A message about Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon Bonaparte - biography, information, personal life

Name: Napoleon Bonaparte

Age: 51 years old

Height: 168

Activity: emperor, commander, statesman, who laid the foundations of modern French state

Family status: was married

Napoleon Bonaparte was a brilliant commander, diplomat, had excellent intelligence, phenomenal memory and amazing performance. An entire era named after him, and his deeds came as a shock to most of his contemporaries. His military strategies are in textbooks, and the norms of democracy in Western countries are based on “Napoleonic Law.”

Napoleon Bonaparte on horseback

The role of this outstanding personality in the history of France is ambiguous. In Spain and Russia he was called the Antichrist, and some researchers consider Napoleon a somewhat embellished hero.

Childhood and youth

The brilliant commander, statesman, Emperor Napoleon I Bonaparte was a native of Corsica. Born on August 15, 1769 in the city of Ajaccio into a poor noble family. The parents of the future emperor had eight children. Father Carlo di Buonaparte practiced law, mother Letizia, née Ramolino, raised the children. They were Corsicans by nationality. Bonaparte is the Tuscan version of the surname of the famous Corsican.

Certificate and sacred history he was educated at home, sent to a private school at the age of six, and to the Autun College at the age of ten, where the boy did not stay long. After college, Brienne continues her studies at military school. In 1784 he entered the Paris Military Academy. Upon graduation, he received the rank of lieutenant and from 1785 served in the artillery.

In his early youth, Napoleon lived in solitude and was interested in literature and military affairs. In 1788, while in Corsica, he participated in the development of defensive fortifications, worked on a report on the organization of the militia, etc. He considered literary works to be of paramount importance and hoped to become famous in this field.

Reads with interest books on history, geography, and the size of government revenues European countries, works on the philosophy of legislation, is fond of the ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Abbé Raynal. He writes the history of Corsica, the stories “Conversation of Love”, “The Prophet in Disguise”, “The Earl of Essex” and keeps a diary.

Essays young Bonaparte with the exception of one they remained in manuscripts. In these works the author expresses negative emotions in relation to France, considering it the enslaver of Corsica, and love for the homeland. Posts young Napoleon have a political connotation and are permeated with a revolutionary spirit.

Napoleon Bonaparte greeted the French Revolution with enthusiasm, and in 1792 he joined the Jacobin Club. After the victory over the British for the capture of Toulon in 1793, he was awarded the rank of brigadier general. This becomes a turning point in his biography, after which the brilliant career military

In 1795, Napoleon distinguished himself during the dispersal of the royalist rebellion, after which he was appointed commander of the army. The Italian campaign undertaken in 1796-1797 under his command demonstrated the talent of the commander and glorified him throughout the continent. In 1798-1799, the Directory sent him to the far military expedition to Syria and Egypt.

The expedition ended in defeat, but it was not considered a failure. He leaves the army without permission to fight the Russians under the command of Suvorov. In 1799, General Napoleon Bonaparte returned to Paris. The Directory regime at this time was already at the peak of the crisis.

Domestic policy

After the coup and the proclamation of the consulate in 1802, he became consul, and in 1804 - emperor. In the same year, with the participation of Napoleon, a new Civil Code, based on Roman law.

The internal policy pursued by the emperor is aimed at strengthening own power, which, in his opinion, guaranteed the preservation of the gains of the revolution. Carries out reforms in the field of law and administration. He undertook a number of reforms in the legal and administrative spheres. Some of these innovations still form the basis of the functioning of states. Napoleon ended anarchy. A law was passed to ensure the right to property. French citizens were recognized as equal in rights and opportunities.

Mayors were appointed to cities and villages, and the French Bank was created. The economy began to revive, which could not but please even the poor. Military recruitment allowed the poor to earn money. Lyceums opened throughout the country. At the same time, the police network expanded, a secret department began operating, and the press was subjected to strict censorship. Gradually there was a return to the monarchical system of government.

An important event For the French government, there was an agreement concluded with the Pope, thanks to which the legitimacy of Bonaparte’s power was recognized in exchange for the proclamation of Catholicism as the main religion of the majority of citizens. Society was divided into two camps in relation to the emperor. Some citizens stated that Napoleon betrayed the revolution, but Bonaparte himself believed that he was a successor of its ideas.

Foreign policy

The beginning of Napoleon's reign occurred at a time when France was at war with Austria and England. The new victorious Italian campaign eliminated the threat at the French borders. The result of military action was the subjugation of almost all European countries. In territories that were not part of France, kingdoms subordinate to the emperor were created, the rulers of which were members of his family. Russia, Prussia and Austria form an alliance.

At first, Napoleon was perceived as the savior of his homeland. The people were proud of his achievements, and there was a national upsurge in the country. But the 20-year war tired everyone. The Continental blockade proclaimed by Bonaparte, which led to the decline of the English economy and its light industry, forced the British to stop trade relations with European states. The crisis hit the port cities of France; the supply of colonial goods, to which Europe had already become accustomed, was stopped. Even French courtyard suffered from a lack of coffee, sugar, tea.

The situation was worsened by the economic crisis of 1810. The bourgeoisie did not want to spend money on wars, since the threat of attack by other countries was a thing of the past. She understood that the goal of the emperor's foreign policy was to expand his own power and protect the interests of the dynasty.

The collapse of the empire began in 1812, when Russian troops defeated Napoleonic army. The creation of an anti-French coalition, which included Russia, Austria, Prussia and Sweden, in 1814 was the collapse of the empire. This year she defeated the French and entered Paris.

Napoleon had to abdicate the throne, but he retained the status of emperor. He was exiled to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea. However, the exiled emperor did not stay there long.

French citizens and military personnel were unhappy with the situation and feared the return of the Bourbons and nobility. Bonaparte escapes and on March 1, 1815, moves to Paris, where he is greeted with enthusiastic exclamations from the townspeople. Hostilities resume. This period went down in history as the “Hundred Days”. The final defeat of Napoleon's army occurred on June 18, 1815 after the Battle of Waterloo.

The deposed emperor was captured by the British and sent into exile again. This time he found himself in Atlantic Ocean on the island of St. Elena, where he lived for another 6 years. But not all the British had a negative attitude towards Napoleon. In 1815, George Byron, impressed by the fate of the deposed emperor, created the “Napoleonic Cycle” of five poems, after which the poet was reproached for being unpatriotic. Among the British there was another admirer of Napoleon - Princess Charlotte, the daughter of the future George IV, on whose support the emperor at one time counted, but she died in 1817 during childbirth.

Personal life

Napoleon Bonaparte with youth was distinguished by his amorousness. Contrary to conventional wisdom, Napoleon’s height was above average by the standards that existed in those years - 168 cm, which could not help but attract the attention of the opposite sex. His masculine features and posture, which are visible in the reproductions presented in the form of photographs, aroused the interest of the ladies around him.

The first lover to whom the young man proposed was 16-year-old Desiree-Evgenia-Clara. But at that time his career in Paris began to develop rapidly, and Napoleon could not resist the charm of Parisian women. In the capital of France, Bonaparte preferred to have affairs with older women.

An important event in Napoleon's personal life, which took place in 1796, was his marriage to Josephine Beauharnais. Bonaparte's beloved turned out to be 6 years older than him. She was born into a plantation family on the island of Martinique in the Caribbean. From the age of 16 she was married to Viscount Alexandre de Beauharnais and gave birth to two children. Six years after marriage, she divorced her husband and at one time lived in Paris, then in her father’s house. After the revolution of 1789 she again went to France. In Paris he supported her ex-husband, who by that time occupied a high political position. But in 1794 the Viscount was executed, and Josephine herself spent some time in prison.

A year later, having miraculously gained freedom, Josephine met Bonaparte, who was not yet so famous. According to some reports, at the time of their acquaintance she was a member of love affair with the then ruler of France, Barras, but this did not stop him from becoming a witness at the wedding of Bonaparte and Josephine. In addition, Barras granted the groom the position of commander of the Italian Army of the Republic.

Researchers claim that the lovers had many things in common. Both were born far from France on small islands, experienced hardships, were imprisoned, both were dreamers. After the wedding, Napoleon went to the positions of the Italian army, and Josephine remained in Paris. After the Italian campaign, Bonaparte was sent to Egypt. Josephine still did not follow her husband, but enjoyed social life in the capital of France.

Tormented by jealousy, Napoleon began to have favorites. According to researchers, Napoleon had from 20 to 50 lovers. A series of novels followed, which led to the emergence of illegitimate heirs. Two are known - Alexander Colonna-Walewski and Charles Leon. The Colonna-Walewski family has survived to this day. Alexander's mother was the daughter of a Polish aristocrat, Maria Valevskaya.

Josephine could not have children, so in 1810 Napoleon divorced her. Bonaparte initially planned to intermarry with imperial family Romanovs. He asked Anna Pavlovna's hand in marriage from her brother Alexander I. But the Russian emperor did not want to become related to a ruler of non-royal blood. In many ways, these disagreements influenced the cooling of relations between France and Russia. Napoleon marries the daughter of the Emperor of Austria, Marie-Louise, who gave birth to an heir in 1811. This marriage was not approved by the French public.

Ironically, it was Josephine’s grandson, and not Napoleon’s, who later became the French emperor. Her descendants reign in Denmark, Belgium, Norway, Sweden and Luxembourg. There are no descendants of Napoleon left, since his son had no children, and he himself died young.

After being deported to the island of Elba, Bonaparte expected to see his legal wife next to him, but Marie-Louise went to her father’s domain. Maria Valevskaya arrived to Bonaparte with her son. Returning to France, Napoleon dreamed of seeing only Marie Louise, but the emperor never received an answer to all the letters sent to Austria.

Death

After the defeat at Waterloo, Bonaparte whiled away his time on the island of St. Elena. The last years of his life were filled with suffering from incurable disease. On May 5, 1821, Napoleon I Bonaparte died, he was 52 years old.

According to one version, the cause of death was oncology, according to another - arsenic poisoning. Researchers who support the version of stomach cancer appeal to the results of the autopsy, as well as to the heredity of Bonaparte, whose father died of stomach cancer. Other historians mention that Napoleon gained weight before his death. And this became an indirect sign of arsenic poisoning, since cancer patients lose weight. In addition, traces of high concentrations of arsenic were later found in the emperor’s hair.

According to Napoleon's will, his remains were transported to France in 1840, where they were reburied in the Parisian Invalides on the territory of the cathedral. Around the tomb of the former French emperor are sculptures made by Jean-Jacques Pradier.

Memory

The memory of the exploits of Napoleon Bonaparte is captured in art. Among them are opuses by Ludwig van Beethoven, Hector Berlioz, Robert Schumann, literary works Fyodor Dostoevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Rudyard Kipling. In cinema, his image is captured in films different eras, starting with silent films. A genus of trees growing in the area is named after the commander. African continent, as well as a culinary masterpiece - layer cake with cream. Napoleon's letters were published in France under Napoleon III and were sorted into quotations.

Napoleon Bonaparte is the first French emperor and one of the most talented commanders of all time. He had high intelligence, a fantastic memory and was distinguished by amazing performance.

Napoleon personally developed combat strategies that allowed him to emerge victorious in most battles, both on land and at sea.

As a result, after 2 years of hostilities, the Russian army entered Paris in triumph, and Napoleon abdicated the throne and was exiled to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea.

Moscow fire

However, less than a year later he escapes and returns back to Paris.

By this time, the French were concerned that the monarchical Bourbon dynasty might once again take power. That is why they enthusiastically greeted the return of Emperor Napoleon.

Ultimately, Napoleon was overthrown and captured by the British. This time he was sent into exile on the island of St. Helena, in which he remained for about 6 years.

Personal life

From his youth Napoleon had increased interest to the girls. It is generally accepted that he was short (168 cm), but at that time such height was considered quite normal.

Besides this, he had good posture and strong-willed facial features. Thanks to this, he was very popular among women.

Napoleon's first love was 16-year-old Desiree Eugenia Clara. However, their relationship did not turn out to be strong. Once in the capital, the future emperor began many affairs with Parisian women, who were often older than him.

Napoleon and Josephine

7 years after the French Revolution, Napoleon first met Josephine Beauharnais. A whirlwind romance began between them, and in 1796 they began to live in a civil marriage.

It is interesting that at that time Josephine already had two children from a previous marriage. In addition, she even spent some time in prison.

The couple had a lot in common. They both grew up in the provinces, faced difficulties in life, and also had prison experience.

Napoleon and Josephine

When Napoleon participated in various military campaigns, his beloved remained in Paris. Josephine enjoyed life, and he languished with melancholy and jealousy towards her.

It was difficult to call the famous commander a monogamist, and even rather the opposite. His biographers suggest that he had about 40 favorites. From some of them he had children.

After living with Josephine for about 14 years, Napoleon decides to divorce her. One of the main reasons for the divorce was that the girl could not have children.

An interesting fact is that Bonaparte initially proposed marriage to Anna Pavlovna Romanova. He proposed to her through her brother.

However, the Russian emperor made it clear to the Frenchman that he did not want to become related to him. Some historians believe that this episode from Napoleon's biography influenced further relations between Russia and France.

Soon the commander married his daughter Austrian Emperor Maria Louise. In 1811 she gave birth to his long-awaited heir.

One more thing worth paying attention to interesting fact. Fate turned out in such a way that it was Josephine’s grandson, and not Bonaparte, who in the future became emperor. His descendants still successfully reign in several European countries.

But Napoleon's pedigree soon ceased to exist. Bonaparte's son died in at a young age without leaving any offspring.

After the abdication at the Palace of Fontainebleau

However, the wife, who lived with her father at that time, did not even remember her husband. Not only did she not express a desire to see him, but she did not even write him a single letter in response.

Death

After his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon lived last years on the island of St. Elena. He was in a state of deep depression and suffered from pain in his right side.

He himself thought that he had cancer, from which his father died.

About the real reason his death is still debated. Some believe that he died from cancer, while others are convinced that there was arsenic poisoning.

The latest version is explained by the fact that after the death of the emperor, arsenic was found in his hair.

In his will, Bonaparte asked to bury his remains in France, which was done in 1840. His grave is located in the Parisian Invalides on the territory of the cathedral.

Photo of Napoleon

At the end we offer you to look at the most famous photos Napoleon. Of course, all portraits of Bonaparte were made by artists, since cameras simply did not exist at that time.

Bonaparte - First Consul
Emperor Napoleon in his office in the Tuileries
Capitulation of Madrid on December 4, 1808
Napoleon crowned King of Italy on May 26, 1805 in Milan
Napoleon Bonaparte on the Arcole Bridge

Napoleon and Josephine

Napoleon at the Saint Bernard Pass

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Children: from 2nd marriage
son: Napoleon II
illegitimate
sons: Charles Leon Denuel, Alexander Valevsky
daughter: Josephine Napoleon de Montolon

Childhood

Letizia Ramolino

Beginning of a military career

After the Thermidorian coup, Bonaparte was first arrested due to his connections with Augustin Robespierre (August 10, for two weeks). After his release due to a conflict with the command, he retired, and a year later, in August, he received a position in the topographic department of the Committee of Public Safety. At a critical moment for the Thermidorians, he was appointed by Barras as his assistant and distinguished himself during the dispersal of the royalist rebellion in Paris (13 Vendémières), was promoted to the rank of division general and appointed commander of the rear forces. Less than a year later, on March 9, Bonaparte married the widow of an executed man. Jacobin terror general, Count of Beauharnais, Josephine, the former mistress of one of the then rulers of France - P. Barras. Barras' wedding gift to the young general Some consider the position of commander of the Italian army (the appointment took place on February 23), but Bonaparte proposed Carnot for this position.

Thus, “a new military and political star rose” on the European political horizon, and the history of the continent began new era, whose name for many 20 years will be “Napoleonic Wars”.

Rise to power

Allegorical image of Napoleon

The crisis of power in Paris reached its climax by 1799, when Bonaparte was with his army in Egypt. The corrupt Directory was unable to ensure the gains of the revolution. In Italy, Russian-Austrian troops, commanded by Alexander Suvorov, liquidated all of Napoleon's acquisitions, and there was even a threat of invasion of France. Under these conditions, a popular general who returned from Egypt, relying on an army loyal to him, dispersed representative bodies and the Directory and proclaimed the regime of the consulate (November 9).

According to new constitution, legislative power was divided between the State Council, the Tribunate, the Legislative Corps and the Senate, which made it helpless and clumsy. The executive power, on the contrary, was gathered into one fist by the first consul, that is, Bonaparte. The second and third consuls had only advisory votes. The constitution was approved by the people in a plebiscite (about 3 million votes against 1.5 thousand) (1800). Later, Napoleon passed a decree through the Senate on the lifetime of his powers (1802), and then proclaimed himself Emperor of the French (1804).

When Napoleon came to power, France was at war with Austria and England. Bonaparte's new Italian campaign resembled the first. Having crossed the Alps, the French army suddenly appeared in Northern Italy, enthusiastically received local population. The victory in the Battle of Marengo () was decisive. The threat to the French borders was eliminated.

Napoleon's domestic policy

Having become a full-fledged dictator, Napoleon radically changed government system countries. Napoleon's domestic policy consisted of strengthening his personal power as a guarantee of preserving the results of the revolution: civil rights, land ownership rights of peasants, as well as those who bought national property during the revolution, that is, confiscated lands of emigrants and churches. The Civil Code (), which went down in history as the Napoleonic Code, was supposed to ensure all these conquests. Napoleon spent administrative reform, establishing the institution of department prefects and sub-prefects of districts accountable to the government (). Mayors were appointed to cities and villages.

A state French bank was established to store gold reserves and issue paper money (). Until 1936, no major changes were made to the management system of the French Bank, created by Napoleon: the manager and his deputies were appointed by the government, and decisions were made jointly with 15 board members from the shareholders - this ensured a balance between public and private interests. On March 28, 1803, paper money was eliminated: the monetary unit became the franc, equal to a five-gram silver coin and divided into 100 centimes. To centralize the tax collection system, the Directorate of Direct Taxation and the Directorate of Consolidated Taxation (indirect taxes) were created. Having accepted a state with a deplorable financial condition, Napoleon introduced austerity in all areas. Normal operation financial system was ensured by the creation of two opposing and at the same time cooperating ministries: finance and treasury. They were led by outstanding financiers of that time, Gaudin and Mollien. The Minister of Finance was responsible for budget revenues, the Minister of the Treasury gave a detailed report on the expenditure of funds, and his activities were audited by the Accounts Chamber of 100 civil servants. She controlled state expenditures, but did not make judgments about their appropriateness.

Napoleon's administrative and legal innovations laid the foundation modern state, many of them are still in operation today. It was then that the system of secondary schools - lyceums and higher education institutions - was created. educational establishments- Normal and Polytechnic schools, which are still the most prestigious in France. Well aware of the importance of influencing public opinion, Napoleon closed 60 of the 73 Parisian newspapers and placed the rest under government control. A powerful police force and an extensive secret service were created. Napoleon concluded a concordat with the Pope (1801). Rome recognized the new French government, and Catholicism was declared the religion of the majority of the French. At the same time, freedom of religion was preserved. The appointment of bishops and the activities of the church were made dependent on the government.

These and other measures forced Napoleon's opponents to declare him a traitor to the Revolution, although he considered himself a faithful successor of its ideas. The truth is that he managed to consolidate some revolutionary gains (the right to property, equality before the law, equality of opportunity), but decisively dissociated himself from the principle of freedom.

"Great Army"

Napoleon's military campaigns and the battles that characterize them

General characteristics of the problem

Napoleon's Marshals

In 1807, on the occasion of the ratification of the Peace of Tilsit, Napoleon was awarded highest award Russian Empire - Order of the Holy Apostle Andrew the First-Called.

Having won, Napoleon signed the decree on the continental blockade (). From now on, France and all its allies stopped trade relations with England. Europe was the main market for British goods, as well as colonial goods imported mainly by England, the largest sea ​​power. The continental blockade caused damage to the English economy: a little over a year later, England was experiencing a crisis in the wool production and textile industry; the pound sterling fell. However, the blockade also hit the continent. French industry was not able to replace English industry on the European market. The disruption of trade relations with the English colonies also led to the decline of French port cities: La Rochelle, Marseille, etc. The population suffered from a lack of familiar colonial goods: coffee, sugar, tea...

Crisis and fall of the Empire (1812-1815)

Napoleon's policies in the first years of his reign enjoyed the support of the population - not only owners, but also the poor (workers, farm laborers). The fact is that the revival in the economy caused an increase in wages, which was also facilitated by constant recruitment into the army. Napoleon looked like the savior of the fatherland, wars caused national upsurge, and victories are a feeling of pride. After all, Napoleon Bonaparte was a man of the revolution, and the marshals around him, brilliant military leaders, sometimes came from the very bottom. But gradually the people began to get tired of the war, which had lasted for about 20 years. Military recruitment began to cause dissatisfaction. Moreover, in 1810 it broke out again economic crisis. The bourgeoisie realized that it was not within its power to economically subjugate all of Europe. Wars in the vastness of Europe were losing their meaning for her; the costs of them began to irritate her. The security of France has not been threatened for a long time, and in foreign policy All big role played by the emperor’s desire to extend his power and ensure the interests of the dynasty. In the name of these interests, Napoleon divorced his first wife Josephine, with whom he had no children, and married the daughter of the Austrian Emperor, Marie-Louise (1810). An heir was born (1811), but the Emperor's Austrian marriage was extremely unpopular in France.

Napoleon's allies who accepted continental blockade contrary to their interests, they did not strive to strictly observe it. Tensions grew between them and France. The contradictions between France and Russia became increasingly obvious. Patriotic movements expanded in Germany, and guerrilla violence continued unabated in Spain. Having broken off relations with Alexander I, Napoleon decided to go to war with Russia. The Russian campaign of 1812 marked the beginning of the end of the Empire. Napoleon's huge, multi-tribal army did not carry within itself the previous revolutionary spirit; far from its homeland in the fields of Russia, it quickly melted away and finally ceased to exist. As the Russian army moved west, the anti-Napoleonic coalition grew. Russian, Austrian, Prussian and Swedish troops opposed the hastily assembled new French army in the “Battle of the Nations” near Leipzig (October 16-19, 1813). Napoleon was defeated and, after the Allies entered Paris, abdicated the throne. On the night of April 12–13, 1814, at Fontainebleau, suffering defeat, abandoned by his court (only a few servants, a doctor and General Caulaincourt were with him), Napoleon decided to commit suicide. He took poison, which he always carried with him after the battle of Maloyaroslavets, when he miraculously escaped being captured. But the poison decomposed from long storage, Napoleon survived. By decision of the allied monarchs, he received possession of the small island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea. On April 20, 1814, Napoleon left Fontainebleau and went into exile.

A truce was declared. The Bourbons and emigrants returned to France, seeking the return of their property and privileges. This caused discontent and fear in French society and in the army. Taking advantage of the favorable situation, Napoleon fled Elba in February 1815 and, greeted by the enthusiastic cries of the crowd, returned to Paris without hindrance. The war resumed, but France was no longer able to bear its burden. The "Hundred Days" ended with Napoleon's final defeat near the Belgian village of Waterloo (June 18). He was forced to leave France, and, relying on the nobility of the British government, voluntarily arrived on the English warship Bellerophon in the port of Plymouth, hoping to receive political asylum from his longtime enemies - the British. But the English cabinet decided differently: Napoleon became a prisoner of the British and, under the leadership of the British admiral George Elphinstone Keith, was sent to the distant island of St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean. There, in the village of Longwood, Napoleon spent the last six years of his life. Having learned about this decision, he said: “This is worse than Tamerlane’s iron cage! I would prefer to be handed over to the Bourbons... I surrendered myself to the protection of your laws. The government is trampling on the sacred customs of hospitality... This is tantamount to signing a death warrant! The British chose St. Helena because of its distance from Europe, fearing that the emperor would escape from exile again. Napoleon had no hope of a reunion with Marie-Louise and his son: even during his exile on Elba, his wife, under the influence of her father, refused to come to him.

Saint Helena

Napoleon was allowed to choose officers to accompany him; they were Henri-Gracien Bertrand, Charles Montolon, Emmanuel de Las Cases and Gaspard Gourgo, who were with him on the English ship. In total, there were 27 people in Napoleon's retinue. On August 7, 1815, the former emperor left Europe aboard the ship Northumberland. Nine escort ships carrying the 3,000 soldiers that would guard Napoleon at Saint Helena accompanied his ship. On October 17, 1815, Napoleon arrived in Jamestown, the island's only port. The habitat of Napoleon and his retinue was the vast Longwood House (the former summer residence of the Governor General), located on a mountain plateau 8 kilometers from Jamestown. The house and the area adjacent to it were surrounded by a six-kilometer-long stone wall. Sentinels were placed around the wall so that they could see each other. Sentinels were stationed on the tops of the surrounding hills, reporting all of Napoleon's actions with signal flags. The British did everything to make Bonaparte's escape from the island impossible. The deposed emperor initially placed big hopes to replace European (and above all British) policy. Napoleon knew that the Crown Princess of the English throne, Charlotte (daughter of George IV), was a passionate admirer of his. The new governor of the island, Goodson Law, further restricts the freedom of the deposed emperor: he narrows the boundaries of his walks, requires Napoleon to show himself to the guard officer at least twice a day, and tries to reduce his contacts with outside world. Napoleon is doomed to inactivity. His health was deteriorating, Napoleon and his retinue blamed this on the unhealthy climate of the island.

Death of Napoleon

Napoleon's tomb at Les Invalides

Napoleon's health condition steadily deteriorated. From 1819 he became ill more and more often. Napoleon often complained of pain in his right side and his legs were swollen. His attending physician diagnosed him with hepatitis. Napoleon suspected that it was cancer - the disease from which his father died. In March 1821, his condition deteriorated so much that he had no doubt about near death. On April 13, 1821, Napoleon dictated his will. He could no longer move without outside help, the pain became sharp and painful. On May 5, 1821, Napoleon Bonaparte died. He was buried near Longwood in an area called " Geranium Valley" There is a version that Napoleon was poisoned. However, the authors of the book “Chemistry in Forensics” L. Leistner and P. Bujtash write that “the increased content of arsenic in hair still does not give grounds to unconditionally assert the fact of deliberate poisoning, because the same data could have been obtained if Napoleon had systematically used drugs , which contain arsenic.

Literature

• Napoleon Bonaparte. About the art of war. Selected works. ISBN 5-699-03899-X
• Las Cas Maxims and Thoughts of the Prisoner of Saint Helena
• Mukhlaeva I. “Napoleon. A few sacramental questions"
• Stendhal "The Life of Napoleon"
• Horace Vernet "History of Napoleon"
• Rustam Raza “My life next to Napoleon”
• Pimenova E.K. "Napoleon"
• Filatova Y. “Main aspects of Napoleon’s domestic policy”
• Chandler D. Napoleon's military campaigns. M.: Tsentropoligraf, 1999.
• Saunders E. 100 days of Napoleon. M.: AST, 2002.
• Tarle E. V. Napoleon
• David Markham Napoleon Bonaparte for dummies isbn = 978-5-8459-1418-7
• Manfred A. Z. Napoleon Bonaparte. M.: Mysl, 1989
• Volgin I. L., Narinsky M. M.. Dialogue about Dostoevsky, Napoleon and the Napoleonic myth // Metamorphoses of Europe. M., 1993, p. 127-164
• Ben Weider, David Hapgood. Who killed Napoleon? M.: International relationships, 1992.
• Ben Vader. Brilliant Bonaparte. M.: International relations, 1992.
• M. Brandys Maria Valevskaya // Historical stories. M.: Progress, 1974.

• Cronin Vincent Napoleon. - M.: “Zakharov”, 2008. - 576 p. - ISBN 978-5-8159-0728-7
• Gallo Max Napoleon. - M.: “Zakharov”, 2009. - 704+784 p. - ISBN 978-5-8159-0845-1

Notes

Predecessor: (First Republic) Himself, as First Consul of the French Republic	1st Emperor of France (First Empire) March 20 - April 6 March 1 - June 22	Successor: (Bourbon Restoration) 34th King of France Louis XVIII
Predecessor: (First Republic) Directory of the French Republic	First Consul of the French Republic (First Republic) November 9 - March 20	Successor:

NAPOLEON I (Napoleon Bonaparte) - French statesman and military leader, Emperor of the French (1804-1814, 1815).

From a large noble family, in the 16th century, emig-ri-ro-vav-shay from Tos-ka-ny to the island of Kor-si-ka. His father, Car-lo Ma-ria Buo-na-par-te (1746-1785), ad-vo-kat by profession, was originally one of the spods -vizh-ni-kov P. Pao-li, li-de-ra fight for independence of Kor-si-ki. Na-po-le-on Bo-na-part studied at Brie-enne (1779-1784), then at Paris (1784-1785) military schools. lah, after which he served in the pro-provincial gar-ni-zons in Val-lans, Lyon, Douai, Ok-so-ne. At this time he paid great attention to his knowledge of artistic, political, and philosophical literature, including labor mi Vol-te-ra, P. Cor-ne-la, J. Ra-si-na, J. Buff-fo-na, C. Mont-tes-quio. At the beginning of the French revolution of the 18th century, he was stationed in Ok-so-non, where the regiment in which he served, yes- there was a slight recovery. In 1792 he joined the Jacobin Club. In September 1792, he was appointed commander of an artillery battalion in the city of Nitsa, then commander of the battalion of the republican army, osa-zh- having given the city of Tu-lon, captured by the swarm-li-hundreds and under-li-vav-shi-mi by their British troops. He proposed his plan for taking the city, which allowed Tu-lon to settle in December 1793. On 12/22/1793, he was brought to the Bri-gad-nye-ge-ne-ra-ly and was appointed to co-man-do-vat ar-til-le-ri-ey Al-piy- army, action against the Aus-st-ro-sar-din troops. After Ter-mi-do-ri-an-sko-go re-re-vo-ro-ta in 1794, he was dismissed from duty and on September 15, 1795, he was dismissed from the army according to ob-vi-ne-niu in connection with Yako-bin-tsa-mi. In October 1795, he was reinstated in the army on the initiative of P. Bar-ra-sa, a member of the Di-rek-to-rii, who was instructed by him - yes-vit Roya-li-st-sky my-tezh 13 van-dem-e-ra (October 5, 1795) in Pa-ri-zhe. For this operation he received the title of di-vi-zi-on-no-go ge-ne-ra-la (10/16/1795) and the position of military commander mi on the territory of France (the so-called Internal Army). In October 1795, Bar-ras knew-to-love Na-po-leo-na Bo-na-par-ta with Jo-ze-fi-na de Beau-gar-net and arranged their marriage . Since 1796, the commander-in-chief of the French army in Northern Italy. Italian campaign of 1796-1797 (see Italian-Yan-movement Na-po-le-o-na Bo-na-par-ta) pro-de-mon-st-ri-ro-va -la strategic talent Na-po-leo-na Bo-na-par-ta and brought him European fame. After the Di-rek-to-rii from the plan of invasion on British Isles he achieved an or-ga-ni-za-tion of military ex-pe-di-tion in Egypt with the aim of creating a threat to something important for the safety of -sti of the British Empire to India. The campaign of 1798-1801 (see Egyptian ex-pe-di-tion of Na-po-le-o-na Bo-na-par-ta) was not as successful as the campaign Pa-nia 1796-1797. For-heavy kha-rak-ter, which was pri-nya-la ex-pe-di-tion, on-ra-zhe-niya of the French army in Northern Italy from the av-st- Russian-Russian troops under the command of Field Marshal A.V. Su-vo-ro-va, as well as the instability of the situation in France in bu-di-li Na-po-leo-na Bo-na-par- ta os-ta-vit ko-man-do-va-nie on General Zh.B. Cle-be-ra and secretly return to Paris (October 1799). You-stu-beer in the role of “spa-si-te-la father-che-st-va”, he carried out a state re-revolution on November 9, 1799 (see Vo-sem-na- dtsa-toe bru-me-ra). In France, there was an actual constitution and a new regime of temporary Consulate was established. The new constitution was approved on 12/25/1799, the Consul-st offi-ci-al-but pro-voz-gla-she-but 1/1/1800. Na-po-le-he Bo-na-part took over the post of the first con-su-la with a 10-year-long term. Desiring to consolidate and be able to control power, he achieved the pro-government of himself on August 2, 1802, for life. nym con-su-lom with the right-to-appointment of the pre-em-ni-ka, ra-ti-fi-ka-tion of inter-people's do-governments and po-mi -lo-va-niya pre-stup-ni-kov. The establishment of a new regime is so-so-infringing on the freedom of the press (closed you 60 newspapers), pre-following the political opponents, pre-all the swarm-lists and yako-bin-tsev .

In the internal text, he combined the line for storage and for-dative acquisition of property re-in-lu-tion with the strengthening of the mo-nar-hi-features of power and re-look-rom-no-she-niy with the Roman-Catholic Church -co-view. In 1801, Con-kor-dat entered into a contract with Pope Pi-vii of Rome, pro-voz-gla-sha-sh-shi-free use-of-ka- that-li-li-giya, which-paradise announced the re-li-gi-her “pain-shin-st-va french-call.” On May 18, 1804, the Senate of the French Republic adopted an act (se-na-tus-con-sult), pro-voting France im-pe-ri-ey (see First Empire) led by the French emperor Napoleon I. At the general public ple-bis-ci On November 6, 1804, se-na-tus-kon-sult was approved by 3.5 million votes against 2.5 million. The im-per-ra-tor ti-tul of Napoleon I with the right-to-successors of the throne was consecrated by Pope Pi VII, formerly at the co-ro-na-tion, which came on December 2, 1804, in the co-bo-re of the Parisian Bo-go-ma-te-ri. At the ceremony, Napoleon I personally took charge of J. de Beaugarnet and his soup.

In the field of public administration, Napoleon I pursued a line on centralization and strengthening of political control in collaboration with measures for the mod-der-ni-za-tion of the administrative system. The most important thing became the adoption in 1804 of the very re-pre-duration of the Civil Code at that time (with 1807 Code Na-po-le-o-na). In the years 1806-1810, criminal, trade and other codes were introduced, substantively improved -shie and up-to-stiv systems of su-do-pro-from-water-st-va in France. According to Napoleon I, in the fi-nan-so-eco-no-mic sphere, the development of banks is possible -la (in 1800 founded the Bank of France) and the chambers of commerce. Of great significance was the establishment in 1803 of the new gold holding of the franc (the so-called Franc Germinal), which from that time on became one of the most stable monetary units in Europe. In general, the internal policy of Napoleon I led to the fact that a monarchical regime was restored in France with all the -su-schi-mi him external-ni-mi at-ri-bu-ta-mi (yard, ti-tu-ly, etc.), at the same time preserved the most important revolutionary social-ci-al-no-eco-no-mic for-wars, the first-of-all recognition of rights to land for her but-you-mi own-st-ven-ni-ka-mi - cross-me-on-mi.

The external policy of Napoleon I was on the right to ensure French he-gemony in Europe. The main means of accomplishing this goal were wars with European states, ob-e-di-nyav-shi -mi-xia in an-ti-French-coa-li-tions. With the pro-voz-gla-she-ni-im im-peri-rii, the goiter-but-vi-la-sa of continuous wars (see Na-po-le-o-new - wars), which France has waged since 1792. The victories of Napoleon I led to the creation of a huge continental empire, oh-va-tiv-shay all of Western and Central Europe. It stood as one of the territories that became part of France itself, expanding to 130 de-par-ta-men -tov (except for France’s own, including modern Belgium, the Netherlands, the left bank of the Rhine, as well as the territory -ri-to-rii on the coast of the North Sea, Italian Co-ro-lion-st-vo, Papal States, Il-li-riy-skie pro- wine-tion), and from the state institutions dependent on it (Is-pa-nia, Ne-apo-li-tan-ko-ro-lev-st -in, Rhine Union, Warsaw-prince-st-vo), at the head of which Napoleon I soon established his clan-st-ven- ni-kov (E. de Beau-gar-net, I. Mu-rat, Joseph I Bo-na-part). Napoleon I in the conquered countries had the right to use them for economic purposes and the political development of France itself. Kon-ti-nen-tal-naya block-ka-da, not-ga-tiv-but from-ra-zhav-shaya on the eco-no-mi-ke of these countries, provide-pe-chi-va- At the same time (until 1810) there was a sales market for the growing French manufacturing industry.

Napoleon I sought to strengthen his military-but-li-tical ties with di-na-stical ties. Having no children from Jo-ze-fi-ny, Napoleon I, assured of the fate of the main di-na-stiy of Bo-na-par-tov, broke up with her and began to search for a new soup. After unsuccessful attempts to woo the sisters of the Russian Emperor Alec-san-Dr. I (to Eka-te-ri-ne Pav-lov-ne in 1808 and An-ne Pav-lov-ne in 1809) in April 1810 he married Erz-her-tso-gi-ne Maria Louise, daughter of the Austrian emperor Franz I (see Franz II). This marriage was about the same desire of Napoleon I to drink French-Austrian relations. In 1811, his son was born to him (see Na-po-le-on II).

Napoleon I developed foreign-made projects that also affected North America and the West Indies. Per-re-da-cha Is-pa-ni-ey Louisia-ny of France and ure-gu-li-ro-va-nie of French-American de-no-she-nies (see Mor- Fon-Ton Treaty of 1800) created, in the opinion of Napoleon I, good preparations for strengthening French influence in the West po-lu-sha-rii. One of the failures of the French ex-pe-di-tion in Gai-ti and Gua-de-lu-pu in 1802 re-crossed these plans. As a result, Louisia was pro-da to the USA in 1803.

By 1812, Napoleon I had practically fought the French he-ge-mony in Europe. There were only two state-su-dar-sts that did not recognize in one form or another the power of France, - Vel-li-ko-bri- ta-nia and the Russian Empire. In the summer of 1812, on his march to Russia, Napoleon I would have won the victory and won over Aleksandr. ra I to jointly stand against Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-nii. The situation in Russia (see Fatherland's War of 1812) became a precursor to the collapse of not only the Ge-ge- the mo-ni-st-skih plans of Napoleon I, but also the creation of his old empire, in which the -a long struggle. Grew up without freedom and within France, deprived of blood by the uninterrupted war and economic crisis -som, which began in 1810. Taking into account the growth of pro-those sentiments, Napoleon I in 1810 already had a hundred prices, took measures to reduce the -creating the number of newspapers, intensifying the pursuit of the anti-government regime, incl. built-in pi-sa-te-leys, such as J. de Stael and B. Kon-stan. The most striking evidence of Napoleon I's lack of freedom as a result of torture bri-gad-no-th General K.F. de Ma-le 10/23/1812 to complete a re-entry in Pa-ri-zhe and restore the re-publication, while Napoleon I with Ve- li-koy ar-mi-ey stayed in Russia. For-the-thief Ma-le urged Napoleon I to leave the army and hurry to France. In Pa-ri-zhe-im-pe-ra-tor about-na-ru-lived not-to-live-even in tra-di-tsi-he-but under-chi-nyav-sh-sya him in the Za-ko-no-dative corps and on January 1, 1814, he dissolved it. Despite the victories in the battles of Cham-po-be-re and Mont-mi-rai in 1814, Napoleon I was unable to defend the movements of the armies of the Union-ni-kov to Pa-ri-zhu, which they entered on March 31, 1814. The Se-nat declared Napoleon I lower-lo-female and formed a temporary government headed by a former spod-vizh-nik named after per-ra-to-ra Sh.M. Ta-ley-ra-nom, who since 1808-1809, before seeing the collapse of Napoleon I, maintained secret connections with Alexander I and K. Met-ter-ni-hom. On April 4, 1814, in Font-tenbelot, Napoleon I abdicated from the throne in favor of his young son. Se-nat so-gla-sil-sya to recognize-them-per-ra-to-rum under the name of Na-po-le-o-na II, but in-sha-tel -the establishment of the unions that have been restored to power by the Bur-bo-novs, re-cross these plans. 11.4.1814 Napoleon I okon-cha-tel-but renounced the French throne and 20. 4.1814, having said goodbye to the Old Guard, he went into exile. Did he have the imperial title, did he get a large pension (over 2 million francs per year) ) and from the ownership of the small island of El-ba in the Middle Sea. Napoleon I tried to get his wife and son to come to the island, but was refused, while the new French great -vi-tel-st-in from-ka-za-lo to him and in you-promised pension. Napoleon I attentively followed the development of events in France, where the regime of the Republic was not ripe. tav-ra-tions, which have set a course for the consolidation of those war-re-vo-lu-tions that have been preserved for years his rights. Teach-you-not-will-st-in Bur-bo-na-mi in France and knowing about the different-gla-si-yah between the der-ja-va-mi- po-be-di-tel-ni-tsa-mi, arose-nik-shi-mi at the Vienna Congress of 1814-1815, Napoleon I decided to take power in the country again into his own hands -ki. He secretly left El-bu and on March 1, 1815, you went with a small number (about 1 thousand people) to the southern coast France. The government troops against Napoleon I moved to his side, including the command of the one in charge of them. le-o-nov-sko-go mar-sha-la M. Ney. On March 20, 1815, Napoleon I triumphantly entered Paris, from where Louis XVIII, his court and his ministers quickly fled .

The period of the second reign of Napoleon I (20.3-22.6.1815) is known as “One Hundred Days”. In an effort to pro-de-mon-st-ri-ro-vate his loyalty to-ve-there in 1789 and to show himself defending freedom and freedom -ven-st-va, Napoleon I introduced B. Kon-sta-n to the State Council and instructed him to draw up a draft of a new liberal con-sti -tu-tion, called upon to expand the full power of the organs of representative power. This project (the so-called Additional Act of April 22, 1815) was approved by Napoleon I and later approved by the public. So-hundred-of-the-s-you-have-bred-whether-we-be-ra-lam. On June 3, 1815, two pa-la-you par-la-men-ta began their activities - the representatives of the Sta-vi-te-leys and the Pe-ers.

Having returned to power, Napoleon I without-us-on-foot tried to believe in keeping you in his peaceful lips-rem-le-ni-yah. Just about to repel the invasion of the troops of the 7th Anti-French Coalition, he began to create new military units -armed forces. By June 1815, he managed to form a 250,000-strong regular army and a 180,000-strong National Guard. These forces, distributed throughout the entire territory of France, stood in front of almost a million Miya so-yuz-ni-kov. On June 12, 1815, Napoleon I went to the location of the 70,000-strong army in Belgium, where at Vater- loo there was a fight with the troops of the an-ti-French coalition. Having endured it, Napoleon I returned to Paris on June 20, 1815. 22.6.1815 Pa-la-ta pre-sta-vi-te-lei on-tre-bo-va-la from im-per-ra-to-ra from-re-che-niya in favor of ma- lo-let-not-go-son. Napoleon I stood up from the prolongation of the struggle and complied with this requirement. Having signed the act of final re-entry, he tried to go to North America, but near Roche-fort he fell into ruin. ki ang-li-chan. By decision of the allies, Napoleon I was sent to the island of St. Helena, where he spent the last 6 years of his life under the supervision of the metropolis. railway people's commission. In pursuit of him, the most faithful spod-vizh-ki - General A.G. Ber-tran, S.T. de Mont-to-lon, Count E. de Las Cases and others. According to the official version, Napoleon I died of stomach cancer, which was the cause of death and his father. Version of a number of is-to-ri-kov (S. Fors-hu-wood, P. Klintz) about the poisoning of Napoleon I by the mouse-I-who-is-it-sya dis- kus-si-on-noy. In 1840, the ashes of Napoleon I were transferred to Paris and placed in the House of In-va-li-dov.

Napoleon I entered history as a great leader and an outstanding statesman who influenced the next This is a great development not only for France, but for all of Europe. The legacy they left in the region of civil ad-mi-ni-st-ra-tion largely retains its ac-tu-al-ness and in beginning of XXI century. At the same time, the results of his rule were very pro-to-you for France. In the wars waged by Napoleon I, over 800 thousand Frenchmen died, which became the cause of a deep de-mo-gra physical crisis, which subsequently was felt in France until the beginning of the 20th century. The significance of his activities for Europe is also not the same. On the one hand, he stepped out like a fierce warrior, on the other, he acted as a co-actor against the country. I don’t know about the whole continuity of the ideas of the French revolution, destroying the old cl-ri-kal-no-feudal and co-words in a row -ki and us-ta-nav-li-vaya new state na-cha-la. Not-in-the-middle-of-the-line following-on-the-le-o-nov-wars it became all-local about-bu-de- development and development of national movements in Europe.

Napoleon I has a special place in the development of military art of the 19th century. He managed to find a successful tactical and strategic use on foot for the massive armed forces created by the revolution -tsi-ey. A number of reforms of Napoleon I in the organizational structure of French art helped achieve this goal. mii, tak-ti-ke and strategy of its conduct of military actions. Napoleon I strengthened the control of troops, changed the regular organization of infantry and cavalry divisions, for the first time -Dya kor-pu-sa as per-sto-yan-nye military for-mi-ro-va-niya, re-or-ga-ni-zo-val management ar-til- le-ri-ey, actively applied and developed so-ti-ku columns and scattered formations. For the military leadership art of Napoleon I, there would have been a quick maneuver, the combination of frontal strikes with great heat or moving around the flank against the enemy, the ability to suddenly create superiority on the right of the main attack -ra. Fighting against a numerically superior number of opponents, he tried to sever the thread of his strength and destroy them hour by hour. The main goal of military actions for Napoleon I was the defeat of the enemy army, the main means was a general battle. He was a non-participant in offensive actions, considering defense to be un-about-ho-di-mine only at the second-degree level. st-kah front and consider it as a means of deterring the opposition and you-playing time for under -go-tov-ki at-stu-p-le-niya. Did the Polish art and military concepts of Napoleon I influence the works of the main military theorists of the 19th century - K. von Klau-ze-wi-tsa and A.A. Jo-mi-ni.

The result of his military victories Napoleon I strived to increase his strength in monumental architectural co-ordination -yah in France: three-um-falle arches, Van-dom-column, Au-ster-litz-kiy (1802-1806) and Yen-sky (1808-1814 years) bridges in Pa-ri-zhe, Ka-men-ny bridge (1810-1822) in Bor-do. He also bred a number of French art-hi-tech-to-trenches (C. Per-sier, P. Fonten, J.F. Shalg-ren ), French and Italian artists and sculptors (J.L. Da-vid, A.J. Gro, L. Bar-to-li-ni, A. Ka-no-va etc.), half of the Louvre’s collection of lectures about art, you were brought from Italy, Ni-der-lan -dov, Germany and other countries (see article by D. Denon). Am-pir style, re-lived color during the reign of Napoleon I, spread throughout Europe, including h. in Russia.

On the island of Corsica, in the city of Ajaccio. At the age of nine, he came to Paris with his older brother to study. The poor, hot-tempered Corsican had no friends, but he studied well, and his career was steadily moving upward. After the great French Revolution, in just a year and a half he turned from a captain into a brigadier general, and two years later he became one of the best commanders of the republic. Taking advantage of the crisis of power in France, when the threat of invasion by Russian-Austrian troops was real, he rebelled and proclaimed himself the sole ruler - consul. Both the people and the board supported him Napoleon. Together with the great French army, Napoleon won the war with Prussia and conquered the territories of Holland, Belgium, Germany, and Italy. Peace was made with Russia, Prussia and Austria, after which Napoleon declared a continental blockade of England. If in the first years the people supported their emperor, then after a while people got tired of constant wars, and a crisis began. Napoleon decided to take the step of declaring war on Russia. But he was met with desperate resistance, and the great French army began to retreat. The closer to home country Napoleon approached, the more active his ill-wishers became. In April 1814, the emperor abdicated the throne and attempted suicide by taking poison. But the poison had no effect, and Napoleon sent to his first exile - to the island of Elba. On a small island near Italy, Napoleon became Emperor. He could keep a personal guard and manage the affairs of the island. During the nine months he spent here, the Emperor held several social and economic reforms to improve the lives of residents. However, the island was controlled by Britain and naval patrols kept it under surveillance. Bonaparte's active nature did not allow him to sit still, and less than a year later he fled. The news of the escape was heatedly discussed in Paris, and on February 26, the emperor was greeted in France by jubilant citizens, and without firing a shot he reoccupied. The army and people supported their famous commander. The “100 days” of reign has begun Napoleon. The countries of Europe threw all their strength into the fight against the great emperor. Having lost his last battle, which occurred on June 18, 1815 at Waterloo, he hoped for mercy, but was mistaken. He was exiled again, this time to the island of St. Helena. This island is located 3000 km from the coast of Africa. Here the former emperor was kept in a house behind a stone wall, surrounded by sentries. There were about 3,000 soldiers on the island, and there was no chance of escape. Napoleon, finding himself in complete captivity, was doomed to inactivity and loneliness. Here he died 6 years later, on May 5, 1821. There are different legends about his death, the main versions of what happened are stomach cancer or arsenic poisoning.

Napoleon Bonaparte spent his entire life striving for unlimited power. And this unbridled passion of his guided this man always and in everything. He even proclaimed himself emperor when France was not yet an empire.

Instructions

Two large historical events in France at the end of the eighteenth century they brought him to the throne. The first of them is the Great French revolution. By supporting her, the unknown young lieutenant of the French army marked the beginning of his rapid military career. The second is the military coup of 1799. Having headed which Bonaparte became emperor.

The capture of Toulon brought Napoleon his first national glory. In 1793, this city was captured by the British, who posed a serious threat to the French Republic. Appointed commander of the artillery, Napoleon himself developed and brilliantly carried out a plan for the capture of Toulon. So at the age of 24 he received a brigadier general and commander of the Italian army.

Then there was a successful Italian campaign, as a result of which France annexed northern Italy. Bonaparte himself is already becoming divisional and quickly gaining popularity in the upper strata French society and gains significant influence.

In 1798, Bonaparte, at the head of the French army, went to Egypt, which was then a British colony, and suffered one defeat after another.