenegrins, Serbs, Romanians in the Balkans, Arabs in Egypt and the Arabian Peninsula.
The second round of reforms associated with the names of Sultans Selim III (1789 - 1807) and Mahmud II (1808 - 1839). Selim III, carrying out reforms in the army, in the field of land ownership, finance, administration, etc., tried to strengthen the central government and prevent the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. The main thing was the desire of the reformers to put an end to the military-feudal system and such an ugly manifestation of it as the Janissary Corps. Therefore, Mahmud II on May 28, 1826 issued the highest decree on the creation of a regular army. At the same time, Mahmud II dealt with the Bektashi Sufi order, closely associated with the Janissaries. Thus, the prerequisites were created for the creation of a regular army.
The consequences of the Turkish-Egyptian conflict showed how difficult Turkey's political and military situation was and its dependence on European powers increased. Its economic situation was no less difficult; the growth of political dependence was accompanied by increased economic dependence on large capitalist countries.
Agriculture continued to remain in extremely difficult condition. But a new phenomenon became increasingly noticeable - the growth of large private land ownership (chiftliks) at the expense of timars and zeamets, especially in European Turkey. The situation of peasants in chiftliks was even more difficult than in timars, because they were forced to give half of the harvest to the owner of the chiftlik and, in addition, pay ashar and other taxes to the state. In the first third of the 19th century. there were many in Turkey major cities. From the second quarter of the 19th century. Some industries began to develop in the cities - textiles, leather, ceramics, and weapons production. The regular army was a major consumer of local industrial products. Progressive processes have become noticeable in industry itself; they were expressed in the growth of the division of labor, in the emergence of manufactories and even factories. Domestic and especially foreign trade revived noticeably, which in turn contributed to the growth of cities located on the sea coasts and on large inland trade routes.
The well-known development of industry and trade led to the emergence of the industrial and growth of the commercial bourgeoisie. However, foreign capital already stood in the way of the development of Turkish trade and the industrial bourgeoisie.
Socio-economic development of Turkey in the first third of the 19th century. urgently demanded reforms in land relations and the state system. In 1831-1832 The final liquidation of the military-feudal system of land tenure began. Timars and zeamets were taken away from the fiefs and added to the state fund. The liquidation of the military-feudal system was accompanied by administrative reform, since the previous system was the basis of the administrative structure of the Ottoman Empire. Among other reforms, mention should be made of the unification of the customs system in 1836, the abolition of the state monopoly on the purchase of wheat and wool in 1838, the creation in 1836 - 1837. ministries of foreign affairs, internal affairs, military, establishment of permanent embassies in Paris, Vienna, London and Berlin. Sultan Mahmud II tried to show that he was a supporter of the equality of all subjects without distinction of religion.
Was busy with further development of reforms special commission led by a major statesman, diplomat Mustafa Reshid Pasha, an admirer of the West. Reformers hoped that the proclamation of reforms would eliminate the threat of interference by powers in Turkey's internal affairs and ease the internal political crisis. On November 3, 1839, a decree was proclaimed in the park of the Sultan's palace (Gülhane (House of Roses). It contained a promise to provide all subjects of the Ottoman Empire with security of life, honor and property, correct methods of distribution and collection of taxes, abolition of the tax-farm system, regulation of conscription into the army and reduction of military service periods.
In development of the Gulhaney Act, a number of decrees on reforms were issued. These reforms were called “tanzimat-i hayriye” (“beneficial reforms”) in Turkish official historiography. In 1840 the collection of taxes was reformed. In the same year, a semblance of a criminal code was drawn up and the development of a civil code began. By decree of 1843 it was established new structure army. Universal (for Muslims) was declared conscription. That same year, the death penalty for renegades from Islam was abolished.
Pashas, tax farmers, moneylenders, clergy and other reactionaries, especially in the provinces, disrupted the implementation of reforms. The reforms carried out from above did not in the least improve the situation of the working masses, but they contributed to the growth of the bourgeoisie, including those of non-Turkish nationality. At the same time, they contributed to strengthening the position of foreign capital in Turkey, which by that time was already significant. In 1838-1841. England, France and other Western states concluded unfavorable trade agreements with Turkey, which provided them with new privileges in addition to those that had long existed on the basis of capitulations. Foreign capital increasingly adapted the Turkish economy to its needs. In the 30-50s of the XIX century. The import of foreign manufactured goods to Turkey and (to a much lesser extent) the export of Turkish agricultural raw materials increased. The import of foreign goods, secured by many privileges, caused the decline of Turkish industry. The export of raw materials had well-known progressive consequences for Turkey: commodity-money relations in the countryside grew, and the production of some agricultural products expanded or re-emerged. Thus, both politically and economically in the 30-50s of the 19th century, despite the reforms, the preconditions were created for the transformation of Turkey into a semi-colony of developed capitalist countries, mainly England and France, in their agricultural and raw materials appendage.
To cover expenses, the government began to often resort to external loans. This situation caused alarm among the Turkish public. Among the liberal intelligentsia, a movement emerged that, as a measure of salvation, put forward a demand for the creation of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Objectively, it reflected the interests of the Turkish bourgeoisie; supporters of the reforms were called Young Turks or New Ottomans.
Ottoman Empire in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. The development of world capitalism into imperialism accelerated the process of turning the Ottoman Empire into a semi-colony. Foreign loans and concessions became a weapon for the economic and political enslavement of the country. Taking advantage of Turkey's extremely difficult economic situation after the Crimean War, European bankers managed to entangle the country in a network of financial dependence through loans. The severity of the external debt was so great that its repayment accounted for about half of all state expenditures. By 1879, the situation had deteriorated so much that the Porte declared the Ottoman Empire completely financially bankrupt. As a result of negotiations between the Porte and creditors, in 1881 the “Ottoman Public Debt Office” was created from representatives of the largest European banks, which established their control over the most important sources of state revenue. Foreign capital has established full control over the country's finances. The financial dependence of the Ottoman Empire was used by the powers to obtain profitable concessions. The transition to imperialist methods of exploitation was combined with the preservation and development of previous forms characteristic of the period of industrial capitalism.
A characteristic feature of the foreign trade of the Ottoman Empire was an ever-increasing deficit. In the early 70s, the Ottoman Empire entered a period of protracted crisis, loss of control over certain territories and active interference of Western powers in its internal affairs. The crisis was aggravated by a new rise in the national liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples, since the Tanzimat reforms did not lead to a noticeable improvement in the situation.
The situation became especially acute in 1873. Two lean years in a row led to a sharp deterioration in the situation in the countryside and a drop in tax revenues to the treasury. The aggravation of the internal political crisis and the intervention of the great powers created a favorable environment for the speech of supporters of constitutional reforms, led by Midhat Pasha. On the night of May 30, 1876, Sultan Abdul Aziz was deposed and killed.
On August 31, 1876, he was deposed. His younger brother Abdul Hamid II became Sultan. Sultan Abdul Hamid II (reigned 1876-1909) approved the draft constitution developed by Midhat Pasha and Namık Kemal, and on December 23, 1876, the “Midhat Constitution” was solemnly promulgated. However, already at the beginning of 1877, the Sultan removed Midhat Pasha from the post of Grand Vizier, subjected the majority of the “new Ottomans” to repression, and in February 1878 he dissolved the parliament elected according to the constitution and established an autocratic despotic regime (“zulum”).
Defeat of Turkey in the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. actually led to the almost complete collapse of Turkish rule in the Balkans. The Berlin Congress of 1878 recognized the independence of the majority of the Balkan peoples.
In an effort to keep the subject peoples in obedience, Abdul Hamid II cruelly persecuted the slightest manifestations of free thought, incited national and religious hatred, and provoked clashes between Muslims and Christians. However, “Zulum” could not stop the growth of progressive forces in the country. IN late XIX V. The political successors of the “new Ottomans” were the Young Turks, whose first organization was the secret committee “Unity and Progress” established in 1889.
Young Turk revolution. The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 was the first bourgeois revolution in Turkey. The goal was to overthrow the despotic regime of Sultan Abdul Hamid II, introduce a constitutional system, and, in the longer term, liberate the country from semi-colonial dependence. Its prerequisites arose at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, when the transformation of the Ottoman Empire into a semi-colony of imperialist powers was completed, and the despotic regime of Sultan Abdul Hamid II, deepening the discontent of the popular masses, gave rise to an active protest movement in the circles of the bourgeois intelligentsia (especially officers), reflecting the interests of the young, still very weak Turkish national bourgeoisie. The movement was led by the secret organization “Unity and Progress”. The beginning of the Young Turk Revolution was preceded by the Chetnik (partisan) movement in Macedonia and the sailors' revolt Turkish fleet in 1906, popular protests in Anatolia in 1906-1907, unrest in Arab countries and others. The immediate impetus for the Young Turk Revolution was the Revel meeting of the English and Russian monarchs (June 1908), during which it was planned to carry out new reforms in Macedonia, actually aimed at separating it from Turkey. On July 3, 1908, a Turkish couple formed in the city of Resna under the command of Major Niyazi raised an uprising, the purpose of which was to restore the constitution of 1876.
On July 6, a couple led by Major Enver (Enver Pasha) spoke out, and a few days later the uprising spread to most of the Turkish military units in Macedonia. They were joined by the Macedonian and Albanian couples. On July 23, revolutionary troops entered Thessaloniki, Bitol and other large cities of Macedonia. At crowded rallies, the restoration of the 1876 constitution was proclaimed. Convinced of the futility of resistance, Abdul Hamid II signed a decree convening parliament.
Having limited the goals of the revolution to the establishment of a constitutional system, the leaders of the Young Turks sought to nip the activity of the masses in the bud and to earn the “favor” of the imperialist powers with their moderation. Workers' strikes were suppressed, and national minorities were persecuted. At the same time, the feudal-clerical and comprador opposition, supported by the imperialist powers, prepared and carried out a counter-revolutionary rebellion in April 1909, which briefly restored the autocracy of Abdul Hamid II. The rebellion was suppressed by military units and Chetniks arriving from Macedonia. The parliament deposed Abdul Hamid (April 27, 1909) and elected the weak-willed Mehmed V as sultan. However, having strengthened their power, the Young Turks soon completely lost their former, albeit limited, bourgeois revolutionary spirit. They directed the doctrine of Ottomanism (“equality of all Ottomans”) that they proclaimed towards the forcible Turkification of the peoples of the empire. The objectively progressive tendencies of Turkish bourgeois nationalism (Turkism) were replaced by the chauvinistic ideology of pan-Turkism; Abdulhamid's pan-Islamism was also revived. Already by 1910-1911. The Young Turk Revolution was essentially defeated. Since 1913, after Enver's coup d'etat, the constitution and parliament have practically lost all meaning. Unsolved problems constituted the historical legacy for the new stage of the Turkish bourgeois revolutionary movement
Japan in modern times. By the middle of the 16th century. Japan was politically fragmented, and the power and influence of the central government was in decline. The movement for the unification of the country was led by medium and small daimyos - rulers of small principalities. They faced the threat of uprisings and mass exodus of peasants from the principalities. Hence their desire to unify the country, to create a central government that would put an end to the internecine struggle and consolidate the rights of feudal lords to govern their principalities and suppress the resistance of the peasants. The first so-called unifier of Japan, the daimyo of the Minno region, Oda Nobunaga, emerged from the middle-class feudal lords. All the activities of the other leaders of the movement for the unification of the country, Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu, were primarily in the interests of this group of feudal lords.
By the middle of the 18th century. Japan was a feudal country, with the Tokugawa house in power. He exercised a military-feudal dictatorship in the form of a shogunate under conditions of a relatively centralized feudal state and virtually ruled all of Japan single-handedly.
The most decisive measures to strengthen the feudal system were carried out by Nobunaga's successor, the de facto dictator of Japan, Hideyoshi. He issued a decree confiscating weapons from the peasants and began major reforms in relation to the peasantry. A land census was carried out - cadastre. According to Hideyoshi's decree, the peasants were subject to high land taxes and introduced strict restrictions on peasant spending for personal needs. The villages were divided into five-yards, headed by the most wealthy peasants, with mutual responsibility for the payment of basic rent and other taxes.
The first Europeans to penetrate Japan were the Portuguese (1543), and it was they who introduced the Japanese to firearms. In addition to European goods - weapons, fabrics, the Portuguese imported Chinese silk to Japan. They flooded the country with missionaries who converted the population to Christianity. Regions whose rulers converted to Christianity received certain trading privileges from the Europeans. Toyotomi Hideyoshi was interested in trade with Europeans. But in 1587, after the subjugation of his most dangerous rival on the island of Kyushu, Shimazu, he issued the first decree banning missionary propaganda. This was continued by Tokugawa Ieyasu, but he also promoted trade with Europeans, with the British and Dutch who appeared in Japan at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries. At the same time, he continued to persecute missionaries and Japanese Christians. Ieyasu's successors, the shoguns Hidetada (1605 - 1623) and Iemitsu (1623 - 1651), intensified the persecution of Christians. In order to complete the unification of Japan and strengthen the feudal system, the shogunate eventually resorted to isolating the country from the outside world. The government feared the consequences of foreign missionary activity. The Christian religion became a weapon of sections of the population opposing the central government. The country's isolation from the outside world determined the economic and cultural backwardness of Japan in the 17th - 19th centuries.
By 1640 - 1700, the feudal structure of the shogunate was also taking shape. Tokugawa divided the nobility into several categories - the imperial family was allocated to a special group (Kuge). All other feudal clans were called Buke (military houses). The Daimyo princes, in turn, were divided into three categories - the first belonged to the house of the shogun and was called Ma Shinhan, the second - futzai - daimyo included princely families that had long been associated with the Tokugawa house, which were its main support, the third category - totzama consisted of the sovereign princes, independent of the Tokugawa house and considering themselves equal to it as feudal families. Formally, samurai also belonged to buke. The cessation of internecine wars contributed to the development of Japanese agriculture. Commercial agriculture, cotton cultivation, and sugar cane silk gradually grew. In the 17th century the specialization of regions for individual crops was clearly defined.
The increase in the growth of the urban population also occurred due to the rapid emergence of the so-called castle towns, of which there were more than two hundred. The guilds and guilds of medieval Japan experienced some transformation during this period, and government monopolies were formed on their basis. At the beginning of the 17th century. The unification of the country is being completed, which took place under the shogun Iemitsu. In 1633, Iemitsu, by a special decree, formalized the hostage system.
The decomposition of feudal society in the 18th century. was expressed in a reduction in the harvest of rice - the main agricultural crop, and a reduction in the cultivated area. During the century, population growth in Japan did not exceed 0.01% per year. A sharp deterioration in the living conditions of peasants gave rise to a rapidly growing popular movement in the 18th century. It took on an active, combative character, despite the lack of weapons among the peasants.
30s and early 40s of the 19th century. Characterized for Japan by a new period of severe famine, a rapid rise in the movement of peasants and the urban lower classes. During this period there are approximately 11 peasant uprisings per year.
Western powers, implementing their colonization policies, are showing interest in opening up the country. The United States has repeatedly tried to end Japan's isolation. In 1851, President Filmore decided to speed up the conclusion of an agreement with Japan, not stopping, if necessary, from using violent measures. For this purpose, Perry's military expedition was formed. The arrival of the American military squadron to the Japanese shores and the defiant behavior of the ships caused terrible confusion among the authorities and the population of Edo. On February 13, 1854, Perry's squadron reappeared off the coast of Japan. The bakufu government accepted all the conditions proposed by the American side. On March 31, the first Japanese-American treaty, called the Treaty of Peace and Friendship, was signed in Yokohama. This ends Japan's period of self-isolation in relations with foreign powers.
The signing of unequal treaties by the shogun government and the subsequent invasion of Japan by foreign capital caused a new aggravation of the political crisis in the country.
In connection with the arrival of Perry's expedition, two camps were formed in Japan, the struggle between which became acute. Supporters of concluding agreements with foreign countries united into the “Country Opening Party” under the leadership of the head of government, Ia Naofke. The second camp united into the “Barbarian Expulsion Party,” led by the feudal prince Mito Nariaki. The political struggle in Japan reached unprecedented tension after the signing of the treaties of 1857-1858. and the failures of Japanese missions sent to Europe and the United States during 1860-1861. for the purpose of revising unequal treaties. The shogun's government accepted in 1863 the opposition's proposal to begin “expulsion of the barbarians” and stop all trade with foreign countries. In accordance with this, the Choshu Principality in June-July of the same year fired at American, French and Dutch ships in the Shimonoseki Strait and actually closed the strait to foreign ships. All these actions, sanctioned by the government, accelerated the powers' repressive measures against Japan. The English government decided to take the initiative for the punitive expedition. The most significant was the punitive expedition in August 1863, when seven ships of Admiral Cooper's squadron fired on the capital of the Satsuma principality - the city of Kagoshima. At the beginning of September 1864, a combined squadron of England, the USA, France and Holland under the command of Admiral Cooper fired at the coast of the Choshu Principality in the Shimonoseki Strait. As a result of these actions in October
In 1864, an agreement was signed between foreign ambassadors and representatives of the shogunate. It provided for the prohibition of Prince Choshu to build fortifications along the shores of the Shimonoseki Strait and provided foreign courts complete freedom of passage through it. New ultimatum demands were presented to the Shogun government. New pressure from the powers led to the capitulation of the shogunal government and imperial court: In November
In 1865, the emperor ratified all treaties signed by Japan with foreign countries; in the summer of 1866, a new convention on import tariffs was concluded, which further worsened the situation of the Japanese economy.
In the context of the intervention of Western powers in Japan, a political struggle unfolded for predominant influence in the future government in the event of a coup. In October 1867, the head of the domain Choshu Yamanouchi, on behalf of the anti-Tokugawa camp, presented the shogun Keiki with a memorandum, which contained a demand to eliminate the dual power (shogun and emperor) and return supreme power to the emperor. On November 9, 1867, Keiki “voluntarily” accepted the offer of resignation and return of power to the emperor. On January 3, 1868, 15-year-old Emperor Mutsuhito announced the formation of a new government led by Prince Arisugawa. However, Keiki, unable to maintain his influence in the new government, began an armed struggle against the new regime. In the battles of Fushimi and Toba (1868), his troops were defeated, and he himself fled to Edo. Thus, as a result of the coup of 1867-1868. and the suppression of the forces of feudal reaction during the civil war of 1868-1869. The main task was solved - the military-feudal system of the shogunate, headed by the Tokugawa house, was eliminated. The conditions were created for victory and the establishment of a new, capitalist social system.
Coup of 1867-1868 had an anti-feudal character, was bourgeois in nature and economic content. Ideological propaganda carried out in the cities by various intelligentsia of samurai origin played a large role in the preparation and execution of the coup. The main driving forces of the anti-feudal revolution of 1867-1868. were the peasantry and the urban poor, they were supported by low-ranking samurai, who objectively reflected the interests of the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie and the “new landowners.”
The leading role in the bourgeois coup belonged to the noble-bourgeois coalition, a bloc of the progressive part of the southwestern feudal lords and the emerging bourgeoisie. Although the Japanese bourgeoisie was still economically weak, it still had sufficient capital to finance the political struggle against the old, shogunal system. Wealthy merchants and moneylenders from the Edo and Osaka houses of Mitsui, Konoike, Yodoya, Ono and Shimada, who possessed large material assets, provided loans to the anti-shogun camp and made numerous donations, intending in this way to ensure a favorable direction of events and influence on the nature of state power, replacing the shogunate.
Capitalist development of Japan in the last third of the 19th century. Japanese phenomenon. Completed in 1871 state association countries. In 1872, universal conscription was introduced, the most important transformation government introduced the agrarian reform of 1872-1873. The example of agrarian reform clearly revealed the unfinished nature of the bourgeois revolution in Japan. Remnants of feudalism remained in Japan both in the economy and in the political superstructure. In the 1880s, Japan entered a period of rapid industrial development. This rise was largely prepared by the previous period, during which the imperial government actively encouraged private enterprise. From 1868 to 1880, a series of so-called “model enterprises” were organized in Japan, created by the state in order to subsequently transfer them into the hands of private owners. The state encouraged industrial development by investing heavily in the construction of new factories and factories. The impoverished peasantry was a source of cheap labor for the cities. During this period, Japan's industrial development was still one-sided. Light, mainly textile, industry predominated. The narrowness of its own industrial and raw material base made the Japanese economy dependent on foreign markets for raw materials. At the beginning of 1880, the first political parties began to take shape in Japan, the social base and support of which were landowner-bourgeois circles. These parties were liberal in their political guidelines. The activities of the opposition resulted in the formation in 1881 of a political party - “jiyuto” (liberal party). At the same time, opposition sentiments became widespread among the Japanese bourgeoisie, both among the trade and financial bourgeoisie, and among the rapidly growing national (industrial) bourgeoisie. On such a platform, a party of the liberal bourgeoisie was founded in 1882, called “kaishinto” (“reform party”). In the 1880s, both parties began a movement for a constitution. The constitutional movement in Japan was called "minken undo" ("people's rights movement"). In the beginning, the government sharply suppressed the activities of minken undo. However, the most far-sighted leaders of Japanese absolutism understood the need for limited reforms and concessions, including the constitution, in order to maintain balance in society and the order as a whole. In 1889, the Japanese Constitution was proclaimed.
The most important feature of the 1889 constitution was its confirmation of the power of the Japanese monarchy. The Japanese parliament was formed into two chambers. Although the Japanese parliament was constructed on a very narrow basis, its early years were marked by frequent conflicts between parliament and government. The armament of Japan, especially the construction of a strong navy, proceeded at a rapid pace and was directly related to the impending war of conquest against China. The closest object of aggression was Korea.
In 1876, Japan, under the threat of military intervention, imposed the first unequal treaties on Korea, and in 1882-1884. expanded them significantly. On August 1, 1894, war was declared.
Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895 demonstrated the complete superiority of capitalist Japan over China. The war of conquest against China has greatly accelerated capitalist development Japan. It gave impetus to the growth of a number of industries, contributed to the expansion of Japan's foreign trade, and marked the beginning of the Japanese colonial empire. At the end of the 1890s. With the active help of England, Japan hastily strengthened the armament of the army and navy, preparing for war with Russia.
Japan in 1900 - 1914 At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Japanese capitalism entered the stage of imperialism, which had a number of features due to historical development countries. It developed as military-feudal imperialism, in which the dominance of monopoly capital was combined with semi-feudal remnants and the significant political role of the landowner class. The state form of Japanese imperialism was a formally constitutional, but in fact an absolute monarchy, personifying the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie and landowners. The proximity of economically and militarily weak countries (China, Korea) increased the aggressiveness of Japanese imperialism.
The increase in the size of the working class and the growth of its political consciousness led to a significant rise in the labor movement. In 1897, on the initiative of Sen Katayama, a society for promoting the organization of trade unions was created. In 1898, with the participation of Sen Katayama and Denjiro Kotoku, a society for the study of socialism was founded, and in May 1901, on the basis of this society, a Social Democratic Party was created, which was immediately banned by the government.
In 1900, Japan, along with other powers, took part in suppressing the anti-imperialist Yihetuan Uprising in China. At the beginning of the 20th century. Controversies between Japan and Russia intensified over Manchuria and Korea. The Japanese government launched active preparations for war with Russia, securing actual support from Great Britain and the United States. In 1902, a treaty was signed between Great Britain and Japan. Violating previously concluded Russian-Japanese treaties, Japan in February 1904 unleashed the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905.
She won a number of victories over the tsarist troops, but was exhausted by the war. In May 1905, she turned to the United States with a request for mediation. In July 1905, an agreement was signed between the United States and Japan, according to which the United States agreed to establish a Japanese protectorate over Korea. As a result of the negotiations that began in August 1905 with American mediation in Portsmouth, the Portsmouth Peace Treaty of 1905 was signed between the parties in September, according to which Russia recognized Korea as a sphere of influence of Japan, ceded the lease of the Kwantung region with Port Arthur and Dalny, the southern branch CER and the southern part of the island. Sakhalin.
In November 1905, a treaty on Japanese protectorate over Korea was imposed on the Korean government. In August 1910, Korea was annexed and turned into a Japanese colony. For the exploitation of Southern Manchuria in 1906
The semi-governmental concern of the South Manchurian Railway (SMZD) was created. Japanese monopolies included other areas of China in their sphere of activity. In 1914, Japanese investment in China amounted to 220 million US dollars, compared to 1 million US dollars in 1900.
The capture of new markets and the militarization of the economy gave impetus to the development of Japanese industry. Overall volume The gross output of factory enterprises increased from 1905 to 1914. almost twice.
Feudal China under the rule of the Qing Empire. By the beginning of the 16th century. China was a centralized state with a monarchical form of government. The state structure of the Minsk Empire was a typical eastern despotism. The agricultural sector remained dominant in China's economy. In Ming China, a unique system of taxes and duties developed, based on both in-kind and cash collections, carried out twice a year. On state lands, taxes were higher than on conditionally private ones. The state's desire to increase taxes led to acute contradictions.
In 1622, peasant uprisings began under the leadership of the White Lotus secret society. In April 1644, the rebels entered the capital. Having taken power, the rebel leader Li Zicheng was proclaimed the new emperor. However, the Ming government army, commanded by General Wu Sangui, was on the Manchurian front during the fall of Beijing. It did not recognize the new government. Choosing between the rebels and the former Chinese elite, who demanded to turn to the Manchus for help, he decides to recognize himself as a Manchu vassal, and open the gates in the Great Wall of China for their access to Chinese territory.
After capturing Beijing on June 6, 1644 and declaring the city the new capital of the state, the Bogdykhan of the Manchus, Shunzhi, was again proclaimed emperor of the Qing state on October 30.
By 1645, the Manchus had concentrated about half of the territory of the Ming Empire under their control. In 1681, the Zinns managed to eliminate the last independent state entity
Manchus in general outline retained the previous principles of Chinese government. They sought to show the continuity of their power.
The main changes affected mainly the social structure of society. The class system consisted of 5 groups. The Manchus became the dominant people on Chinese territory, from which the highest elite, both civil and military, was formed. The second most important social stratum in Qing China were the Chinese aristocrats, but even the most influential of them could not compare in legal status with the Manchu nobility. Shenshi (scientists) had a monopoly right to occupy official positions.
The class of commoners (liang min) united the bulk of the inhabitants of China. It consisted of farmers, artisans and traders. At the bottom of the social ladder were the lowest. They were engaged in non-prestigious professions. Representatives of others ethnic groups, living in China, at that time actually did not have any rights.
The coming to power of the Manchus could not but lead to changes in the economic sphere of life in Chinese society. Without a real opportunity to take ownership of all of China's land, the Manchu elite left most of it to the Chinese owners. The Manchus allocated lands for themselves in the capital province of Zhili, as well as in a number of other areas with compact residence of the Manchu population. The bulk of the land fund was in conditional private ownership, for the use of which the owners paid taxes.
The Qing's foreign policy was traditional, borrowed from previous Chinese emperors. It was based on the doctrine of Sinocentrism. The Qing court, soon after extending its power over the entire territory of China, began to pursue a policy of strict isolation of the country from the outside world, forcibly liquidating the rich sea and land trade ties that had long existed between China and the countries Far East, Southeast and South Asia, Africa.
From the moment they established themselves in China, the Qings began to suppress the resistance of the peoples they captured and pursue an aggressive policy towards neighboring peoples and states. In 1758, the Dzungar Khanate was destroyed. After the final conquest of Mongolia by the Manchu rulers, Tibet was included by the Qingns in their empire.
The Qinns waged wars of conquest against Burma from 1767 to 1769. and in 1788 and Vietnam (1788 - 1789), but here the wars ended with the defeat of the Qing troops and the expulsion of the invaders.
By the beginning of the 19th century. The features of the crisis began to appear more and more clearly Qing China. This was manifested both in domestic politics and in the economy. The authority of the central government was falling. A deep crisis also gripped the economy. The landlessness of peasants continued in the country. In cities, many categories of the population were in a difficult situation.
At the beginning of the 19th century. The Zinns continue to pursue a policy of self-isolation. However, this situation could no longer suit many European powers, which by this time were in a stage of rapid economic growth. Representatives of the English East India Campaign, who saw a second India in China, were especially active. In 1816 and 1834 Two more English missions were sent to China with the task of opening China. The main success of the British was the increase in the import of opium into China from neighboring India. The Chinese government has repeatedly tried to interfere with the opium trade. Foreigners simply ignored the bans in favor of their own commercial interests. In an effort to prevent the import of opium into China in 1839, the Qings appointed the patriotic official Lin Zexu as governor of Canton, who categorically prohibited the import of opium into the ports, which provoked the first Opium War (1840 - 1842), which resulted in the signing of China's first unequal treaty with a foreign power. The Anglo-Chinese Treaty of Nanking turned China into a dependent country.
Transformation of China into a semi-colony. After the defeat in the second Opium War, the need arose in the ruling circles of China to once again try to find a way out of the current unfavorable situation, which threatened to turn it, the largest state in the East, into an appendage of the Western powers. As a result, a new line of development was developed, which in historiography was called the “policy of self-strengthening “Zi Qiang”.
The idea of borrowing from foreigners and introducing the best achievements in the field of science and technology became the main one during the period of reforms of the 60s and 70s of the 19th century. It has its roots in the theory of “assimilating overseas affairs.” Six main components in pursuing a policy of self-strengthening were officially proclaimed: training soldiers, building ships, producing machines, raising funds for the maintenance of the armed forces, attracting capable people to manage and determination for the long-term implementation of the above measures. This line was carried out virtually unchanged until 1895. The promoters of the policy of self-strengthening established strict military-political and economic control over the population of the empire, strengthened the system of mutual responsibility and denunciations.
The uniqueness of China's industrial development lay in the fact that modern industry arose first in the form of state-owned enterprises - arsenals, shipyards created by the leaders of feudal-regional groups, and enterprises owned by foreign capital. The sharply increased expansion of foreign capital into China led to its seizure of the most important positions in the economy and to the emergence of a relatively strong and rapidly developing foreign sector in the economy. The country was turning into a semi-colony of Western powers.
Foreign capitalists began to create the first industrial enterprises in large trading cities, mainly for the processing of agricultural raw materials intended for export and municipal and light industry enterprises. In the early 80s, Franco-Chinese relations became complicated due to the colonial policy of the regime of the third republic. The territory of Annam was at that moment in vassal dependence on China
In May 1883, the French Chamber of Deputies voted for loans for a military expedition to Northern Vietnam. By that time, units of the former Taiping troops were stationed there, and regular troops numbering up to 50 thousand people had also been transferred there. The combined Chinese and Vietnamese forces inflicted a number of defeats on the French. The Qing government, frightened by the patriotic movement and the liberation character that the Vietnam War was beginning to take on, hastened to begin a peaceful resolution of the conflict.
The peace treaty with France signed in Tianjin in 1885 led to Qing China's renunciation of formal suzerainty over Vietnam and gave France preferential rights in South China.
In 1894, Japan started a war against China. China suffered a number of defeats in this war. In April 1895, Lee Hung-chang, on behalf of China, signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki of 1895. China recognized the independence of Korea, which before that was nominally under its sovereignty, transferred Taiwan and the Penghuledao Islands to Japan, and had to pay a large indemnity. The defeat in the war with Japan led to a new onslaught of imperialist powers. The Qing government was forced to enter into enslaving loans and provide railway concessions to the imperialist powers. Germany, France, Great Britain, Japan and Tsarist Russia received a number of territories for “lease” and created so-called spheres of influence. The “open door” doctrine, put forward in a note by US Secretary of State Hay in 1899, meant a claim to the unlimited right of American expansion into China and the ousting of other competitors.
In 1895-1898. The liberal reform movement of the Chinese bourgeoisie and landowners, led by Kang Yu-wei, Liang Qichao, Tan Sig-tung and others, gained great momentum. In June 1898, the reformers were attracted by Emperor Guangxu to public administration(“One Hundred Days of Reform”). However, the attempt at reform failed. The clique of Empress Cixi organized on September 21, 1898 coup d'etat and subjected the reformers to executions and repression.
China at the beginning of the 20th century. Increase in taxation due to the need to pay indemnity to Japan, arbitrariness of foreigners, economic consequences construction railways, telegraph, the intervention of missionaries in the internal affairs of China led in 1899 to a major anti-imperialist Yihetuan uprising. The imperialist powers (Great Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Japan, USA, Russia, Italy) organized an intervention in China. In August 1900, the interventionists occupied Beijing. On September 7, 1901, the “Final Protocol” was signed between foreign powers and China, establishing the semi-colonial position of the Qing Empire.
By the beginning of the 20th century. China was a classic example of a semi-colonial country. The imperialists, through their advisers, using diplomatic channels and financial pressure, controlled the policies of the Qing court. Their troops and warships were located in the most important vital centers of the country. They had a wide network of settlements, concessions, and controlled Chinese customs. The total amount of foreign investment for the 1st decade of the 20th century. grew from 800 million dollars to 1,500 million, with the invested capital largely consisting of profits received by foreign monopolies and banks in China itself as a result of the exploitation of the Chinese people. In 1895, the right to build enterprises was stipulated by the Shimonoseki Treaty, which opened up the possibility of subordinating entire industries in China to foreign capital. In 1912, half of all coal production in the country was produced in mines owned in whole or in part by foreign monopolies; mechanized coal mining was almost entirely controlled by foreigners. The import of foreign fabrics was almost 10 times higher than the export of fabrics from China, which undermined the national textile industry. Foreign capital, restrictions and arbitrariness imposed by the authorities hampered the development of national industry. Nevertheless, the national industry continued to develop. The interests of national industry and the national bourgeoisie came into sharp conflict with foreign dominance in the country and the feudal power of the Manchu elite and Chinese landowners. The development of national and foreign industry was accompanied by the growth of the proletariat.
Changes in the economic and class structure of society, on the one hand, and the semi-colonial position of the country, on the other, led to increased political struggle in China. New revolutionary organizations arose in the country. In 1905, Sun Yat-sen founded the Tongmenghui revolutionary party in Japan. Tongmenghoy's program included implementation of three Sun Yat-sen's popular principles: the overthrow of the Manchu government, the establishment of a republic and the “equalization of land rights” (in practice, a gradual nationalization of land was planned by transferring differential rent to the state). In 1906-1908 In China, there was a period of revolutionary uprisings that were organized or took place with the participation of Tongmenghui and other revolutionary organizations. Manchu government in 1905-1908. made a promise to introduce constitutional government. Part of the liberal bourgeoisie and landowners welcomed this promise, but revolutionary circles rejected it as a deception.
To question 25: Eastern civilizations and European colonialism in modern times
Development of Asian and African countries in modern times: theoretical approaches
East in modern times: general characteristics
The new history for the East is the period of colonial expansion of the West and, as a consequence, the destruction of the traditional economic system or, if you like, the transition from feudalism to capitalism under the influence, first of all, of an impulse from the outside. During the period under review, all eastern countries turned into colonies, semi-colonies of Western powers, or, like Japan, were forced (to a large extent under the threat Western invasion) to assimilate capitalist relations or stimulate their development where the beginnings of such relations already existed.
The East is a conglomerate of diverse, very specific countries and peoples, but they all have something in common that distinguishes, and, at times, contrasts them with the West.
What exactly are the main distinguishing features of eastern societies and states:
§ The state is the supreme owner of the land
Underdevelopment of the principle of private property (primarily land as the main means of production). History of the East. In 6 vols. T. 3. East at the turn of the Middle Ages and modern times. XVI-XVIII centuries M., 1999., p. 10: “It cannot be said that in the East there were no personal rights or property rights. But they existed only within the framework of private law. A private individual could successfully defend his interests against another private individual, but not against the state. The private owner (low-level, taxable) had full rights to his property, including land, including the right of alienation, but government intervention in property relations, including land ownership, was not limited by law.”
§ The primacy of the state in all spheres of life of society and the individual
§ The dominance of the community as the “transmission belt of the state” and, at the same time, an autonomous mediator between the individual and the state
§ Society as a hierarchy of corporations (communities). Feudalism (or traditional society) is characterized by a close connection between a person and a specific type of labor, and it is in one of the countries of the East, in India, that this connection finds its absolute embodiment in the form of a caste system.
§ Closed self-sufficient (natural or semi-natural) economy; It is in the East that the economic isolation of the community is most pronounced than in the West
§ Stability of economic and political institutions and, as the other side of stability, their (institutions) inertia
§ Dominance of collective forms of thinking, lack of manifestation or weak manifestation of private initiative and individualism
Quite often, one of the most fundamental specific features of the East is called eastern despotism as a form political organization. But more on that later
Within the framework of various “big” historical concepts The East, its specifics, socio-economic system, dynamics and historical fate are interpreted differently:
K. Marx identified a special “Asian mode of production”, characterized by the absence of private ownership of land, economic stagnation, and despotic political regimes
Modern neo-Marxists prefer to talk about “eastern feudalism”, emphasizing its kinship with European Middle Ages. History of the East. In 6 vols. T. 3. East at the turn of the Middle Ages and modern times. XVI-XVIII centuries M., 1999, p. 9: “the social system of medieval Asia and North Africa can be called “eastern feudalism”, i.e. a system that more or less corresponds in stages to the feudal era in Western Europe, but which has a number of features. According to the main parameters of the phenomenon that is commonly called feudalism (or the system of the Middle Ages - the terminology is not significant), the East not only demonstrated a coincidence, but even greater closeness to the model. If I may say so, the “feudalism” of Eastern societies was even higher than that of Western societies.”
Within the framework of Marxist theory, feudalism (or the Asian mode of production) historically naturally should give way to the capitalist formation. Therefore, the countries of Asia and Africa, which lagged behind the West in terms of the development of bourgeois relations, had to become victims of the colonial expansion of societies that had a more efficient (more productive economic organization). Colonialism is thus not a product of the superiority of European armies, but a way of restructuring Eastern societies along capitalist lines. Although Marxists do not deny the enormous costs of this method, it seems historically inevitable and progressive.
On track civilizational approach The East is understood as a distinctive civilization (or complex of civilizations), possessing equally distinctive laws of development.
History of the countries of the East in modern times. Lecture course
Angelina Alekseevna Evdokimova
Applications
Appendix 1. Basic values of Eastern civilizations…………….207
Appendix 2. Chronological table…………………………….210
Appendix 3. Terminological dictionary …………………………..215
Appendix 4. Questions and assignments for lectures on the history of the countries of the East in modern times ……………………………………………………………………. 233
Educational edition
Editor T.V. Podkopaeva
Persons on ed. activities B848421 dated 03.11.2000 ᴦ. Signed for seal
Format. Computer set.
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Times New Poman typeface
Printed on risogrif. Conditional - oven . Uch. oven –
Publishing house BSPU im. M. Akmulla. 450000, ᴦ. Ufa. October Revolution, 3a
In his early works, K. Marx writes about “Asian modes of production,” that is, the concept is given in the plural.
Nepomnin O.E., Menshikov V.B. Synthesis in a transitional society: China on the brink of eras [Text] / O.E. Nepomnin et al.
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– M.: Vost. lit., 1999. – P. 3.
See: Erasov B.S. Civilizations: Universals and identity [Text] / B.S. Erasov. – M.: Nauka, 2002. – 522 p. and etc.
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works by B.S. Erasova.
See: Appendix 1. Table 1: “Basic values of the civilizations of the East”.
Marx K. Manifesto of the Communist Party [Text] / K. Marx, F. Engels. Op. 2nd ed. – M.: State. ed. watered lit., 1958. – T. 4. – P. 419-459.
See: Weber M. Selected: Protestant ethics and the spirit of capitalism [Text] / M. Weber.
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– M.: ROSSPEN, 2006. – 656 p.
Braudel F. Material civilization, economics and capitalism, XV-XVIII centuries. T.2. Exchange games [Text] / F. Braudel. – M.: Ves Mir, 2007. – P.103.
Tolstov S.P. On the ancient deltas of Oxus and Jaxartes [Text] / S.P. Tolstoy. – M.: Nauka, 1962. – P. 297.
Eremeev D.E. Why the East fell behind the West [Text] / D.E. Eremeev //Asia and Africa today. – 1989. – No. 7. – P. 17.
See: New history of the countries of the foreign East [Text] / ed. THEM. Reisner. – M.: Education, 1952. – T. 1, 2.
Marx K. Capital [Text] / K. Marx, F. Engels. Op. 2nd ed. – M.: State. ed. watered lit., 1960. – T. 25. Part II. – P. 146.
Engels F. Foreign policy of Russian tsarism [Text] / K. Marx, F. Engels. Works, 2nd ed. – M.: State. ed. watered lit., 1962. – T. 22. – P. 33.
Erasov B.S. Culture, religion and civilizations in the East. Essays on general theory [Text] / Erasov B.S. – M.: Nauka, 1990. – P. 24.
See: History of the East: Vol. 4. The East in modern times (late XVIII - early XX centuries) [Text] / ch. Editor: R.B. Rybakov (pres.), etc.
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– M.: Vost. lit., 2004-2005. - Book 1. – 608 s.; - Book 2. – 574 p.
Right there. Book 1. – pp. 12-18.
Right there. – P. 20.
Right there. – P. 33.
Vasiliev L.S. History of the East: textbook for universities [Text] / L.S. Vasiliev. – M.: graduate School, 1993. – T. 1. – 495 pp.; – T. 2. – 495 p.
Note: historical concepts in the text are highlighted in italics and presented in the terminological dictionary. See: Appendix 3.
Vasiliev L.S. History of the East. – T. 1. – P. 66-70.
Vasiliev L.S. History of the East. – T.1. – P. 444 -445.
History of the East. T.4. The East in modern times (late XVIII – early XX centuries) [Text]. – M.: Vost. lit., 2004. – Book. 1. – P. 45.
Marx K., Engels F. Poverty of philosophy [Text] / K. Marx, F. Engels. Op. 2nd ed. – M.: State. ed. watered lit., 1956. – T. 4. – P. 154.
Subbotin V.A. Great discoveries. Columbus. Vasco da Gama. Magellan [Text] / V.A. Subbotin. – M.: URAO, 1998. – P. 163-164.
Goncharov I.A. Frigate ʼʼPalladaʼʼ [Text] / I.A. Goncharov. – L.: Nauka, 1986. – P. 245-246.
See: Konrad N.I. Japanese literature in images and essays [Text] / N.F. Conrad. – M.: Nauka, 1991. – 551 p.
Senyutkin S.B. New history of China and Japan in the 17th – early 20th centuries. [Text] / S.B. Senyutkin. – Nizhny Novgorod: Publishing House of Nizhny Novgorod University, 1996. – P. 150.
Sila-Novitskaya T.G. The cult of the emperor in Japan: myths, history, doctrines, politics [Text] / T.G. Sila-Novitskaya. – M.: Nauka, 1990. – P. 20.
Marx K. Capital [Text] / K. Marx, F. Engels. Op. 2nd ed. – M.: State Publishing House. watered lit., 1960. – T. 23. – P. 729, approx. 192.
Braudel F. Material civilization, economics and capitalism, XV-XVIII centuries. T.1. The structure of everyday life: the possible and the impossible [Text] / F. Braudel. – M.: Progress, 1986. – P. 528.
Senyutkin S.B. New history of China and Japan. – P. 111.
Goncharov I.A. Frigate "Pallada" – P. 356, 360.
History of the East. T. 4. East in modern times (late XVIII – early XX centuries). – Book 1. – P. 556.
Meiji isin - lit. Enlightened government.
See: Shigeki Toyama. Meiji Ishin. (The Collapse of Feudalism in Japan) [Text] / Toyama Shigeki [Trans.
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from Japanese V.P. Alekseeva]. Preface P.P.Topeha, ed. G.I. Podpalova. – M.: Publishing house. foreign Lit-ra, 1959. – 364 p.
Vasiliev L.S. History of the East. – T. 2. – P. 218.
Senyutkin S.B. New history of China and Japan. – P. 127.
Molodyakov V.E. “Restoration”, “revolution” or...? (On the question of character Meiji Yishin in the context of world history) [Text] / V.E. Molodyakov // East (Oriens). – 2002. – No. 3. – P. 61.
New history of Asian and African countries: a textbook for students. universities [Text] / ed. A.M. Rodriguez: at 3 o'clock - M.: Human. ed. VLADOS center, 2004. – Part 1. – P. 173.
Senyutkin S.B. New history of China and Japan. – pp. 125-126.
Norman G. The emergence of the modern state in Japan [Text] / G. Norman [Trans.
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with anᴦ. P.I.Topekha]. Ed. and preface acad. EAT. Zhukova. – M.: Publishing house. eastern lit., 1961, - pp. 101-102.
History of the East. T. 4. East in modern times (late XVIII – early XX centuries). - Book 2. – P. 280.
See: Norman G. The emergence of the modern state in Japan [Text] / G. Norman [Trans.
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with anᴦ. P.I.Topekha]. Ed. and preface acad. EAT. Zhukova. – M.: Publishing house. eastern lit., 1961, - 296 p.
Right there. – P. 53.
Marx K. Capital [Text] / K. Marx, F. Engels. Op. 2nd ed. – M.: State. ed. watered lit. – T. 23. – P. 760.
Norman G. The emergence of the modern state... – pp. 143-144.
Sila-Novitskaya T.G. The cult of the emperor in Japan: myths, history, doctrines, politics [Text] / T.G. Sila-Novitskaya. – M.: Nauka, 1990. – P. 54, 67-68.
Senyutkin S.B. New history of China and Japan. – pp. 139-140.
Vasiliev L.S. History of the East. – T. 2. – P. 236-243.
Nepomnin O.E. History of China: The Qing Era. XVII - early XX century [Text] / O.E. Nepomnin. – M.: Vost. lit., 2005. – P. 8.
Kangxi is the motto of the government and means “Prosperous and Radiant”.
Braudel F. Material civilization, economics and capitalism, XV-XVIII centuries. T.1. The structure of everyday life: the possible and the impossible [Text] / F. Braudel. – M.: Progress, 1986. – P. 513.
Senyutkin S.B. New history of China and Japan. – P. 33.
Mutual responsibility has been known since the time of Confucius. The system of mutual responsibility and collective responsibility, called baojia existed in China since the Song Dynasty (960-1279). See: Sidikhmenov V.Ya. Manchu rulers of China [Text] / V.Ya. Sidikhmenov. – M.: Nauka, 1985. – P. 19.
See: Appendix 1. Table 1. “Basic values of the civilizations of the East”.
Braudel F. Material civilization... - Vol.1. –. 575.
Sidikhmenov V.Ya. Manchu rulers of China. – pp. 13-14.
Perelomov L.S. Confucius: ʼʼLun Yuʼʼ [Text] / L.S. Fractures. Research lane
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from China, comment. L.S.Perelomova. – M.: Vost. lit., 1998. – P. 107, 220-221.
Seven Gems of the East. Anthology of Eastern classical poetry[Text] / comp., intro. Art. and comment. N.B. Kondyreva. – M.: Khud. lit., 1995. – P. 447.
Quote by: Vasiliev L.S. History of the East. – T.1. – P. 392.
History of the East. T.4. The East in modern times (late 18th – early 20th centuries). - Book 1. – P. 515.
Vasiliev L. S. History of the East. – T. 2. – P. 199.
History of the East. T.4. The East in modern times (late 18th – early 20th centuries). - Book 1. – pp. 519-520.
Ilyushechkin V.P. Taiping Peasant War [Text] / V.P. Ilyushechkin. – M.: Nauka, 1967. – 394 p. See: others
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works by Ilyushechkin V.P.
History of the East. T.4. The East in modern times (late 18th – early 20th centuries). - Book 1. – P. 517.
Senyutkin S.B. New history of China and Japan. – P. 47.
Right there. – P. 50.
History of the East. T.4. The East in modern times (late 18th – early 20th centuries). - Book 1. – P. 521.
See: Delyusin L.P. Land program Heavenly Dynasty and her assessments [Text] / L.P. Delyusin // Chinese social utopias. – M.: Nauka, 1987. – P. 172-200.
Senyutkin S.B. New history of China and Japan. – P. 52.
Right there. – P. 55.
Vasiliev L.S. History of the East. – T. 2. – P. 201.
Meliksetov A.V. writes about “bureaucratic capitalism” in China. See: History of China: textbook [Text] / ed. A.V. Meliksetova. – 2nd ed., Spanish. and additional – M.: Publishing house Mosk. Univ.: Higher School, 2002. – 736 p.
Senyutkin S.B. New history of China and Japan. – P. 66.
Liang Yuan is a currency in China introduced by Emperor Guangxu in 1889. It was based on the position of the silver Mexican peso (dollar). One yuan is equal to 24 grams of silver.
In Chinese natural philosophy odd numbers correspond to the light, masculine principle yang, even ones - to the dark, feminine principle yin Cm .: Grube V. Spiritual culture of China [Text] / V. Grube // History of China. Spiritual culture of China. – M.: Eurolinc., 2003. – P. 202.
Sidikhmenov V.Ya. Manchu rulers of China. – pp. 145-148.
Right there. – P. 154.
History of the East. T.4.East in modern times (late 18th – early 20th centuries). - Book 2. – P. 242.
Senyutkin S.B. New history of China and Japan. – P. 72
Veresaev V.V. Under the cedars [Text] / V.V. Veresaev. Sob. op. in 4. – M.: Publishing house. ʼʼPravdaʼʼ, 1985. – T.2. – P. 403, 406.
History of the East. T. 4. East in modern times (late XVIII – early XX centuries). - Book 2. – P. 250.
History of the East. T.4. The East in modern times (late XVIII – early XX centuries) – Book 2. – P. 470.
Xinhai Revolution. Collection of documents and materials [Text]. – M.: Education, 1968. – P. 218-219.
Lenin V.I. called Sun Yat-sen a Chinese “populist”. See: PSS. T. 21. – P. 404.
Kuomintang from 1912 to 1949. the largest political party in China, since 1949 - the ruling party of Taiwan.
Tikhvinsky S.L. Testament of a Chinese revolutionary [Text] / S.L. Tikhvinsky. – M.: Publishing house. watered lit., 1986. – P. 44.
Vasiliev L.S. History of the East. – T. 2. – P. 208-209.
Senyutkin S.B. New history of China and Japan. – pp. 84-88.
History of the East. T. 4. East in modern times (late XVIII – early XX centuries). - Book 2. – P. 474, etc.
Tikhvinsky S.L. Testament of a Chinese revolutionary [Text] / S.L. Tikhvinsky. – M.: Publishing house. watered lit., 1986. – P. 70.
Nepomnin O.E. History of China: Qing Era / O.E. Nepomnin. – pp. 566-568. See other works by O.E. Nepomnin.
See: Appendix 1. Table 1 “Basic values of civilizations of the East”.
Vasiliev L.S. History of the East. – T.1 – P. 314-315.
Guseva N.R. The many faces of India [Text] / N.R. Gusev, USSR Academy of Sciences: Institute of Oriental Studies. – 3rd ed. – M.: Nauka, 1987. – P. 35.
Ivanovna. Decline of the East and the establishment of world hegemony Western Europe[Text] / N.A. Ivanov // East (Oriens). – 1994. - No. 4. – P. 5.
Tarle E.V. Essays on the history of colonial policy of Western European states (end of the 15th century) early XIX centuries) [Text] / E.V. Tarle. Vst. article by V. Rutenburg. – M. – L.: Nauka, 1965. – P. 318.
Vasiliev L.S. History of the East. – T. 1. – P. 316-317.
Tarle E.V. Essays... – P. 318.
Quote by: Tarle E.V. Essays... - P. 320.
Braudel F. Material civilization, economics and capitalism, XV-XVIII centuries. T.3. Time of the world [Text] / F. Braudel. – M.: Ves Mir, 2007. – P. 555-556.
Guseva N.R. The many faces of India. – P. 151.
Marx K. Future results of British rule in India [Text] / K. Marx, F. Engels. Op. 2nd ed. – M.: State. ed. watered lit., 1957. – T. 9 – P. 224 – 230.
Tarle E.V. Essays... – P. 330, 335 – 336.
Marx K. Op. – T. 9. – P. 152.
Guber A.A. and etc.
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New history of Asian and African countries: textbook for universities [Text] / A.A. Goober.
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– M.: Nauka, 1975. – 543 p.
Marx K. Chronological extracts on the history of India (664-1858) [Text] / K. Marx. – M.: State. ed. watered lit., 1947. – P. 76.
See: Fursov K.A. Relations of the English East India Company with the Delhi Sultanate: the problem of periodization [Text] / K.A. Fursov // Bulletin of Moscow State University, series 13. Oriental studies. – 2004. – Issue. 2. – P. 3-25.
History of the East. T.4. The East in modern times (late 18th – early 20th centuries). - Book 1. – P. 421.
Right there. – P. 424.
Reader on new history: in 2 volumes [Text] / ed. A.A. Gubera, A.V. Efimova. – M.: Education, 1965. – T. 2. – P. 558.
See: Osipov A.M. The Great Rebellion in India 1857-1859. [Text] / A.M. Osipov. – M.: Uchpedgiz, 1957. – 143 p.
New history of Asian and African countries: a textbook for students. high textbook institutions [Text] / ed. A.M. Rodriguez: at 3 o'clock - M.: Gumat. ed. VLADOS center, 2004. – Part 2. – P. 99.
Right there. – P. 101-102.
Reader on new history: in 2 volumes – T. 2. – P. 574 -575.
Braudel F. Material civilization, economics and capitalism, XV-XVIII centuries. T.1. Structures of everyday life: possible and impossible [Text] / F. Braudel. – M.: Ves Mir, 2007. – P. 220.
Marx K. Capital [Text] / K. Marx, F. Engels. Op. 2nd ed. M.: State. ed. watered lit., 1960. – T. 23. – P. 721.
Tagore R. Poems and plays [Text] / R. Tagore.
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– M.: Khud lit., 1972. – P. 115. (trans.
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A. Akhmatova).
See: Raikov A.V. Awakening of India. (Activities of national revolutionary organizations in 1900-1918) [Text] / A.V. Raikov. – M.: Nauka, 1968. – 152 p.
Vasiliev L.S., Furman D.E. Christianity and Confucianism (experience of comparative sociological analysis) [Text] / L.S. Vasiliev et al.
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// History and culture of China. – M.: Nauka, 1975. – P. 443.
Vasiliev L.S. History of the East. – T. 2. – P. 35.
Kostyuchenko V.S. Vivekananda [Text] / V.S. Kostyuchenko. – M.: Mysl, 1977. – P. 68.
Rolland R. Life of Ramakrishna; Life of Vivekananda; The Universal Gospel of Vivekananda [Text] / R. Rolland. [Transl.
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from French] – M.: RIPOL CLASSIC, 2002. – P. 359.
Kostyuchenko V.S. Vivekananda. – P. 74.
See: Raikov A.V. The Awakening of India (Activities of national revolutionary organizations in 1900-1918) [Text] / A.V. Raikov. – M.: Nauka, 1968. – 152 p.
Quote by: Gorev A.V. Mahatma Gandhi [Text] / A.V. Gorev. – M.: International relationships, 1989. – P. 75.
Right there. – pp. 75-76.
Guber A.A., Kim G.F., Kheifets A.N. New history of Asian and African countries [Text] / Guber A.A. and etc.
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M.: Nauka, 1982. – P. 460.
History of the East. T.4. The East in modern times (late 18th – early 20th centuries). Book 2. – pp. 376-377.
Tagore R. Garden of Songs Gitobitan [Text] / R. Tagore.
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[Transl.
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with benᴦ.]. – M.: Khud. lit., 1988. – 414 p.
Quote by: Gorev A.V. Mahatma Gandhi. – P. 3.
Right there. – P.6.
Burmistrov S.L. Gandhi’s utopian project: social and philosophical aspect [Text] / S.L. Burmistrov // East (Oriens). – 2006. – No. 4. – P. 63.
See: Nehru D. Discovery of India [Text] / D. Nehru [translated from anᴦ.] ed. Machavariani - M.: Publishing house. foreign Literary, 1955. – 650 p.
Gorev A.V. Mahatma Gandhi. – P. 122.
Right there. – P. 114 -115.
The Caliphate movement is a movement in defense of the Sultan-Caliph, deposed as a result of the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920.
Gandhi M.K. My life [Text] / M.K. Gandhi. – M.: Science. 1969. – P. 568, 570, 572.
New history of Asian and African countries [Text] / ed. A.M.Rodriguez: at 3 o'clock - M.: Gum. ed. VLADOS center, 2004. – Part 2. – P. 122.
History of the East. T.4. The East in modern times (late 18th – early 20th centuries). - Book 1. – P. 163.
History of the East. T.4. The East in modern times (late 18th – early 20th centuries). - Book 1. – P. 164.
New history of Asian and African countries: textbook for universities [Text] / ed. A.M. Rodriguez: at 3 o'clock - M.: Gum. ed. VLADOS Center, 2004, Part 2, Ch. III. – pp. 183-222.
Braudel F. Material civilization... – T. 1. – P. 66.
History of the East. T.4. The East in modern times (late 18th – early 20th centuries). - Book 2. – pp. 88-95.
See: Appendix 1. Table 1 “Basic values of the civilizations of the East”.
Berezin I.N. Traveling through Dagestan and Transcaucasia (Travel to the East) [Text] / I.N. Berezin. – Kazan: Univ. typ., 1849. – P. 3.
New history of Iran: reader [Text] / comp. N.K. Belova, V.N. Zaitsev, M.S. Ivanov, L.M. Kulagina; ed. count M.S. Ivanov, V.N. Zaitsev. – M.: Nauka, 1988. – P. 90.
History of the East. T.4. The East in modern times (late 18th – early 20th centuries). - Book 1. – P. 133.
Right there. – pp. 133-134.
Engels F. Foreign policy of Russian tsarism [Text] / K. Marx, F. Engels, Op. 2nd ed. – M.: State. ed. watered lit., 1962. – T. 22. – P. 33.
See: Shitov G.V. Persia under the rule of the last Qajars [Text] / G.V. Shitov. – L.: Academician. Sciences of the USSR, 1933. – 176 p.
New history of Iran: a reader. – P. 90.
New history of Iran: a reader. – pp. 78-79.
Ivanov M.S. Antifeudal uprisings in Iran in the mid-19th century [Text] / M.S. Ivanov. – M.: Nauka, 1982. – P. 87-89.
History of the East. T.4. The East in modern times (late 18th – early 20th centuries). - Book 2. – pp. 404-411.
Kuznetsova N.A. Iran in the first half of the 19th century [Text] / N.A. Kuznetsova - M.: Nauka, 1983. - P. 208-209.
Right there. - P. 224.
Vasiliev L.S. History of the East. – T.2. – P. 156.
Chaikin K. Brief essay on the latest Persian literature [Text] / K. Chaikin. – M.: Khud. lit., 1928. – P. 32.
Vasiliev L.S. History of the East. – T. 2. – P. 144.
See: Ivanov M.S. Iranian revolution 1905-1911. [Text] / M.S. Ivanov. – M.: Publishing house. IMO, 1957. – 560 p.
See: Arabajyan Z.A. Iran: power, reforms, revolutions (XIX-XX centuries) [Text] / Z.A. Arabajyan. – M.: Nauka, 1991. – 125 p.
See: History of the East. T.4. History of the East in modern times (late XVIII - early XX centuries). - Book. 2. Ch. 4. Part IV. – M.: Vost. lit., 2005.
Vasiliev L.S. History of the East. – T.2. – P. 157.
Right there. – pp. 32-37.
Arabajyan Z.A. Iran: power, reforms, revolutions. – P. 31.
History of the East. T. 4. East in modern times (XVIII - early XX centuries). Book 2. – pp. 356-357.
Arabajyan Z.A. Iran: power, reforms, revolutions. – pp. 36-37.
New history of Iran: a reader. – P. 173.
History of the East. T.4. The East in modern times (late 18th – early 20th centuries). - Book 2. – P. 357.
Shitov G.V. Persia under the rule of the last Qajars [Text] / G.V. Shitov. – L.: Academician. Sciences of the USSR, 1938. – P. 54.
See: Appendix 1. Table 1. “Basic values of the civilizations of the East”.
Eremeev D.E. Why the East fell behind the West [Text] / D.E. Eremeev //Asia and Africa today. – 1989. – No. 11. – P. 11.
See: Miller A.F. Türkiye. Current problems of modern and contemporary history [Text] / A.F. Miller.
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Vst. Art. M.S. Lazarev. – M.: Nauka, 1983. – 277 p.
Kochibey’s second treatise [Text] // Scientific notes of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the USSR Academy of Sciences. – M.: Publishing house. eastern lit., 1953. – No. 6. – P. 239.
Vasiliev L.S. History of the East. – T.1. – P. 284.
History of the East. T 4. The East in modern times (late 18th – early 20th centuries). - Book 1. – P. 71.
Eremeev D.E. Why the East fell behind the West [Text] / D.E. Eremeev //Asia and Africa today. – 1989, - No. 9. - P. 30.
Miller A.F. Tutsia. Current problems... – P. 21.
Klyuchevsky V.O. Works: in 9 volumes [Text] / V.O. Klyuchevsky. Russian history course. – M.: Mysl, 1989. – T. 5. – Part 5. – P. 44.
See: Islam. Encyclopedic Dictionary [Text]. – M.: Nauka, 1991. – 312 p.
Miller A.F. Türkiye. Current problems... – P. 22.
Miller A.F. Türkiye. Current problems... - P. 41.
Fadeeva I.L. Official Doctrines in the ideology and politics of the Ottoman Empire [Text] / I.L. Fadeeva. – M.: Vost. lit., 1985. – P. 49.
On the periodization of tanzimat, see: Dulina N.A. Tanzimat and Mustafa Reshid Pasha [Text] / N.A. Dulina. – M.: Vost. lit., 1984. – P. 152.
Quote by: Fadeeva I.L. The concept of power in the Middle East. Middle Ages and modern times [Text] / I.L. Fadeeva. – M.: Nauka, 1993. – P. 162.
Fadeeva I. A. The concept of power... - P. 164.
Miller A.F. Türkiye. Current problems... - P. 47.
Right there. – P. 49.
Miller A.F. Türkiye. Current problems... – P. 50.
Right there. – P. 51.
See: Novichev A.D. History of Turkey: in 4 volumes [Text] / A.D. Novichev. – L.: Ed. Leningr.
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University, 1978. – T.4. – 272 pp., as well as: Shpilkova V.I. Young Turk revolution of 1908-1909. [Text] / V.I. Shpilkova. – M.: Nauka, 1977. – 294 p.
See: Miller A.F. Türkiye. Actual problems…
Vasiliev L.S. History of the East. – T. 2. – P. 146.
See: Petrosyan Yu.A. Ottoman Empire: power and death [Text] / Yu.A. Petrosyan. – M.: Nauka, 1990. – 278 p.
History of the East. T. 4. East in modern times (late XVIII – early XX centuries). - Book 2. – pp. 322-331.
History of the East. T.4. The East in modern times (late 18th – early 20th centuries). - Book 2. – pp. 325-326.
Busygin E.P. History of geography [Text] / E.P. Busygin. – Kazan: Unipress, 1998. – P. 142-143.
Right there. – pp. 143-144.
See: Davidson A.B. Cecil Rhodes and his time [Text] / A.B. Davidson. – M.: Progress, 1988. – 442 p.
See: Tsipkin G.R., Yagya V.S. History of Ethiopia in modern and recent times [Text] / G.R. Tsipkin. – M.: Nauka, 1989. – 404 p.
Table 1. “Basic values of the civilizations of the East” compiled by us (A.E.) based on the works
L.S. Vasilyeva.
Note In bold The most important events in the history of each country are highlighted.
The dictionary was compiled by us on the basis of: 1. Senyutkin S.B. New history of China and Japan [Text] / S.B. Senyutkin. – Nizhny Novgorod: Publishing house. Nizhny Novgorod University, 1996. – 166 p.;
2. History of the East T. 4. The East in modern times (late XVIII - early XX centuries) [Text]. – M.: Vost. lit., 2004 -2005; Book 1. - 608 pp., Book. 2 – 574 p.
3. Dictionary historical terms[Text] / comp. Zgursky G.V. – M.: Eksmo, 2008. – 457 p.
4. Islam. Encyclopedic Dictionary [Text]. – M.: Nauka, 1991. – 312 p.
(okay, let's go guys :)
Countries of the East at the beginning of modern times
Political and economic situation of the countries of East and West Asia in the 17th century
Features of the development of Eastern countries and the nature of economic and cultural relations with Western countries
The end of the Middle Ages in Western Europe is associated with the Great Geographical Discoveries, with the emergence of merchant capitalism, with the emergence of absolute monarchies and the emergence of a new way of thinking.
The countries of the East were superior to Western countries in terms of cultural development, but Western Europe was ahead of Asia. In what and when?
No matter how great the skill of the artisans of the Eastern countries, nowhere in Asia, and especially in Africa, do historians find capitalist forms of economy, either in the 16th century or in the 17th century. There is no active bourgeoisie anywhere, which, as Marx rightly wrote: “Cannot exist without causing constant coups in the instruments of production, without, therefore, revolutionizing the relations of production, and therefore the entire totality of social relations.”
So, the East lagged behind in the development of material production.
The beginning of the lag is the end of the 16th century; noticeable parameters are given by the 18th century.
The consequences of falling behind are political stagnation and colonization.
Reasons for the lag of the east according to Courage Bombay in Western historiography:
Liberal foreign historiography. Hegel considered the peoples of the East to be passive and ahistorical in nature. Max Weber and other neo-Hegelian historians sought the reasons for the advance of the West in the superiority of the dynamic Western spirit over the contemplative Eastern nature, in the superiority of the Western religion - Protestant Christianity over the religions of the East - Buddhism, Confucianism and Islam 1. Weber believed that the most important role in the formation of “modern capitalism” was played by Protestant ethics. It was she, with her cult of work, with her attitude towards work as a vocation, who created the spirit of capitalism. It laid the foundations of modern industrial society.
Historians of the East sometimes they deny the lag altogether. And the invasion of the colonialists in the East is declared a historical accident. IN in this case, we are talking about the beginning of colonization in the 16th-18th centuries. They write that the lag of the Eastern countries began only after the European invasion and was its consequence, not its cause. There is some truth in this statement; colonization destroyed the natural course of historical development and did not contribute to full progress. But why did colonization become possible? Why were Western countries so easily able to impose their rules of the game on the Eastern empires? Externally China, India, Iran in the 16th century. looked richer and stronger than any Western state. But in none of the Asian countries did a capitalist system develop at that time.
Soviet historical science proceeded from the formational concept of the development of history in general and the history of the East in particular. However, many Russian oriental historians did not accept the schematic interpretation of formations from the point of view of historical materialism. Serious study of economic issues in traditional societies of the East led to discussions about the so-called. “Asian method of production” (hereinafter referred to as ASP). Supporters of the TSA concept believed that the main reason for the colonization of the East was its lag behind Western countries. The lag is due to the fact that various countries and regions globe generally develop unevenly. In this case, this unevenness manifested itself in the fact that the states of Western Europe entered the path of capitalist development earlier than the countries of Asia and Africa, because in the countries of Asia long time The “Asian mode of production” dominated in the 50-60s. XIX century Marx and Engels put forward a hypothesis about the existence in the countries of the East before the arrival of Europeans of a special socio-economic formation - the TSA, the main feature of which was state ownership of land. In such a society, communal peasants are exploited not by the class of individual feudal owners, but by the apparatus of the despotic state as a whole.
II. Political map of the East to the beginningXVIIV.
In the medieval East, the largest states were China, the Mughal Empire (sultanate), the Iranian Safavid state, and the Ottoman Empire. Smaller states are Japan, Korea, Vietnam and others. At what stage of political development were these countries? In domestic historiography, the main state forms in the countries of medieval Europe are quite fully developed. But what about in Asia and especially in Africa?
In the latest scientific edition of the “History of the East” (in 6 volumes), in relation to Asian countries of the 18th century. The following types of states are distinguished: feudal-bureaucratic, patriarchal, potestar and pre-state.
TO feudal-bureaucratic states, according to I.M. Smilyanskaya includes Japan, China, and the Ottoman Empire. Korea and Vietnam are “approaching” this type, as well as Iran and some principalities of Mughal India (Mysore, etc.). All of them were authoritarian monarchies. In the Ottoman and Qing empires, as well as in Japan, the supreme power was theocratic in nature, the researcher believes. It was the theocratic nature of power that determined the state's ownership of all lands. State ownership of land implied the collection of tax-rent from almost all lands and its distribution among the ruling stratum. Feudal-bureaucratic states are characterized by the presence of an extensive state apparatus, a hierarchical structure of officials, a high role for the army, etc. 2
TO patriarchal states included the countries of Southeast Asia (Burma, Siam, Laos, Cambodia, the sultanates of the Malay Peninsula). In Central and Western Asia, these are Afghanistan, the Central Asian khanates, Yemen, Hijaz, etc. In North Africa, the Maghreb countries belonged to the patriarchal states. All independent states patriarchal type were hereditary monarchies. In most of them, the supreme power was theocratic in nature. The sacralization of power was the main way of legitimizing it. The main criteria of patriarchal states are:
weak centralization;
frequent dynastic crises;
underdeveloped bureaucracy;
large share of self-government bodies;
tributary relations with the population of peripheral vassal territories;
class-status nature of social organization.
Potestarnymi the states were the Kazakh khanates, some Arabian sultanates, city-states in Arabia and Sumatra, etc. Most of them formed the tribal periphery of feudal-bureaucratic or patriarchal states. They were short-lived, fell apart and arose again depending on the foreign policy situation. Such state associations were headed by elected tribal rulers - khans. The administrative apparatus was minimal; there were no enforcement agencies or armed forces. The legal proceedings were based on common law.
2 Ibid. Book 1. – pp. 12-18.
World history (modern and recent times)
Subject of discipline The World History and its place in the system humanities. The importance of discipline in the formation of a teacher’s value attitude towards historical experience Humanity.
The Renaissance as a transitional stage from the Middle Ages to modern times. The Italian wars as the first pan-European conflict of modern times. Great geographical discoveries and the beginning of the worldwide expansion of the West. Reformation in Germany. Calvinism. Dutch War of Independence. Thirty Years' War. English Puritanism. Prerequisites and main stages of the English revolution of the mid-17th century. Stuart Restoration. "Glorious Revolution". British colonization North America. The Revolutionary War and the formation of the United States. "Old Order" in France. French Enlightenment. Prerequisites and main stages of the Great French Revolution. Napoleonic Empire. The transformation of Europe during the period of revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. Vienna system. Pan-European revolution of 1848-49. Crimean War. Germany and Italy on the path to national unity. The Franco-German War and the completion of the unification of Germany and Italy. The evolution of the socio-political system of Great Britain in the 19th - early 20th centuries. The North-South problem in American history. Civil War in USA. Reconstruction. “The Gilded Age.” "Progressive Era" in the USA.
Mughal Empire. English conquest of India. Great Indian Mutiny. Manchu conquest of China. The first “Opium War” and the beginning of the “discovery” of China by the West. Taiping uprising. Second Opium War. The transformation of China into the main object of international rivalry at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. "Boxer Rebellion". Xinhai Revolution. Tokugawa Shogunate in Japan. “Discovery” of Japan by the West. "Meiji Restoration". Establishment of Japan among the great powers.
Intensification of international rivalry at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. and the origins of the First World War. Initial period The First World War, 1914-16. The concept of “modern history”. End of the First World War. World War and Russian Revolution. Versailles-Washington system. Weimar Republic in Germany. Origin and ideology of German National Socialism. "National Socialist Revolution". The rise of the fascists to power in Italy. Features of the fascist regime. The global economic crisis and “ The Great Depression" in USA. “ New course” F. D. Roosevelt. Origin and beginning of the Second World War. Germany's attack on the USSR and the changing nature of the war. Anti-Hitler coalition. Start of the war on Pacific Ocean. Resistance movement in Europe. The problem of opening a “second front”. Yalta and Potsdam conferences. Peace settlement after the Second World War. Origins of the Cold War.
Partition of British India and creation of the Indian Republic. The main stages of the development of independent India and its position in the modern world. Education of the People's Republic of China. The era of Mao Zedong. "Cultural Revolution". Reforms of Deng Xiaoping. China as a world power of the 21st century. Japan during the American occupation. “The Japanese miracle” and the transformation of Japan into the leading economic power in the world. Formation of independent Arab states. The Zionist movement and the creation of a “Jewish national home” in Palestine. Partition of Palestine and creation of the State of Israel. Arab-Israeli wars 1948 - 1973. The Arab-Israeli conflict at the present stage.
Establishment of communist regimes in countries of Eastern Europe and Asia. Yugoslavia's special path. Crisis moments in the history of socialist countries. Models of the “welfare state” in the West. Entry into the historical arena of the post-war generation and the rise of self-criticism in Western society. The phenomenon of youth counterculture in a mass consumer society. Events of 1968 in France. America's "Critical Decade" The crisis of liberalism and the “neoconservative wave” in the West. "Reagan Revolution". The reign of M. Thatcher in Great Britain. Chancellorship of He. Kohl in Germany. “Alternative to F. Mitterrand”: the French left in power (1981-86). “Perestroika” in the USSR and the collapse of the socialist camp. Collapse of the Yugoslav Federation. Europe on the path to integration. The unification of Germany and its position in the modern world. Presidency of J. Chirac in France. "New Labor" in England. USA during the presidency of B. Clinton and G. Bush Jr.