Chapter I.
STRUCTURE OF FIBERS AND THREADS
1. STRUCTURE OF FIBERS AND ELEMENTARY THREADS
Textile fibers (elementary threads) have a complex physical structure and most of them have a high molecular weight.
Textile fibers have a typical fibrillar structure. Fibrils are associations of microfibrils of oriented supramolecular compounds. Microfibrils are molecular complexes, their cross section is less than 10 nm. They are held near each other by intermolecular forces, as well as due to the transition of individual molecules from complex to complex. The transition of molecules from one microfibril to another depends on their length. It is believed that the length of microfibrils is an order of magnitude greater than the diameter. Microfibrils and fibrils of some fibers are shown in Fig. I. 1.
The bonds between fibrils are carried out mainly by the forces of intermolecular interaction; they are much weaker than microfibrillar ones. Between the fibrils there is big number longitudinal cavities, pores. Fibrils are located in the fibers along the axis or at a relatively small angle. Only in some fibers the arrangement of fibrils is random and irregular, but even in this case their general orientation in the direction of the axis is preserved. Fibrils and microfibrils are visible under a microscope at a magnification of 1500 times or more.
The properties of fibers are determined not only by the supramolecular structure, but also by its lower levels. The relationship between the structure of fibers at different levels and their properties has not yet been sufficiently studied. The structure of fiber-forming polymers, fibers and its relationship with properties are discussed in the work. Further accumulation of data on the relationship between structure and properties will make it possible to solve the most important problem of rational use of fibers and changing their structure in order to achieve control over the process of obtaining fibers with the required set of properties.
The structural characteristics of some of the main fiber-forming polymers are given in Table. I. 1.
The chemical composition of fibers and some other characteristics of the fiber structure are given in the textbook. Therefore in this textbook information about the structure of fibers is reduced, only its features (morphological, etc.) are described.
Cotton fibers (Fig. 1.2). Cotton fiber is hollow and has a channel where it is separated from the seed. The other, pointed end does not have a channel. The morphology of different fibers, even from the same fiber, is significantly different. For example, the canal of mature and overripe fibers is narrow, and the shape of the cross section changes from bean-shaped in mature fibers to ellipsoid and almost round in overripe fibers and flattened ribbon-like in immature fibers.
The fiber is twisted around its longitudinal axis. Mature fibers have the greatest crimp; in immature and overripe fibers it is small and hardly noticeable. This is due to the shape and relative arrangement of the elements of the supramolecular structure of the fiber. The fiber stack has a layered structure. The outer layer, less than 1 micron thick, is called the primary wall. It consists of a network formed by sparsely spaced cellulose fibrils intersecting at a large angle, the space between which is filled with cellulose satellites. The cellulose content in the primary wall is reported to be slightly more than half of its mass.
The outer surface of the primary wall consists of a wax-pectin layer.
In the primary fiber wall, some researchers distinguish two layers in which the fibrils are located at different angles. The secondary main wall of the fiber reaches a thickness of 6 - 8 microns in a mature fiber. It consists of bundles of fibrils located along helical lines rising at an angle of 20 - 45° to the fiber axis. The direction of the screw line changes from Z to S.
Table I. 1. Characteristics of the structure of fiber-forming polymers
Different fibers have different fibril angles. In thin fibers, the angles of inclination of the fibrils are small. The filler between the fibril bundles is cellulose satellites.
The fibril bundles are arranged in concentric layers (Fig. 1.3), which are clearly visible in the cross section of the fiber. Their number reaches forty, which corresponds to the days of cellulose deposition. The presence of a tertiary part of the secondary wall in contact with the canal is also noted. This part is highly compacted. In addition, in this layer, the spaces between cellulose fibrils are filled with protein substances and protoplasm, consisting of protein substances, simple carbohydrates, from which cellulose is synthesized, etc.
Cellulose of cotton fibers has an amorphous-crystalline structure. Its degree of crystallinity is 0.6 - 0.8, and the density of crystallites reaches 1.56 - 1.64 g/cm3 (Table 1.2).
Bast fibers (Fig. 1.4). Industrial fibers obtained from bast plants are complexes of elementary fibers glued together with pectin substances. Individual filaments - plant cells tubular structure. However, unlike cotton fiber, both ends of bast are closed. Bast fibers have primary, secondary and tertiary walls.
The cross section of flax fiber is an irregular polygon with a narrow channel. The coarse fibers are close to oval in shape, they are wider and slightly flattened. A feature of the morphology of flax fibers is the presence of shifts of longitudinal strokes across the fiber, which are traces of breaks or bends of the fibers during the growth period, during mechanical processing. The channel has a constant width. The primary wall of flax fibers consists of fibrils located along a helical line in direction S with an inclination of 8 - -12° to the longitudinal axis. The fibrils in the secondary wall are located along a helical line in the Z direction. The angle of their rise in the outer layers is the same as in the primary wall, but gradually decreases, sometimes reaching 0°, while the direction of the spirals changes to the opposite. Pectic substances between the fibrils are located unevenly, their content increases towards the channel.
The elementary fiber of hemp, obtained from hemp, has blunt or forked ends, the fiber channel is flattened and much wider than that of flax. Shifts on hemp fibers are more pronounced than on flax fibers, and the fiber in this
there is a bend in the place. The bundles of fibrils in the primary and secondary walls are located along the helical line of the Z direction, but the angle of inclination of the fibrils decreases from 20 - 35° in the outer layer to 2 - 3° in the inner one. The largest amount of pectin substances is contained in the primary wall and the outer layers of the secondary.
The elementary fibers of jute and kenaf have a rounded end, thick walls, irregular shape cross-section: with separate edges and a channel, which either narrows to a thread-like shape or sharply expands.
Industrial fibers of jute and kenaf are rigidly glued complexes of fibers with a high lignin content.
Ramie fibers in plant stems are formed as individual elementary fibers without forming bundles of technical fibers. Sharp shifts and longitudinal cracks are visible on the ramie fibers. Cellulose fibrils in the primary and secondary walls of the ramie are located along an inclined line of direction S. The angle of inclination in the primary wall reaches 12°, in the secondary wall it changes from 10 - 9° in the outer layers to 0° in the inner layers.
Leaf fibers (abaca, sisal and phormium) are complex, in which short elementary fibers are rigidly glued into bundles. The structure of elementary fibers is similar to coarse bast fibers. The cross-sectional shape is oval, the channel is wide, especially in abaca - Manila hemp.
Chemical structure bast fibers of different types are close to the chemical structure of cotton fiber. They consist of a-cellulose, the content of which ranges from 80.5% in flax to 71.5% in jute and 70.4% in abaca. The fibers contain a high lignin content (more than 5%) and also contain fats, waxes, and ash substances. Bast fibers have the highest degree of cellulose polymerization (for flax it reaches 30,000 or more).
Wool fibers. Wool is the hair fiber of sheep, goats, camels and other animals. The main fiber is sheep wool (its share is almost 98%). In sheep's wool there is fluff, transitional hair, awn, coarse awn or dead hair (Fig. 1.5).
Down fibers consist of an outer layer - scaly and an inner layer - cortical (cortex). The cross section of the fluff is round. The transitional hair has a third layer - the core layer (medulla), which is interrupted along the length of the fiber. In spine and dead hair, this layer is located along the entire length of the fiber.
In dead hair or rough spine, the medullary layer occupies most cross-sectional area. The loose medullary layer is filled with lamellar cells located perpendicular to the spindle-shaped cells of the cortical layer. Between the cells there are gaps filled with air (vacuoles), fatty substances, and pigment. Cross section of spine and dead hair of irregular oval shape.
Wool fibers have a wave-like crimp, characterized by the number of curls per unit length (1 cm) and the shape of the crimp. Fine wool has 4 - 12 or more curls per 1 cm of length, coarse wool has few curls. Based on the shape or nature of the crimp, wool is distinguished between weak, normal crimp and highly crimped. With weak crimp, the fibers have a smooth, stretched and flat curl shape (Fig. 1.6). With normal fiber crimp, the curls have the shape of a semicircle. Highly crimped wool fibers have a compressed, high and looped curl shape.
The scales of awn and dead hair resemble tiles. There are several of them around the fiber circumference. The thickness of the scales is about 1 micron, the length varies - from 4 to 25 microns, depending on the type of wool (there are from 40 to 250 scales per 1 mm of fiber length). It has been established that scales have three layers - epicuticle, exocuticle and endocuticle. The epicuticle is thin (5 - 25 nm), resistant to chlorine, concentrated acids and other reagents. It contains chitin, waxes, etc. The exocuticle consists of protein compounds and the endocuticle - the main layer of the scale - is made of modified protein substances and has high chemical resistance.
The cortical layer of fibers consists of spindle-shaped cells - supramolecular formations of protein fibrils
keratin, the spaces between which are filled with nucleoprotein, pigment. Spindle-shaped cells (Fig. 1.7, a) are large supramolecular formations with pointed ends, their length is up to 90 µm, the cross-sectional size is up to 4 - 6 µm. Paracortex and orthocortex can be found in the keratin of the cortex. The paracortex, compared to the orthocortex, contains more cisgine, it is harder, and more resistant to alkali. In the fuzzy down fiber, the paracortex is located on the outer side, and the orthocortex is located on the inner side. However, goat down is monocotyledonous and consists only of the orthocortex, while human hair consists only of the paracortex.
Fibrils (Fig. 1.7,6) consist of microfibrils of keratin, which belongs to proteins. Protein macromolecules are composed of amino acid residues. The macromolecules of wool keratin are branched, since the radicals of a number of amino acids represent small side chains. The chain of macromolecules may contain cyclic groups.
Macromolecules in fibers in the normal state are strongly bent and twisted (a-helix), but the length of the macromolecules significantly (hundreds and even thousands of times) exceeds its transverse dimensions, for which they are less than 1 nm.
Keratin molecules, due to the presence of amino acid residues containing various radicals in them, interact with each other due to various forces: intermolecular (van der Waals forces), hydrogen, salt (ionic) and even valence chemical bonds. This is discussed in detail in the textbook.
Fur of other animals (Fig. 1.8 and 1.9). Goat hair consists of fluff and coarse hair. Camel wool also contains down and hair. In the wool of rabbits there are thin downy fibers, and coarser ones, such as transitional and guard fibers.
Deer, horse and cow hair consists mainly of coarse guard fibers.
Silk fibers. The primary silk fiber is the cocoon thread (Fig. I. 10), secreted by the caterpillar of the silkworm when curling the cocoon. Cocoon thread is two silks of fibroin protein glued together with a low-molecular-weight sericin protein. The mulberries are uneven in cross section. Fibrils of fibroin are located along the axis of the silk, their length is up to 250 nm, width up to 100 nm. Microfibrils consist of fibroin protein, their cross section is about 10 nm. The configuration of the silk fibroin chain is a flat spiral (see Table I. 1).
Asbestos (Fig. 1.11). Asbestos fibers are crystals of natural water-containing magnesium silicates (silicic acid salts). Needle-like thin crystallites of asbestos, united into larger aggregates by forces of inter-molecular interaction, have an elongated shape and have the properties of fibers. Elementary asbestos fibers are combined into complexes (technical fibers).
Chemical fibers (Fig. I. 12). Chemical fibers are very diverse in their chemical composition and structure (see Table I. 1).
Of the natural polymers, the most widely used are viscose, acetate, and triacetate fibers and threads.
Viscose fibers are a group of fibers and threads that are identical in chemical composition (from hydrated cellulose), but significantly different in structure and properties. In ordinary viscose fibers, the degree of cellulose polymerization (up to 200) is significantly less than in cotton fibers. The difference also lies in the spatial arrangement of the elementary unit of cellulose. In hydrated cellulose, glucose residues are rotated to each other by 90°, and not by 180°, as is the case in cotton cellulose, which has a significant effect on the properties of the fibers. For example, hydrated cellulose fibers absorb various substances more strongly and are more deeply colored. The structure of viscose fibers is amorphous-crystalline. Conventional viscose fibers are also characterized by heterogeneity, consisting of different degrees of orientation of fibrils and microfibrils. Microfibrils in the outer layer are oriented in the longitudinal direction, while in the inner layer their degree of orientation is very low.
When producing (molding) fibers, they harden non-simultaneously in thickness. At the beginning, the outer layer hardens, under the influence atmospheric pressure the walls are pulled inward, causing the cross-section to become tortuous. These convolutions (stripes) are noticeable in the longitudinal view of the fibers. Hollow or C-shaped fibers can be obtained; the former are formed by blowing air through the solution, the latter - by using special dies.
In addition, viscose fibers are matted with titanium dioxide (TiO2), as a result of which the powder particles on the surface of the fibers scatter light rays and the shine decreases.
High-modulus viscose (HMW) and especially polyotic fibers are distinguished by a high degree of orientation and uniformity of structure, and a high degree of crystallinity. Due to the high orientation and uniformity of the structure, the morphology of the fibers also changes. The cross-section of these fibers, unlike the cross-section of conventional viscose threads, does not have convolutions; it is oval, close to a circle.
Copper-ammonia fibers have a more uniform structure compared to viscose fibers. The cross section of the fibers is an oval, approaching a circle.
Acetate fibers chemical composition is cellulose acetate. They are divided into diacetate (they are usually called acetate) and triacetate according to the number of substituted hydroxyl groups in cellulose with acetic anhydride. The characteristics of the structure of triacetate fibers are given in table. I. 1. The structure of the fibers is amorphous-crystalline, with a low degree of crystallinity (see Table 1.2).
Synthetic fibers have become widespread and their balance in the overall production of textile fibers is increasingly increasing. Features of the chemical structure of synthetic fibers and filaments and their production are described in the textbook.
Of the synthetic fibers, a large group is represented by polyamide fibers (nylon, perlon, dederon, nylon, etc.) - The structure of fibers made from polycaproamides is amorphous-crystalline, the degree of crystallinity can reach 70% - Crystallites include several links oriented along the fibers. The shape of the fiber sections can be different, usually the cross-section is round, but it can also be of a different shape (Fig. I. 13).
This group also includes fibers made from polyenantoamide - enant, nylon 6.6, which differ from polycaproamide fibers in the chemical structure of the elementary unit - NH - (CH2) 6 - (CH2) 6 - CONH - (CH2) 6 - CO -. The configuration of the molecular chain of fibers of this type, like that of caproamide fibers, is elongated, zigzag, with a slightly longer elementary link.
Polyester fibers (terylene, lavsan, etc.) are obtained from polyethylene terephthalate. The fibers have an amorphous-crystalline structure. The circuit configuration is close to straight. A feature of the chemical structure of fibers is the connection of the elementary links of the chain with an ester group - C -. The morphology of the fibers is close to polyamide.
Polyacrylonitrile fibers include nitron and many other varieties that have their own names in different countries, for example acrylan, orlon (USA), pre-lan (GDR), etc. In appearance, the cross section is oval in shape. The elementary unit of nitrone fiber macromolecules has the following chemical composition - CH2 - CH - CN
The structure of polyacrylonitrile fibers is amorphous-crystalline. The fraction of the crystalline phase is small. The configuration of the macromolecules of the fibers is elongated, transzigzag.
Polypropylene and polyethylene fibers are classified as polyolefin fibers. The elementary unit of macromolecules of polypropylene fibers has the form - CH - CH2 - CH3
The cross-sectional shape of the fibers is oval, the fibrils are oriented along the axis.
The structure of macromolecules is sternoregular. The degree of polymerization of fibers can vary within wide limits (1900 - 5900). The structure of supramolecular formations is amorphous-crystalline. In this case, the crystalline fraction reaches 85 - 95%.
The morphology of polyethylene fibers does not differ significantly from the morphology of polypropylene fibers. Their supramolecular structure is also fibrillar. Macromolecules with elementary units - CH2 - CH2 - form an amorphous-crystalline structure with a predominance of crystalline structure.
Polyurethane fibers consist of macromolecules, the elementary units of which contain a urethane group - NH - C - O -. The structure of the fibers is amorphous, the glass transition temperature is low. Flexible segments of macromolecules at ordinary temperatures are in a highly elastic state. Thanks to this structure, the fibers have very high elongation (up to 500 - 700%) at normal temperatures.
Fibers of halogen-containing polymers are fibers made from polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidene, fluorolone, etc. Polyvinyl chloride fibers (chlorine, perchlorovinyl) are amorphous fibers with a low degree of crystallinity. The configuration of macromolecules is elongated. The elementary unit of macromolecules is CH2 - CHC1. Morphological feature fibers - unevenly tightened surface.
Polyvinylidene chloride fibers have an amorphous-crystalline structure with a high degree of crystallinity. The chemical structure of the fibers is also different: the chlorine content in the elementary unit increases (- CH2 - CC12 -), and the density of the fibers increases.
In fibers made from fluorine-containing polymers, compared to vinylidene chloride, hydrogen and chlorine are replaced by fluorine. Elementary units of Teflon fibers - CF2 -, fluorlon fibers - CH2 - CHF -. A special feature of the structure of these fibers is the significant binding energy of carbon and fluorine atoms and its polarity, which determines high resistance to aggressive environments.
Carbon fibers - heat resistant fibers, configuration. chains of macromolecules are layered, the degree of polymerization is very high.
2. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF FIBERS AND THREADS
Information about the structure of fibers, about the features of its changes as a result of the influence of technological processes, operating conditions are becoming increasingly necessary when improving the quality of textile materials, improving technological processes, and determining conditions rational use fibers Rapid development and the improvement of experimental physics methods have created a fundamental basis for studying the structure of textile materials.
Below we consider only some of the most common methods of structural analysis - optical light and electron microscopy, spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction analysis, dielectrometry and thermal analysis.
LIGHT MICROSCOPY
Light microscopy is one of the most common methods for studying the structure of textile fibers, threads and products. The resolution of an optical microscope, which uses light in the visible region of the spectrum, can reach 1 - 0.2 microns.
The resolution of the lens b0 and microscope bm is determined using approximate formulas:
where X is the wavelength of light, microns; A - aperture, a numerical characteristic of the resolving power of a lens (the ability to depict the smallest details of an object); A - aperture of the lighting part - the condenser of the microscope.
where n is the refractive index of the medium located between the drug and the first front lens of the lens (for air 1; for water 1.33; for glycerin M7; for cedar oil 1.51); a is the angle of deflection of the extreme ray entering the lens from a point located on the optical axis.
Resolution and aperture can be increased by immersion, i.e., replacement air environment liquid with a high refractive index.
Micro lenses are divided into spectral characteristics(for the visible, ultraviolet and infrared regions of the light spectrum), tube length, medium between the lens and the specimen (dry and immersion), the nature of observation and type of specimens (for specimens with and without glass coverslip, etc.).
Eyepieces are selected depending on the lens, since overall increase microscope is equal to the product of the angular magnification of the eyepiece and objective. To record structural features and ease of use, microphoto attachments and microphoto installations, drawing devices, and binocular tubes are used. In addition to biological microscopes, which are widely used in studying the morphology of textile fibers and threads, fluorescent, ultraviolet and infrared microscopes, stereo microscopes, comparison microscopes, and measuring microscopes are used.
The luminescence microscope is equipped with a set of replaceable light filters, with the help of which it is possible to select in the emission of the illuminator the part of the spectrum that excites the luminescence of the lens under study. When working on this microscope, it is necessary to select filters that transmit only luminescent light from the object.
Ultraviolet and infrared microscopes make it possible to conduct research in areas of the spectrum invisible to the eye. The lenses of such microscopes are made of materials that are transparent to ultraviolet (quartz, fluorite) or infrared (silicon, germanium, fluorite, lithium fluoride) rays. Converters turn an invisible image into a visible one.
Stereo microscopes provide three-dimensional perception of a micro-object, and comparison microscopes allow you to compare two objects simultaneously.
Methods of polarization and interference microscopy are becoming increasingly widespread. In polarization microscopy, the microscope is supplemented with a special polarizing device, which includes two polaroids: the lower one is stationary and the upper one is an analyzer that rotates freely in the frame. Light polarization makes it possible to study such properties of anisotropic fiber structures as the strength of birefringence, dichroism, etc. Light from the illuminator passes through the Polaroid and is polarized in one plane. However, when passing through the preparation (fibers), the polarization changes and the resulting changes are studied using an analyzer and various compensators of optical systems.
Materials Science
Garment materials science studies the structure and properties of materials used for the manufacture of garments.
Fabrics are widely used in everyday life. They are used to make clothes and underwear. Different types of fabrics are used to make many things needed in our daily lives.
Currently, a large number of different fibers are used, both natural (cotton, linen, wool, etc.) and chemical (viscose, acetate, nylon, lavsan, etc.).
This section contains information about the fibers listed and how the fabrics are produced.
Natural fibers
Natural fiber created by nature itself.
From ancient times until the end of the 19th century, the only raw materials for the production of textile materials were natural fibers, which were obtained from various plants. At first it was the fibers of wild plants, and then the fibers of flax and hemp. With the development of agriculture, cotton began to be cultivated, which produces very good and durable fiber.
Fibers produced from plant stems are widely used; they are called bast. The fibers from the stems are mostly coarse, strong and tough - these are the fibers of kenaf, jute, hemp and other plants. From flax, finer fibers are obtained, from which fabrics are produced for making clothing and linen.
Kenaf It is cultivated mainly in India, China, Iran, Uzbekistan and other countries. Kenaf fiber is highly hygroscopic and durable. It is used to make burlap, tarpaulin, twine, etc.
Hemp- a very ancient crop, grown for fiber mainly in our country, India, China, etc. It grows wild in Russia, Mongolia, India, China. Fiber (hemp) is obtained from hemp stems, from which marine ropes, ropes, and canvas are made.
Jute cultivated in tropical regions of Asia, Africa, America and Australia. Jute is grown in small areas in Central Asia. Jute fibers are used for the manufacture of technical, packaging, furniture fabrics and carpets.
AND 
The best known fibers of plant origin are cotton And linen.
Cotton is a very ancient crop. It began to be cultivated in India more than 4000 years ago. Remains of cotton fabrics were found in the graves of ancient Peruvians excavated in the deserts of Peru and Mexico. This means that even earlier than in India, the Peruvians knew cotton and knew how to make fabrics from it.
Cotton are the fibers that cover the surface of the seeds of the annual cotton plant, which grows in warm southern countries. The development of cotton fibers begins after the flowering of the cotton plant during the formation of fruits (bolls). The length of cotton fibers ranges from 5 to 50 mm. Cotton collected and pressed into bales is called raw cotton.
During the primary processing of cotton, the fibers are separated from the seeds and cleaned of various impurities. The longest fibers (20-50 mm) are separated first, then the short ones or fluff (6-20 mm) and finally the down (less than 6 mm). Long fibers are used to make yarn, lint is used to make cotton wool, and when mixed with long cotton fibers, it is used to make thick yarn. Fibers less than 12 mm in length are chemically processed into cellulose to produce man-made fibers.
Wheat and flax are the most ancient cultivated plants. Flax began to be cultivated nine thousand years ago. In the mountainous regions of India, beautiful and delicate fabrics were first made from it.
Seven thousand years ago, flax was already known in Assyria and Babylonia. From there he entered Egypt.
Linen fabrics became a luxury item there, displacing the previously common woolen fabrics. Only Egyptian pharaohs, priests and noble people could afford clothes made from linen fabrics.
Later, the Phoenicians, and then the Greeks and Romans, began to make sails for their ships from linen.
Our ancestors, the Slavs, loved snow-white heavy fabrics made of flax. They knew how to cultivate flax, allocating the best land for crops. Among the Slavs, linen fabrics served as clothing for the common people.
Linen fibers produce a heavy, durable white fabric. It is great for tablecloths, linens and bed linen.
And flax, sown thickly and removed from the field during flowering, produces a very delicate fiber that is used for thin and light cambric.
Linen is an annual herbaceous plant that will produce the fiber of the same name. Flax fiber is found in the stem of the plant and can reach 1 meter. Flax is harvested during the period of early yellow ripeness. The resulting raw materials for the production of yarn (threads) are subjected to further processing.
Primary processing of flax consists of soaking the flax straw, drying the flax, washing and scuffing to separate out impurities.
Yarn is obtained from cleaned and sorted fibers.
Positive properties of cotton fabrics: good hygienic and heat-protective properties, strength, light fastness. Under the influence of water, cotton fibers even swell and increase strength, that is, they are not afraid of any washing. The fabrics have a good appearance and products made from them are easy to care for.
Due to the fact that cotton fabrics have good hygroscopicity and high air permeability, and linen fabrics have higher hygroscopicity and average air permeability, they are used for the manufacture of bed linen and household clothing.
Disadvantages of cotton fabrics: strong creasing (fabrics lose their beautiful appearance when worn), low abrasion resistance, and therefore low wearability.
Disadvantages of linen fabrics: Strong creasing, low drapability, rigidity, high shrinkage.
Natural fibers animal origin - wool and silk. Fabrics made from such fibers are environmentally friendly and therefore have a certain value for humans and have a positive effect on their health.
Since time immemorial, people have used wool to make fabrics. From the very time they began to engage in cattle breeding. The wool of sheep and goats, and in South America, llamas, was used.
The famous Russian geographer-researcher P.K. Kozlov, during the Mongol-Tibetan expedition of 1923-1926, excavated burial mounds in which he discovered ancient woolen fabrics. Even after lying underground for several thousand years, some of them were superior in thread strength to modern ones.
The bulk of wool comes from sheep, with the best wool coming from fine-fleece merino sheep. Fine-wool sheep have been known since the 2nd century BC, when the Romans, by crossing Colchis rams with Italian sheep, developed the Tarentine breed of sheep with brown or black wool. In the 1st century, the first Merino sheep were obtained by crossing Tarentine sheep with African rams in Spain. From this first herd all other Merino breeds eventually descended: French, Saxon, etc.
Sheep are sheared once or in some cases twice a year. From one sheep they get from 2 to 10 kilograms of wool. From 100 kilograms of raw wool, 40-60 kilograms of clean wool are obtained, which is sent for further processing.
From the wool of other animals, goat mohair wool is widely used, obtained from Angora goats, which originate from the Turkish town of Angora.
For the manufacture of outerwear and blankets, camel hair is used, obtained by shearing or combing during the molting of camels.
Highly elastic cushioning materials are obtained from horse hair.
N 
To the untrained eye, almost all fur appears the same. But a highly qualified specialist is able to distinguish over seven thousand varieties!
IN XIV-XV centuries wool intended for spinning was combed with a wooden comb that had several rows of steel teeth. As a result, the fibers in the bundle were arranged in parallel, which is very important for their uniform stretching and twisting during spinning.
From the combed fiber, strong, beautiful threads were obtained, from which high-quality fabric was produced that did not wear out for a long time.
Wool- This is the hair of animals: sheep, goats, camels. The bulk of the wool (95-97%) comes from sheep. The wool is removed from the sheep using special scissors or machines. The length of wool fibers is from 20 to 450 mm. It is cut into an almost solid, unbroken mass called fleece.
Types of wool fibers- this is hair and wool, they are long and straight, and fluff - it is softer and more crimped.
Before being sent to textile factories, wool is subjected to primary processing: sorted, that is, fibers are selected according to quality; crush - loosen and remove clogging impurities; wash with hot water, soap and soda; dried in tumble dryers. Then the yarn is made, and from it fabrics are made.
In the finishing industry, fabrics are dyed in different colors or various patterns are applied to the fabrics. Wool fabrics are produced plain-dyed, variegated and printed.
Wool fibers have the following properties: they are highly hygroscopic, that is, they absorb moisture well, are elastic (the products wrinkle little), and are resistant to sun exposure (higher than cotton and linen).
To test the wool fiber, you need to set a piece of fabric on fire. During combustion, the wool fiber is sintered, and the resulting sintered ball can be easily rubbed with your fingers. During the combustion process, the smell of burnt feathers is felt. In this way, you can determine whether the fabric is pure wool or artificial.
Dress, suit and coat fabrics are made from wool fibers. Woolen fabrics are sold under the following names: drape, cloth, tights, gabardine, cashmere, etc. 
There are several species of butterflies whose caterpillars weave cocoons using secretions from special glands before turning into pupae. Such butterflies are called silkworms. Silkworms are mainly bred.
Silkworms develop in several stages: egg (grena), caterpillar (larva), pupa and butterfly. The caterpillar develops in 25-30 days and goes through five instars, separated by molts. By the end of development, its length reaches 8, and its thickness is 1 centimeter. At the end of the fifth instar, the silk-secreting glands of the caterpillars are filled with silk mass. Mulberry - a thin paired thread of fibroin protein - is squeezed out in a liquid state and then hardens in air.
The formation of the cocoon lasts 3 days, after which the fifth molt occurs, and the caterpillar turns into a pupa, and after 2-3 weeks into a butterfly, which lives 10-15 days. The female butterfly lays eggs and begins new cycle development.
From one box of grenas weighing 29 grams, up to 30 thousand caterpillars are obtained, eating about a ton of foliage and producing four kilograms of natural silk.
To obtain silk, the natural course of silkworm development is interrupted. At procurement points, the collected cocoons are dried and then treated with hot air or steam to prevent the process of turning pupae into butterflies.
At silk factories, cocoons are unwound by joining several cocoon threads together.
Natural silk- these are thin threads that are obtained by unwinding the cocoons of silkworm caterpillars. A cocoon is a dense, tiny egg-like shell that a caterpillar coils tightly around itself before developing into a chrysalis. The four stages of silkworm development are egg, caterpillar, pupa, and butterfly.
Cocoons are collected 8-9 days after the start of curling and sent for primary processing. The purpose of primary processing is to unwind the cocoon thread and connect the threads of several cocoons. The length of the cocoon thread is from 600 to 900 m. This thread is called raw silk. Primary processing of silk includes the following operations: treatment of cocoons with hot steam to soften the silk glue; winding threads from several cocoons at the same time. Textile factories produce fabric from raw silk. Silk fabrics are produced plain-dyed, variegated, and printed.
Silk fibers have the following properties: They have good hygroscopicity and breathability, and are less resistant to sunlight than other natural fibers. Silk burns just like wool. Products made from natural silk are very pleasant to wear, thanks to their good hygienic properties.
Chemical fibers
Since ancient times, people have used the fibers that nature gave them to produce fabrics. At first, these were fibers of wild plants, then fibers of hemp, flax, and also animal wool. With the development of agriculture, people began to grow cotton, which produces very strong fiber.
But natural raw materials have their drawbacks: natural fibers are too short and require complex technological processing. And, people began to look for raw materials from which they could cheaply produce fabric that is warm like wool, light and beautiful like silk, and practical like cotton.
Today chemical fibers can be represented as the following diagram:
Now more and more new types of chemical fibers are being synthesized in laboratories, and not a single specialist can list their immense variety. Scientists have even managed to replace wool fiber - it is called nitron.
Textile recycling.
The production of chemical fibers includes 5 stages:
Receiving and pre-processing of raw materials.
Preparation of a spinning solution or melt.
Molding of threads.
Cotton and bast fibers contain cellulose. Several methods have been developed to obtain a cellulose solution, squeeze it through a narrow hole (a spinneret) and remove the solvent, after which threads similar to silk are obtained. Acetic acid, an alkaline solution of copper hydroxide, caustic soda and carbon disulfide were used as solvents. The resulting threads are named accordingly:
acetate, copper-ammonia, viscose.
When molding from a solution using the wet method, the streams enter the solution of the precipitation bath, where the polymer is released into the thinnest threads.
A large group of threads emerging from the spinnerets is drawn, twisted together and wound as a filament thread onto a cartridge. The number of holes in the spinneret in the production of complex textile threads can be from 12 to 100.
In the production of staple fibers, the spinneret can have up to 15,000 holes. A fiber flagellum is obtained from each spinneret. The bundles are connected into a tape, which, after squeezing and drying, is cut into bundles of fibers of any given length. Staple fibers are processed into yarn in pure form or mixed with natural fibers.
Synthetic fibers are produced from polymer materials. Fiber-forming polymers are synthesized from petroleum products:
ammonia, etc.
By changing the composition of the feedstock and the methods of its processing, synthetic fibers can be given unique properties that natural fibers do not have. Synthetic fibers are obtained mainly from the melt, for example, fibers from polyester, polyamide, pressed through spinnerets.
Depending on the type of chemical raw material and the conditions of its formation, it is possible to produce fibers with a variety of predetermined properties. For example, the harder you pull the stream as it exits the spinneret, the stronger the fiber. Sometimes chemical fibers even outperform steel wire of the same thickness.
Among the new fibers that have already appeared, we can note chameleon fibers, the properties of which change in accordance with changes environment. Hollow fibers have been developed into which liquid containing colored magnets is poured. Using a magnetic pointer, you can change the pattern of fabric made from such fibers.
Since 1972, the production of aramid fibers has been launched, which are divided into two groups. Aramid fibers of one group (Nomex, Conex, phenylone) are used where flame and thermal resistance is required. The second group (Kevlar, Terlon) has high mechanical strength combined with low weight.
Ceramic fibers, the main type of which consists of a mixture of silicon oxide and aluminum oxide, have high mechanical strength and good resistance to chemical reagents. Ceramic fibers can be used at temperatures around 1250°C. They are characterized by high chemical resistance, and their resistance to radiation allows them to be used in astronautics.
Chemical fiber properties table
|
Tortuosity |
Strength |
Wrinkleability |
|||
|
Viscose |
burns well, gray ash, smell of burnt paper. |
||||
|
Acetate |
decreases when wet |
less than viscose |
burns quickly with a yellow flame, leaving a melted ball |
||
|
very small |
melts to form a solid ball |
||||
|
very small |
burns slowly, forms a hard dark ball |
||||
|
very small |
burns with flashes, a dark influx is formed |
Receiving tissue
WITH 
Since ancient times in Rus', spinning has represented a special ritual, in addition to the fact that it was one of the main occupations of the female half of the population, when girls and women gathered for an important craft, whiled away their days and evenings at a spindle or spinning wheel, had intimate conversations, sang their favorite songs, and sometimes while composing new melodies, giving them to the most skilled craftswomen with words characterizing their work: “fine weaver”, “golden seamstress”, etc. People greeted the first technical devices that made work easier with enthusiasm.
Special place The house was occupied by a spinning wheel - an indispensable companion of Russian women. An elegant spinning wheel was given by a kind fellow as a gift to the bride, by a husband to his wife as a souvenir, by a father to his daughter. The spinning wheel-gift was kept throughout its life and passed on to the next generation. In different areas, spinning wheels differed in shape and design, and were decorated with carvings, paintings, or a combination of both. The shape of the spinning wheel was decorated with protrusions - “towns”, at the bottom - “earrings”, “necklaces”. The decorative design of the spinning wheel often resembled a festively dressed female figure, decorated with strings of beads. The spinners of the Russian North loved images of the big sun and tried to attach a tow (a ball of wool that was spun) to this part of the blade. Until recently, every rural house had a spinning wheel and a loom. Autumn will come, work in the field will end - work will begin in the house. First you need to spin the flax and wool - turn it into threads.
The flax was crushed, ruffled, and scratched. There was no less trouble with the wool. As a result of all these preparatory work, a tow was obtained - a bundle of flax or wool fibers. In order for the tow to turn into a thread, it was tied to a spinning wheel, then the fibers were gradually pulled out, simultaneously twisting them - this is how the thread was obtained. The finished thread was wound on a spindle - a long stick with sharp ends and an angled middle.
P 
dressing up- the work is difficult. The thickness and strength of the thread, and therefore the future fabric, depended on the skill of the spinner. To make this work easier, they came up with a spinning wheel with a wheel - it was set in motion using a foot pedal, the thread wound itself, the fibers could be pulled and twisted with both hands - the work went faster, and the thread turned out better.
Now we could get busy weaving- make fabric from threads. This work also required a lot of attention, skill, and hard work. The weavers worked on handlooms, and things went rather slowly. Since the canvas was not wide - only 37 cm - quite a lot of it was required. Over the winter, the housewife had to weave enough linen to feed the whole family - after all, she would only be able to take up this work again next winter. The peasants could not buy fabric - they couldn’t afford it, and there was nowhere. So everyone walked around in clothes made from homespun cloth.
Nowadays machines spin and weave. But sometimes, on long winter evenings, in some Russian houses you can still hear the whirring of a spinning wheel and the tapping of a handloom.
P 
ryazha is a thread obtained by twisting individual fibers. The process of making yarn is called spinning. Spinning takes place in the following sequence: loosening the fibers, scattering, carding, leveling (formation of a sliver), pre-spinning (formation of a roving) and the spinning process itself.
Yarn can be single-stranded, twisted (twisted from two, three or more single threads) and shaped (twisted from three or more threads to form loops, knots or spirals).
Purpose of spinning- obtaining yarn of uniform thickness.
Next, the yarn goes to the weaving factory, where the fabric is produced.
Textile- this is a material that is produced on weaving machines by weaving threads of warp and weft yarns together.
Longitudinal threads in fabrics are called main, or basis. Transverse threads in fabrics are called weft, or duck.
The warp threads are very strong, long, thin, and do not change their length when stretched. The weft threads are less strong, thicker, and shorter. When stretched, the weft threads increase their length.
The non-fraying edges on both sides of the fabric are called selvage.
Warp threads can be identified by the following characteristics:
1) Along the edge.
2) By the degree of stretching - the warp thread stretches less.
3) The warp thread is straight, and the weft thread is crimped.
4) By sound - according to the warp the sound is voiced, and according to the weft it is dull.
Production stages of fabric manufacturing:
Fiber > thread (yarn) > weaving > gray cloth > finishing > finished cloth
The fabric removed from the loom is called gray. It is not used for making clothes; it requires finishing. The purpose of finishing is to give a beautiful appearance to the fabric and improve its quality.
Finishing of fabrics is carried out at a dyeing and finishing factory.
Basic fabric finishing processes
1) preliminary finishing:
singeing (removing fibers from the surface),
· desizing (starch removal),
Boiling (removing contaminants),
Mererization (increasing strength),
· washing,
· whitening;
2) dyeing;
3) printing;
4) final finishing:
finishing (increasing wear resistance),
· widening (alignment),
· calendering (smoothing, adding shine).
Special finishes are also available.
The most interesting is the process of printing fabrics, as a result of which multi-colored patterns are obtained on them.
After finishing the fabrics can be:
bleached - fabric obtained after bleaching;
plain-painted - fabric dyed in one specific color;
printed - fabric with a pattern printed on the surface;
multi-colored - fabric produced on a loom by weaving threads of different colors;
melange - fabric produced on a loom by interlacing threads twisted from fibers of different colors.
IN 
In the process of fabric formation on a loom, the warp and weft threads can be intertwined in different ways.
The different sequences of alternating warp and weft threads create a huge number of weaves.
N 
the most common is plain weave
, which is formed by interlacing warp and weft threads through one. Cotton fabrics, as well as some linen and silk fabrics, have a plain weave.
Twill weave characterized by the presence of diagonal stripes on the fabric, running from bottom to top to the right. Twill weave fabric is denser and more stretchable. This weave is used in the production of dress, suit and lining fabrics.
A 
satin weave
Gives fabrics a smooth, shiny surface that is resistant to abrasion. The facing cover can be formed by warp (satin) or weft (satin weave) threads.
Fabrics have a front and back side. The front side of the fabric is determined by the following characteristics:
The printed pattern on the front side of the fabric is brighter than on the back side.
On the front side of the fabric the weave pattern is clearer.
The front side is smoother, since all weaving defects are transferred to the back side.
Weave images
Fabrics and their care
Acrylic
Synthetic fabric, very similar in appearance to wool. Things made from it are very warm, soft and protected from moths. Acrylic does not lose its shape, so it is often used in combination with other fibers to create beautiful and shape-resistant products. Acrylic fibers are easily dyed, so things made from it look bright and do not fade for a long time. The disadvantages of acrylic fabric include low hygroscopicity and the formation of pellets. Products made from acrylic do not require special care; they can be washed both by hand and by machine.
Acetate
Such fabrics consist of cellulose acetate. They have a slightly shiny surface and look like natural silk. They retain their shape well and hardly wrinkle. They do not absorb moisture well and melt under high heat, so these fabrics are well suited for pleating. Fabrics containing acetate are washed by hand or in a machine on a gentle cycle. Fabrics containing triacetate can be washed normally at 70 degrees. These fabrics should not be dried in a tumble dryer. They need to be hung to dry. They dry quickly and require almost no ironing. If you want to iron them, do it with a warm iron on the wrong side. Triacetate can be ironed on the wool or silk setting.
Velours
The general name for a material that has a velvety outer surface. The characteristics of the material depend on the density and length of the pile, but usually all velor products are soft and comfortable to wear, they do not lose their shape and warm well in cold weather. However, the pile of this fabric tends to wear out quickly. Velor requires careful care. It cannot be bleached or cleaned with strong chemicals. We recommend hand washing at a temperature not exceeding 30°C and ironing on the wrong side.
Viscose
Viscose is a chemically produced fiber whose properties are as close as possible to natural materials. Often, people who have little understanding of fabrics and materials may mistake viscose for cotton, wool or silk. The qualities that viscose has depend on the additives during creation. Viscose absorbs moisture well, but its strength is much lower than that of cotton. This type of fabric is often used in the production of children's clothing. Viscose is great for both winter and summer clothing. Its excellent breathability allows the skin to receive sufficient oxygen, which has a positive effect on skin health and overall comfort. Wash viscose in a machine or by hand. If you decide to use a washing machine, then choose a gentle mode and a temperature of no more than 30 degrees. Under no circumstances should you twist or wring out viscose items in a centrifuge. From such treatment, the clothes will lose their original appearance. Viscose items can be hung to dry without wrung out, or rolled into a sheet and gently wrung out. Viscose cannot be dried in a dryer. When ironing viscose clothes, select the “silk” setting.
Felt
A very dense and durable material made from natural or synthetic fibers. Natural felt is made from felted wool, most often from sheep. Felt has low thermal conductivity, but at the same time allows air to pass through well.
Cashmere
Mountain goat down, combed or plucked by hand. This fluff produces a noble matte-shiny fabric, which has always been highly valued. Products made from cashmere (also called “pashmina”) consist of the finest threads, which is why they are so delicate and pleasant to the touch. In addition, this fabric is very light, but can retain heat for a long time. It is recommended to wash cashmere only by hand.
Linen fabric is one of the oldest fabrics in the world, and in ancient times it was quite expensive. Linen is highly hygroscopic, quickly absorbs moisture and dries just as quickly. In winter, things made of linen keep you warm, and in summer they help you survive the heat more easily. Linen is several times stronger than cotton, so clothes made from this material can last for a long time. Linen wrinkles, but again not as much as cotton. To avoid this, cotton, viscose or wool fibers are added to it. Doesn't lose its softness with frequent washing.
Flax tolerates boiling well. But, dyed fabric must be washed at a temperature of 60 degrees, and finished fabric at 40 and in a gentle washing mode. If you wash it in a machine, you can use a universal washing powder: for unbleached and colored linen, it is better to use powder for fine fabrics without bleaches. When dried in a dryer, flax may shrink. Linen is always ironed with moisture and at the highest temperature.
Lurex
Metallized (aluminium, copper, brass or nickel) thread in fabric. Lurex is usually used in combination with other fibers, thanks to which the product acquires a shiny effect.
Modal
Cellulose fiber. It is stronger than viscose, and its hygroscopicity is one and a half times higher than cotton. After washing, modal products always remain soft, do not fade and almost do not shrink, so they are easy to care for. Modal is often used in combination with other fibers. It gives things a soft shine and makes them softer and more pleasant to the touch.
Polyamide
Polyamide is a fiber created synthetically. Products made from polyamide are very popular, because its properties help clothes retain their original attractive appearance for a long time. Among the main advantages of a fabric such as polyamide are excellent breathability and quick drying. Most often, polyamide is used in the production of sportswear. Things made from polyamide are highly durable, soft and lightweight.
Clothes containing polyamide can be washed in a regular washing machine. The optimal temperature when cutting is 40 degrees. Just like most synthetic fabrics, polyamide does not tolerate drying well in a dryer. Items made from it should be hung on a drying rack when wet. Polyamide should be ironed at the lowest heat setting and without steam.
Polyacrylic
Polyacrylic is a synthetic fiber, clothing made from which resembles wool in appearance. The distinctive features of polyacrylic are softness, lightness and wear resistance. Polyacrylic is most often used in the manufacture of winter clothing, because due to its properties it is able to retain heat. Polyacrylic items do not require special care; just like all synthetic fabrics, they are easy to handle. The main thing is to choose the right washing and ironing mode. The water temperature when washing should be approximately 30 degrees.
Polyester
Synthetic polyester fiber - polyester among all similar fabrics has the greatest functionality. This is a very durable fabric that makes any item durable and wear-resistant. Clothing made from polyester has a number of properties. It is lightweight, quick-drying and retains its original appearance for a long time. initial form. It practically does not wrinkle, which is important in modern life.
Caring for polyester clothing is quite easy. It can be washed in a washing machine at normal cycle and temperature 40 degrees. If the temperature during washing is higher, then there is a risk of wrinkles and wrinkles, which are then almost impossible to remove.
Satin
Thick, shiny cotton fabric. Satin has a silky surface and is therefore very pleasant to the touch. A product made of satin, even after many washes, will not fade or lose its original appearance.
Sintepon
Good insulating lining for jackets and quilted coats. This is a non-woven material made from synthetic fibers. It is much lighter than batting, elastic, does not lose shape and does not fall off. Sintepon is non-hygroscopic, so it does not get very wet and dries easily. In addition, it comes in white color and when washing insulated items it does not fade or leave stains on the outer fabric. Unlike natural down, it can be washed either by hand or in a washing machine on a delicate cycle at 30 degrees. It dries quickly, retains its shape and does not lose volume. If necessary, it can be ironed with a slightly heated iron.
Knitwear
Knitwear (fr. tricotage) is a textile material or finished product, the structure of which consists of interconnected loops, in contrast to fabric, which is formed as a result of the mutual interweaving of two systems of threads located in two mutually perpendicular directions. Knitted fabric is characterized by stretchability, elasticity and softness. Knitted items made from cotton, wool, chemical fibers and their mixtures should be washed in warm water up to 40 degrees in a soap solution, using mild detergents specifically designed for washing knitwear.
Flannel
Soft double-sided sparsely brushed cotton fabric. It retains heat well, is very soft to the touch, due to which it is widely used for sewing children's products (diapers, clothes) and women's clothing (robes, shirts). In addition, bed linen is made from it, which provides excellent warmth during the cold season.
Cotton
Cotton is one of the best fabrics with many advantages. Children's clothing is always made only from cotton. Cotton is easy to dye, can provide good breathability, it is soft and pleasant to the body. Among the disadvantages, several things can be highlighted: it wrinkles quite easily, cannot retain heat, and therefore is not suitable for winter clothing, and also has the property of turning yellow from light. Non-colored cotton can be washed in a washing machine at a temperature of 95 degrees, colored cotton - at 40. For white cotton, you can take a universal washing powder, for colored cotton - a special one for washing thin fabrics or without brightener. Drying in the dryer rack of your washing machine may cause severe shrinkage. Finished cotton fabric after washing, without squeezing, should be hung out to dry and then ironed in the “wool” mode. Other cotton fabrics are best ironed while not completely dry.
Chiffon
Silky fabric made from natural or synthetic fibers. Chiffon is weightless and transparent, so most often it is used to make festive items with a light, airy silhouette. Products made from chiffon require careful care, as it is a fairly thin and delicate fabric.
Silk
Natural silk has always been considered one of the most noble and expensive materials. Silk has a rare and unique property for natural fabrics - thermoregulation. It is able to maintain the optimal temperature of the human body, changing its properties depending on the time of year and external influences of the weather. It can provide good breathability in summer and keep you warm in winter. In addition, it has long been proven that silk bed linen has preventive properties against the occurrence of diseases such as arthritis, rheumatism, skin and cardiovascular diseases. Silk evaporates moisture very quickly and dries, but retains traces of stains on clothes, so you need to be extremely careful when handling it. Silk is considered a very light and airy fabric, but in reality this depends entirely on the way it is made. There are several types of silk weaves that make it either light or heavy. High-quality silk practically does not wrinkle. When washed, any silk sheds a lot, so it should only be washed by hand at 30 degrees and with a soft washing powder. A silk item must be rinsed well, first in warm, then in cold water. You can add a little vinegar to the last rinse water to freshen the paint. Silk should not be rubbed, squeezed, twisted, or dried in a dryer. Wet items are carefully wrapped in cloth, the water is lightly squeezed out and hung or laid out horizontally. When ironing, you must select the appropriate mode on the iron panel. Remember that silk should not be sprayed with water, as this may cause streaks to appear on it.
Wool
Fabrics made from wool are the basis for creating warm winter clothing. Wool retains heat perfectly and can reliably protect against freezing even at the lowest temperatures. Clothing made of wool practically does not wrinkle and even tends to smooth out if, for example, a woolen item has been hanging on a hanger in the closet for a long time. Wool fabrics can stretch, especially when exposed to hot water. Another advantage of woolen fabrics is that various types of odors quickly disappear from it: cigarette smoke, sweat, and so on.
It is recommended to wash woolen items exclusively by hand and with special products. The water temperature when washing should not exceed 30 degrees. After washing, wool clothes should not be twisted or dried in the dryer. Just lay the item out horizontally to dry.
Elastane
Elastane is a synthetic polyurethane fiber whose main property is elongation. Elastane is fantastically durable, quite thin and wear-resistant. Generally, elastane is used as a complement to base fabrics to impart certain properties to clothing. Things with a small percentage of elastane fit better on the figure, they are tight, but after stretching they easily return to their original shape. Elastane is quite resistant to various types of external influences. Clothes containing elastane can last quite a long time. Also, the undoubted advantage of things with elastane is that they practically do not wrinkle.
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Kiryukhin Sergey Mikhailovich - Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor, Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation. After graduating from the Moscow Textile Institute (MIT) in 1962, he successfully worked in the field of materials science, standardization, certification, qualimetry and quality management of textile materials in a number of industry sectors. scientific research Tel institutes. Constantly combined research work with teaching activities in higher educational institutions.
to the present | ||
S. M. Kiryukhin works in Moscow | state |
stylish university named after. A. N. Kosygina Professor of the Department of Textile Materials Science, has more than 150 scientific methodological works on the quality of textile materials, including textbooks and monographs.
Shustov Yuri Stepanovich - Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor, Head of the Department of Textile Materials Science at Moscow State Textile University named after A. N. Kosygin. Author of 4 books on textile topics and more than 150 scientific and methodological publications.
The area of scientific and pedagogical activity is quality assessment and modern methods for predicting the physical and mechanical properties of textile materials for various purposes.
TEXTBOOKS AND TUTORIALS FOR HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS STUDENTS
S. M. KIRYUKHIN, Y. S. SHUSTOV
TEXTILE
MATERIALS SCIENCE
Recommended by the Educational Institution for Education in the field of technology and design of textile products as a teaching aid for students of higher educational institutions studying in the areas 260700 “Technology and design of textile products”, 240200 “ Chemical Technology polymer fibers and textile materials", 071500
_> “Artistic design of textile and light industry products” and specialty 080502 “Economics”
Mika and enterprise management"
MOSCOW "KoposS" 2011
4r b
K 43
Editor I. S. Tarasova
REVIEWERS: Dr. Tech. Sciences, Prof. A. P. Zhikharev (MSUDT), dr. tech. Sciences, Prof. K. E. Razumeev (Central Research Institute of Wool)
Kiryukhin S.M., Shustov Yu.S.
K 43 Textile materials science. - M.: KolosS, 2011. - 360 e.: ill. - (Textbooks and teaching aids for students of higher educational institutions).
ISBN 978 - 5 - 9532 - 0619 - 8
General information about the properties of fibers, threads, fabrics, knitted and nonwoven materials is provided. The features of their structure, methods of production, and methods for determining quality indicators are considered. Control and quality management of textile materials are covered.
For students of higher educational institutions in the specialties “Textile Technology” and “Standardization and Certification”.
Educational edition
Kiryukhin Sergey Mikhailovich, Shustov Yuri Stepanovich
TEXTILE MATERIALS SCIENCE
Textbook for universities
Art editor V. A. Churakova Computer layoutpp. I. Sharova Computer graphicsT. Yu. Kutuzova
Proofreader T. D. Zvyagintseva
UDC 677-037(075.8) BBK 37.23-3ya73
PREFACE
The present tutorial intended for students of higher educational institutions studying the discipline “Textile Materials Science” and related courses. These are, first of all, future technological engineers whose work is related to the production and processing of textile materials. An engineer can successfully manage technological processes and improve them only if he is well aware of the structural features and properties of the materials being processed and the specific requirements for the quality of the products.
The tutorial contains necessary information on the structure, properties and quality assessment of the main types of textile fibers, threads and products, basic information on standard testing methods for textile materials, on the organization and conduct of technical control at the enterprise.
Indicators and characteristics of properties by which the quality of textile materials is assessed are standardized by current standards. Knowledge, correct application and strict adherence to the standards applicable to textile materials ensures the production of products of a given quality. At the same time, a special place is occupied by standards for testing methods for the properties of textile materials, with the help of which product quality indicators are assessed and controlled.
Product quality control is not limited to the correct application of standard test methods. Of great importance is the rational organization and effective functioning of the entire system of control operations in production, which is carried out by the technical control department at the enterprise.
Technical control ensures the release of products of a given quality, carrying out incoming control of raw materials and auxiliary materials, control
raw materials and auxiliary materials, control and regulation of the properties of semi-finished products and components, technological process parameters, quality indicators of manufactured products. However, for a systematic and systematic improvement of quality, it is necessary to constantly carry out a set of various measures aimed at influencing the conditions and factors that determine the quality of products at all stages of its formation. This leads to the need to develop and implement quality management systems at enterprises.
Methods for obtaining and features of processing textile materials are presented briefly and only as necessary. A deeper study of these issues should be carried out in special courses on the technology of production and processing of certain types of fibers, threads and textiles.
“Textile Materials Science” can be used as a basis for materials science students completing their studies at the relevant departments in various specialties and specializations. For an in-depth study of the structure, properties, assessment and quality management of textile materials, special courses are recommended for materials science students.
Students of economics, designers, confectioners, etc., studying at textile universities, can also use this manual.
This textbook has been prepared based on the experience of the Department of Textile Materials Science at Moscow State Technical University. A. N. Kosygina. It uses materials from previously published well-known and widely used similar educational publications, primarily “Textile Materials Science” in three parts by professors G. N. Kukin,
A. N. Solovyov and A. I. Koblyakov.
IN The manual contains five chapters, at the end of which are given Control questions and tasks. The bibliography includes primary and secondary sources. Basic literary sources are listed in order of their importance to the course.
Chapter 1 GENERAL PROVISIONS
1.1. SUBJECT OF TEXTILE MATERIALS SCIENCE
Textile materials science is the science of the structure, properties and quality assessment of textile materials. This definition was given in 1985. Taking into account the changes that have occurred since that time, as well as the peculiarities of the development of the training of materials scientists, the following definition may be more complete and profound: textile materials science is the science of the structure, properties, evaluation, quality control and management of textile materials.
The fundamental principles of this science are the study of textile materials used by man in various types of his activities.
Textile refers to both materials consisting of textile fibers and the textile fibers themselves.
The study of various materials and their constituent substances has always been the subject of natural sciences and has been associated with technical means of obtaining and processing these materials and substances. Therefore, textile materials science belongs to the group of technical sciences of an applied nature.
Most textile fibers consist of high-molecular substances, and therefore textile materials science is closely related to the use of theoretical foundations and practical methods of such fundamental disciplines as physics and chemistry, as well as the physical chemistry of polymers.
Since textile materials science is technical science, its study also requires general engineering knowledge obtained from the study of such disciplines as mechanics, strength of materials, electrical engineering, electronics, automation, etc. A special place is occupied by the physical and chemical mechanics (rheology) of fiber-forming polymers.
In textile materials science, as in other scientific disciplines, higher mathematics, mathematics
statistical statistics and probability theory, as well as modern computational methods and tools.
Knowledge of the structure and properties of textile materials is necessary when selecting and improving technological processes for their production and processing, and ultimately when obtaining a finished textile product of a given quality, assessed by special methods. Thus, textile materials science requires methods for measuring and assessing quality, which are the subject of a relatively new independent discipline- qualimetry.
Processing of textile materials is impossible without quality control of semi-finished products at individual stages of the technological process. Textile materials science is also involved in the development of quality control methods.
AND finally, the last of a wide range of issues related
With textile materials science is the issue of product quality management. This connection is very natural, because without knowledge of the structure and properties of textile materials, methods of assessment and quality control, it is impossible to control the technological process and the quality of the products produced.
Textile materials science should be distinguished from textile commodity science, although they have much in common. Commodity science is a discipline, the main provisions of which are intended to study consumer properties finished products used as a commodity. Commodity science also pays attention to such issues as methods of packaging goods, their transportation, storage, etc., which are usually not included in the tasks of materials science.
Among other related disciplines, it should also be said about the materials science of clothing production, which has much in common with textile materials science. The difference is that less attention is paid to the structure and properties of fibers and threads in the clothing industry than to textile fabrics, but information is added about non-textile finishing materials (natural and artificial leather, fur, oilcloth, etc.).
Let us pay attention to the importance of textile materials in human life.
It is believed that human life is impossible without food, shelter and clothing. The latter mainly consists of textile materials. Draperies, curtains, bed linen, bedspreads, towels, tablecloths and napkins, carpets and floor coverings, knitwear and non-woven materials, laces, twines and much, much more - all these are textile materials, without which the life of a modern person is impossible and which in many ways make this life comfortable and attractive.
Textile materials are used not only in everyday life. Statistics show that in industry developed countries temperate climate, out of the total amount of consumed textile materials, 35...40% is spent on clothing and linen, 20...25% is consumed for household and household needs, 30...35% is consumed in technology, for other needs (packaging, cultural needs , medicine, etc.) up to 10%. Of course, in individual countries these ratios can vary significantly depending on social conditions, climate, technological development, etc. But we can safely say that there is practically not a single material, and in some cases, spiritual sphere of human activity where textile materials are not used. This determines a very significant volume of their production and fairly high requirements for their quality.
Among the diverse issues addressed within the framework of textile materials science, the following can be distinguished:
study of the structure and properties of textile materials, allowing targeted work to improve their quality;
development of methods and technical means for measuring, assessing and monitoring quality indicators of textile materials;
development of theoretical foundations and practical methods for quality assessment, standardization, certification and quality management of textile materials.
Like any other scientific discipline, textile materials science has its own genesis, that is, the history of education and development.
Interest in the structure and properties of textile materials probably arose at the time when they began to be used for various purposes. The history of this issue goes back to ancient times. For example, sheep breeding, which was used, in particular, to obtain wool fibers, was known no less than 6 thousand years BC. e. Flax growing was widespread in Ancient Egypt about 5 thousand years ago. Cotton items found during excavations in India date back to approximately the same time. In our country, in excavation sites of ancient man sites near Ryazan, archaeologists discovered the most ancient textile products, which are a cross between fabric and knitwear. Today such fabrics are called knitted fabrics.
The first documented information about the study of individual properties of textile materials that has reached our time dates back to 250 BC. e., when the Greek mechanic Philo of Byzantium studied the strength and elasticity of ropes.
However, until the Renaissance, only the very first steps were taken in the study of textile materials. At the beginning of the 16th century. the great Italian Leonardo da Vinci studied the friction of ropes and the moisture content of fibers. In a simplified form, he formulated the well-known law of proportionality between a normally applied load and the friction force. By the second half of the 17th century. include the works of the famous English scientist R. Hooke, who studied the mechanical properties of various materials, including threads from flax fibers and
silks. He described the structure of thin silk fabric and was one of the first to express the idea of the possibility of producing chemical threads.
The need for systematic research into the structure and properties of textile materials began to be felt more and more with the emergence and development of manufacturing. While simple commodity production dominated and small artisans acted as producers, they dealt with a small amount of raw materials. Each of them was limited primarily to an organoleptic assessment of the properties and quality of materials. The concentration of large quantities of textile materials in manufactories required a different approach to their assessment and necessitated their study. This was also facilitated by the expansion of trade in textile materials, including between different countries. Therefore, from the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries. In a number of European countries, official requirements are established for the quality indicators of fibers, threads and fabrics. These requirements are approved by government agencies in the form of various regulations and even laws. For example, Italian (Piedmontese) regulations of 1681 on the operation of silk factories established requirements for silk raw materials - cocoons. According to these requirements, cocoons, depending on the silk content in their shell and the ability to unwind, were divided into several varieties.
IN In Russia, laws on the quality and methods of sorting raw fibers supplied for export and to supply manufactories producing yarn and canvas for the navy, as well as cloth for supplying the army, appeared in the 18th century. The first known date of publication was Law No. 635 of April 26, 1713 “On the rejection of hemp and flax near the city of Arkhangelsk.” This was followed by laws on the width, length and weight (i.e. mass) of linen (1715), on the control of the thickness, twist and moisture of hemp yarn (1722), the shrinkage of cloth after soaking (1731), their length and width (1741), the quality of their coloring and their durability (1744), etc.
IN these documents began to mention the first protozoa instrumental methods measuring individual quality indicators of textile materials. Thus, a law issued in Russia under Peter I in 1722 required monitoring the thickness of hemp yarn for ropes by pulling samples of it through holes of various sizes made in iron boards to determine “whether it is as thick as it should be.”
IN XVIII century the first objective instrumental methods for measuring and assessing the properties and quality indicators of textile materials are emerging and developing. This lays the foundation future science- textile materials science.
IN first half of the 18th century French physicist R. Reaumur designed one of the first tensile testing machines and studied the strength of hemp and silk
twisted threads. In 1750 in Turin ( Northern Italy) one of the world's first laboratories for testing the properties of textile materials appeared, called “conditioning” and monitoring the moisture content of raw silk. This was the first prototype of currently operating certification laboratories. Later, “conditions” began to appear in other European countries, for example in France, where wool, yarn of various types, etc. were studied. late XVIII V. devices appeared for estimating the thickness of threads by unwinding skeins of constant length on special reels and weighing them on lever scales - quadrants. Similar reels and quadrants were produced in St. Petersburg by the mechanical workshops of the Aleksandrovskaya Manufactory, the largest Russian textile mill, founded in 1799.
In the field of studying the properties of textile raw materials and the search for new types of fibers, the work of the first corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, P. I. Rychkov (1712-1777), a prominent historian, geographer and economist, should be noted. He was one of the first Russian scientists working in the field of textiles.
of materials science. In a number of his articles, published in the “Proceedings of the Free Economic Society for the Encouragement of Agriculture and House Construction in Russia,” he raised questions about the use of goat and camel wool, some plant fibers, cotton cultivation, etc.
In the 19th century Textile materials science was actively developing in almost all European countries, including Russia.
Let us note only some of the main dates in the development of domestic textile materials science.
In the first half of the 19th century. In Russia, educational institutions arose that trained specialists who were already provided with information about the properties of textile materials in training courses. Such secondary educational institutions include the Practical Academy of Commercial Sciences, opened in Moscow in 1806, which trained commodity experts, and among the higher educational institutions - the Technological Institute
V Petersburg, founded in 1828 and opened for classes in 1831.
IN mid-19th century At Moscow University and the Moscow Practical Academy, the activities of the outstanding Russian commodity expert prof.
M. J. Kittara, who devoted in his works great attention study of textile materials. He organized the department of technology, a technical laboratory, gave lectures where the general classification of goods, including textiles, was given, and supervised the development of testing methods and rules for accepting textile products for the Russian army.
IN late XIX V. in Russia, laboratories for testing textile materials began to be created at educational institutions, and then at large textile factories. One of the first was the laboratory at the Moscow Higher Technical School (MVTU), which was founded in 1882 by prof. F. M. Dmitriev. His successor, one of the largest Russian textile scientists, prof. S.A. Fedorov in 1895-1903 organized a large laboratory for mechanical technology of textile materials and a testing station attached to it. In his work “On Testing Yarn” in 1897, he wrote: “In practice, when researching yarn, until now we have usually been guided by the usual impressions of touch, vision, and hearing. This kind of definition required, of course, great skill. Anyone who is familiar with the practice of paper spinning and who has worked with measuring instruments knows that these instruments in many cases confirm our conclusions drawn by sight and touch, but sometimes they say something completely opposite to what we think. Instruments thus exclude randomness and subjectivity, and through them we obtain data on which we can build a completely impartial judgment.” The work “On Yarn Testing” summarized all the main methods used at that time for studying threads.
The MVTU laboratory played a major role in the development of Russian textile materials science. In 1911-1912 in this laboratory, research was carried out by the “Commission for the processing of descriptions, acceptance conditions and all conditions for the supply of fabrics to the commissariat,” headed by prof. S. A. Fedorov. At the same time, numerous fabric tests were carried out and the methods of these tests were refined. These studies were published in the work of prof. N. M. Chilikin “On testing fabrics,” published in 1912. Since 1915, this scientist began teaching a special course at the Moscow Higher Technical School “Materials Science of Fibrous Substances,” which was the first university course in textile materials science in Russia. In 1910-1914. A number of works were carried out at the Moscow Higher Technical University by the outstanding Russian textile scientist prof. N. A. Vasiliev. These included studies evaluating methods for testing yarns and fabrics. Deeply understanding the importance of testing the properties of materials for the practical work of the factory, this remarkable scientist wrote: “The testing station should also be one of the departments of the factory, not an additional closet with two or three devices, but a department equipped with everything necessary for successful production control, with the purpose of
figurative apparatus, if possible automatically testing samples and keeping records, and finally, must have a manager who can not only maintain all devices in a state of constant proper operation, but also systematize the results obtained in accordance with the goals pursued. Production, of course, will only benefit from such an approach to testing.” These wonderful words should always be remembered by textile production engineers.
IN In 1889, the first scientific society of textile workers was organized in Russia, called the “Society for Promoting the Improvement and Development of the Manufacturing Industry.” The “Izvestia” of the society, published under the editorship of N. N. Kukin, published a number of works on the study of the properties of textile materials, in particular the work of engineer A. G. Razuvaev. During 1882-1904 this researcher conducted numerous tests on various fabrics. The results of these tests were summarized in his work “Investigation of the Resistance of Fibrous Substances.” A. G. Razuvaev and the Austrian engineer A. Rosenzweig were the first textile workers who simultaneously (1904) first applied the methods of mathematical statistics to the processing of test results of textile materials.
IN 1914, an outstanding teacher and major specialist in the field of testing textile materials, prof. A. G. Arkhangelsky published the book “Fibers, Yarns and Fabrics,” which became the first systematic manual in Russian, which described the properties of these materials. The works and courses taught at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries were of great importance for the development of Russian materials science. in different commodity science and economic higher and secondary educational institutions in Moscow by professors Ya. Ya. Nikitinsky and P. P. Petrov and others. The widespread use of information about textile materials in the educational process made it possible to speak of a fairly large accumulated experience in studying their structure and properties.
IN 1919 in Moscow at the base At the spinning and weaving school, a textile technical school was organized, which on December 8, 1920 was equated to a higher educational institution and transformed into the Moscow Practical Textile Institute. The history of this higher educational institution began back in 1896, when at the trade and industrial congress during the All-Russian exhibition in Nizhny Novgorod it was decided to organize a school in Moscow at the Society to promote the improvement and development of the manufacturing industry. In accordance with this decision, a spinning and weaving school was opened in Moscow, which existed from 1901 to 1919.
The course “Textile Materials Science” was taught from the first years of the formation of the Moscow Textile Institute (MIT). One of the first teachers of textile materials science was prof. N. M. Chilikin. In 1923, at the institute, assistant professor. N.I. Slobozhaninov created a laboratory for testing textile materials, and in 1944 - the department of textile materials science. The organizer of the department and its first head was the outstanding textile scientist and materials scientist, honorable. scientist prof. G. N. Kukin (1907-1991)
In 1927, the first Scientific Research Textile Institute (NITI) in our country was created in Moscow, where, under the leadership of N. S. Fedorov, a large testing laboratory, the Textile Materials Testing Bureau, began its work. NITI research has made it possible to improve testing methods for various textile materials. Yes, Prof. V. E. Zotikov, prof. N. S. Fedorov, engineer. V. N. Zhukov, prof. A. N. Solovyov created a domestic method for testing cotton fiber. The structure of cotton, the properties of silk and chemical threads, the mechanical properties of threads, the unevenness of yarn thickness were studied, and mathematical methods for processing test results were widely used.
In the late 20s - early 30s, work on textile materials science
V our country received a practical solution, which consisted in the standardization of textile materials. IN 1923-1926 at MIT under the guidance of prof.
N. J. Kanarsky conducted research related to the standardization of wool. Prof. V.V. Linde and his employees were involved in the standardization of raw silk. The first standards for the main types of threads, fabrics and other textile products were developed and approved. Since then, standardization work has become an integral part of materials science research on textile materials.
IN 1930 The Ivanovo Textile Institute was opened in Ivanovo, separated from Ivanovo-Voznesensk Polytechnic Institute, organized by
V 1918 and had a spinning- weaving department. In the same year in Leningrad on the basis of the Mechanical and Technological Institute named after. Lensovet (formerly St. Petersburg Technological Institute named after Nicholas I) was created to meet the needs of the domestic textile industry for qualified engineering personnel Leningrad Institute textile and light industry (LITLP). Both of these higher educational institutions had departments of textile materials science.
IN 1934 NITI was divided into separate sectoral institutes: the cotton industry (TsNIIKhBI), the bast fiber industry (TsNIILV), the wool industry (TsNIIWool), the silk industry (VNIIKhV), the knitting industry (VNIITP), etc. All these institutes had testing laboratories , departments or laboratories of textile materials science that conducted fundamental and applied research into the structure and properties of textile materials, as well as work on their standardization.
The peculiarity of works on textile materials science is that they are independent in nature and at the same time are mandatory in the research work of textile and clothing production engineers. This is due to the production of new textile materials, the improvement of their processing technology, the introduction of new types of processing and finishing, etc. In all these cases, it is necessary to carefully study the properties of textile materials, study the influence of various factors on changes in the properties and quality indicators of raw materials, semi-finished products and finished textile products.
In the first half of the 20th century. a powerful base of domestic textile materials science was created, successfully solving various tasks, which at that time stood before the textile and light industry of our country.
In the second half of the 20th century. The development of domestic textile materials science has received new qualitative features and directions. Scientific schools of leading textile scientists and materials scientists were formed. In Moscow (MIT) these are professors G.N. Kukin and A.N. Solovyov, in Leningrad (LITLP) - M.I. Sukharev, in Ivanovo (IvTI) - prof. A.K. Kiselev. Since the 1950s, international scientific and practical conferences on textile materials science have been systematically held once every four years, initiated by the head of the Department of Textile Materials Science at MIT, Prof. G. N. Kukin. In 1959, this department graduated its first engineers-technologists with a specialization in textile materials science. Later, taking into account the requirements of industry and the economic situation in the country, MIT at the Department of Textile Materials Science began to train process engineers with specializations in metrology, standardization and product quality management. Materials engineers became certified generalists in the quality of textile materials. Similar work was carried out at the departments of materials science LITLP in Leningrad and IvTI
in Ivanovo. These trends are reflected in the work of materials science departments and laboratories of industry research institutes of textile and light industry. Since the 1970s, the volume of materials science work on standardization and quality management of textile materials has increased significantly, and methods of reliability theory and qualimetry have become widely used.
End of the 20th century made significant changes in the development of domestic textile materials science. The country's transition to new forms of economic development, a sharp decline in production in the textile and light industry, a significant decrease in state funding for science and education led to a significant slowdown in the pace of development of materials science work in industry research institutes of textile and light industry and in the departments of materials science of relevant higher educational institutions, but new content of works on textile materials science.
Textile materials science of the late XX - beginning of the XXI V. - these are automatic and semi-automatic testing devices with software control based on a PC, including testing complexes of the “Spinlab” type for assessing the quality indicators of cotton fiber; these are fundamental and applied comprehensive research traditional and new textile materials, including ultra-thin fibers of organic and inorganic origin, ultra-strong threads for technical and special purposes, composite materials reinforced with textiles, so-called “smart and thinking” fabrics that can change their properties depending on temperature the human body or the environment, and much, much more.
Futurologists consider the 21st century. century of textiles as one of the essential components comfortable life person. Therefore, we can assume the appearance in the 21st century. a wide variety of fundamentally new textile materials, the successful processing and effective use of which will require in-depth materials science research.
The development of textile materials science is, of course, based on the latest achievements of the fundamental sciences mentioned above. At the same time, some publications note that research on textile materials has determined some areas of modern science. For example, it is believed that the study of amino acids in the keratin of wool fibers served as the basis for the development of DNA research and genetic engineering. The work of the English materials scientist K. Pearce to study the influence of clamping length on the strength characteristics of cotton yarn (1926) shaped modern statistical theory strength of various materials, called the “weakest link theory”. Control and elimination of textile thread breaks in technological processes textile production were the practical basis for the development of mathematical methods of statistical control and theory queuing and etc.
The development of textile materials science is described in detail by G. N. Kukin, A. N. Solovyov and A. I. Koblyakov in their textbooks, which provide an analysis of the development of textile materials science not only in Russia and in the former republics of the USSR,
but also in European countries, the USA and Japan.
Works on materials science will find more and more practical use in standardization, control, technical expertise, certification of textile materials and their quality management.
1.2. PROPERTIES AND QUALITY INDICATORS OF TEXTILE MATERIALS
Textile materials- These are primarily textile fibers and threads, textile products made from them, as well as various intermediate fibrous materials obtained in textile production processes - semi-finished products and waste.
Textile fiber - an extended body, flexible and durable, with small transverse dimensions, of limited length, suitable for the manufacture of textile threads and products.
Fibers can be natural, chemical, organic and inorganic, elemental and complex.
Natural fibers are formed in nature without direct human participation. They are sometimes called natural fibers. They come from plant, animal and mineral origin.
Natural plant fibers are obtained from the seeds, stems, leaves and fruits of plants. This is, for example, cotton, the fibers of which are formed from the seeds of the cotton plant. Fibers of flax, hemp (hemp), jute, kenaf, ramie lie in the stems of plants. Sisal fiber is obtained from the leaves of the tropical agave plant, and the so-called Manila hemp - manila - from abaca. The natives obtain coir fiber from the coconut fruit, which is used in handicraft textiles.
Natural fibers of plant origin are also called cellulose, since they all consist mainly of a natural organic high-molecular substance - cellulose.
Natural fibers of animal origin form the hair of various animals (wool of sheep, goats, camels, llamas, etc.) or are secreted by insects from special glands. For example, natural silk is obtained from mulberry or oak silkworms at the caterpillar - pupa stage of development, when they curl threads around their body, forming dense shells - cocoons.
Animal fibers consist of natural organic high-molecular compounds - fibrillar proteins, which is why they are also called protein or “animal” fibers.
Natural inorganic fiber from minerals is asbestos, obtained from minerals of the serpentine group (chrysotile asbestos) or amphibole (amphibole-asbestos), which, when processed, can split into thin flexible and durable fibers 1...18 mm or more in length.
Currently, about 27 million tons of natural fibers are produced in the world. The growth in production volumes of these fibers is objectively limited by the real resources of the natural environment, which are estimated at 30...35 million tons annually. Therefore, the ever-increasing demand for textile materials, which today amounts to 10... 12 kg per person per year, will be satisfied mainly by chemical fibers.
Chemical fibers are manufactured with the direct participation of humans from natural or pre-synthesized substances through chemical, physicochemical and other processes. In English-speaking countries, these fibers are called man made, i.e. “made by man.” The main substances for the manufacture of chemical fibers are fiber-forming polymers, which is why they are sometimes called polymers.
There are artificial and synthetic chemical fibers. Artificial fibers are made from substances that exist in nature, and synthetic fibers are made from materials that do not exist in nature and which are pre-synthesized in one way or another. For example, artificial viscose fiber is obtained from natural cellulose, and synthetic nylon fiber is obtained from caprolactam polymer, obtained by synthesis from petroleum distillation products.
Chemical fibers are grouped and sometimes named by the type of high molecular weight substance or compound from which they are obtained. In table 1.1 shows the most common of them, and also gives some names of chemical fibers accepted in various countries and their symbols.
Chemical fibers for processing, including those mixed with natural fibers, are cut or torn into pieces of a certain length. Such pieces are called staple and are designated by the symbol F, and depending on their purpose they are divided into types: cotton (S), wool (wt), linen (I), jute (jt), carpet (tt) and fur (pt). For example, flax-type polyester staple fiber is designated PE-F-lt.
High molecular weight substances and compounds
Polyester
Polypropylene
Polyamide
Table 1.1 |
||
Fiber name | Conditional |
|
designation |
||
Lavsan (Russia), Elana (Poland), | ||
Dacron (USA), Terylene (UK- | ||
niya, Germany), tetlon (Japan) | ||
Mercalon (Italy), propene (USA), | ||
Proplan (France), Ulstron (Great Britain) | ||
UK), canvas (Germany) | ||
Kapron (Russia), Kaprolan (USA), | ||
stilon (Poland), dederon, perlon | ||
(Germany), Amylan (Japan), nylon | ||
(USA, UK, Japan, etc.) |
Polyacrylonitrile
Polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidene chloride Cellulose
Nitron (Russia), dralon, betrayed | |
(Germany), anilan (Poland), acrylic | |
lon (USA), cashmilon (Japan) | |
Chlorine (Russia), saran (USA, Be- | |
UK, Japan, Germany) | |
Viscose (Russia), Villana, Danulon | |
(Germany), viscon (Poland), visco | |
Lon (USA), Diafil (Japan) | |
Acetate (Russia), fortainez (USA, |
|
UK), Rialin (Germany), | |
minalon (Japan) |
Chemical fibers are mostly organic, but they can also be inorganic, for example glass, metal, ceramic, basalt, etc. As a rule, these are fibers for technical and special purposes.
There are elementary and complex textile fibers. Elemental fiber- this is a primary single fiber that is not divided along the axis into small pieces without destroying the fiber itself. Complex fiber- a fiber consisting of elementary fibers glued together or linked intermolecularly
new forces.
Examples of complex fibers are bast plant fibers (flax, hemp, etc.) and asbestos mineral fiber. Sometimes complex fibers are called technical, since their separation into elementary fibers occurs during the technological processes of their processing.
The global production of chemical fibers is rapidly developing. Having emerged at the beginning of the 20th century, only in the period 1950-2000. it increased from 1.7 million tons to 28 million tons, i.e. more than 16 times.
Fibers are the raw materials for the manufacture of textile threads and products.
A detailed classification of textile threads and products, features of their structure, the main stages of production and properties are given in Chapter. 3 and 4.
Let's consider the properties and quality indicators of textile materials.
Properties of textile materials - this is an objective feature of textile materials, which manifests itself during their production, processing and operation.
The properties of the main types of textile materials are divided into the following groups.
Properties of structure and structure - the structure and structure of the substances that form textile fibers (the degree of polymerization, crystallinity, features of the supramolecular structure, etc.), as well as the structure and structure of the fibers themselves (the order of microfibrils, the presence or absence of a shell, a fiber channel, etc. ). For threads, this is the relative position of their constituent fibers and filaments, determined by the twist of the yarn and threads. The structure and structure of fabrics are characterized by the interlacing of the threads that make it up, their relative arrangement and number in the element of the fabric structure (phases of fabric structure, density of warp and weft, etc.).
Geometric properties determine the dimensions of fibers and threads (length, linear density, cross-sectional shape, etc.), as well as the dimensions of fabrics and piece goods (width, length, thickness, etc.).
Mechanical properties textile materials are characterized by their attitude to the action of various forces and deformations applied to them (tension, compression, torsion, bending, etc.).
Depending on the method of implementing the test cycle “load - unloading - rest”, the characteristics of the mechanical properties of textile fibers, threads and products are divided into half-cycle, single-cycle and multi-cycle. Half-cycle characteristics are obtained by performing part of the test cycle - load without unloading or with unloading, but without subsequent rest. These characteristics determine the relationship of materials to a single load or deformation (for example, the tensile strength of a material until failure is determined). Single-cycle characteristics are obtained in the process of implementing the full cycle “load - unloading - rest”. They determine the characteristics of direct and reverse deformation of materials, their ability to maintain their initial shape, etc. High-cycle characteristics are obtained as a result repetition test cycle. They can be used to judge the material’s resistance to repeated force or deformation (resistance to repeated stretching, bending, abrasion resistance, etc.).
Physical properties- this is the mass, hygroscopicity, permeability of textile materials. Physical properties are also thermal, optical, electrical, acoustic, radiation and other properties of textile fibers, threads and products.
Chemical properties determine the relationship of textile materials to the action of various chemical substances. This is, for example, the solubility of fibers in acids, alkalis, etc. or resistance to their action.
Material properties can be simple or complex. Complex properties are characterized by several simple properties. Examples complex properties textile materials are shrinkage of fibers, threads and fabrics, wear resistance of textiles, color fastness, etc.
A special group should include properties that determine the appearance of textile materials, for example, the color of the fabric, the cleanliness and absence of foreign inclusions in textile fibers, the absence of defects in the appearance of threads and fabrics, etc.
One of the important characteristics of the properties of textile materials is their homogeneity or uniformity.
In the marketing of textile products, properties are divided into functional, consumer, ergonomic, aesthetic, socio-economic, etc. This division is based mainly on the requirements for textile products by the consumer.
The properties of textile materials should be distinguished from the requirements for them, expressed through quality indicators.
Quality indicators - this is a quantitative characteristic of one or more properties of a textile material, considered in relation to certain conditions of its production, processing and operation.
There is a general classification of groups of quality indicators. Assignment indicator group characterizes the properties that determine the correctness and rationality of the use of the material and determine the scope of its application. This group includes: classification indicators, for example, shrinkage of fabrics after washing, depending on which fabrics are divided into non-shrink, low-shrink and shrinkage; functional and technical performance indicators, such as fabric performance indicators; design indicators, such as linear thread density, fabric width, etc.; composition and structure indicators, such as fiber composition, twist
threads, fabric density in warp and weft, etc.
Reliability indicators characterize the reliability, durability and persistence of material properties over time within specified limits, ensuring its effective use for its intended purpose. This group includes such quality indicators of textile materials as resistance to abrasion, repeated deformation, color fastness, etc.
Ergonomic indicators take into account the complex of hygienic, anthropometric, physiological and psychological properties manifested in the person-product-environment system. For example, breathability, vapor permeability and hygroscopicity of fabrics.
Wool is the hair of animals that has spinning properties or feltability.
Wool is one of the main natural textile fibers.
There are natural, industrial and regenerated wool.
Natural wool
- wool, wool that is sheared from animals (sheep, goat, etc.), combed (camel, dog, goat and rabbit fluff) or collected during shedding (cow, horse, sarly) This wool is of the highest quality.
Factory wool
- This is wool taken from animal skins; it is less durable than natural wool.
Reclaimed wool
- wool obtained by pinching wool flaps, rags, scraps of yarn. These wool fibers are the least durable.
Milled and recovered wool can be used in the textile industry to make inexpensive broadcloths.
Wool fibers are horny derivatives of skin.
Wool fiber consists of three layers:
1 - Scaly (cuticle) - the outer layer, consists of individual scales, protects the hair body from destruction. The type of flakes and their location determines the degree of gloss of the fiber and its ability to felt (roll, fall off).
2 - Cortical - the main layer, forms the body of the hair, determines its quality.
3 - Core - located in the center of the fiber, consists of cells filled with air.
Depending on the ratio of individual layers, wool fibers are divided into 4 types:
a - fluff: a very thin, soft, crimped fiber with no core layer.
b - transitional hair: thicker and stiffer than fluff. The medullary layer occurs in places.
c - spine: thick, hard fiber with a significant core layer.
d - dead hair: thick, coarse, straight, brittle fiber, the core layer of which occupies the largest part.
Wool consists of outer hair and underfur. In sheep, the outer hair consists of: awn, transitional and covering hair; underfur - fluff.
Sheep wool, depending on the type of fibers that make it up, is divided into homogeneous, represented by fibers of the same type, and heterogeneous. IN uniform wool downy and transitional fibers, combining into groups, form staples(transitional wool fibers of long-haired sheep are homogeneous braids). In heterogeneous wool, down, transition and guard fibers are combined into braids.
Types of wool
Types of wool are distinguished depending on the type of fibers that form the sheep's hair. The following types are distinguished:
- Thin- consists of down fibers, used to produce high-quality woolen fabrics.
- Semi-thin- consists of downy fibers and transitional hair, used for the production of suit and coat fabrics.
- Semi-rough- consists of spine and transitional hair, used for the production of semi-coarse suit and coat fabrics.
- Rough- contains all types of fibers, including dead hair, used for the manufacture of overcoat cloth, felt, felt boots.
Primary processing of wool: sorting by quality, loosening and removing debris, washing from dirt and grease, drying with hot air.
Average fiber fineness: fluff 10 - 25 microns, transitional hair - 30 - 50 microns, spine - 50 microns or more.
Wool fiber length: from 20 to 450mm, distinguished:
— short fiber: length up to 55mm, used for the production of thick and fluffy hardware yarn;
— long fiber: length over 55mm, used to produce fine and smooth combed yarn.
Fiber appearance: matte, warm, color from white (slightly yellowish) to black (the thicker the fiber, the darker the color). The color of the coat is determined by the presence of melanin pigment in the cortex. For technological use, the most valuable is white wool, suitable for dyeing in any color.
Feltability- this is the ability of wool to form a felt-like covering during the felling process. This property is explained by the presence of scales on the surface of the wool, which prevent the fiber from moving in the direction opposite to the location of the scales. Thin, elastic, highly crimped wool has the greatest ability to felt.
Combustion Features : burns slowly, extinguishes itself when removed from the flame, smells of burnt horn, the residue is black fluffy brittle ash.
Chemical composition: natural protein keratin
Effect of chemical reagents on fibers: Destroyed by strong hot sulfuric acid; other acids have no effect. Dissolves in weak alkali solutions. When boiled, wool dissolves in a 2% solution caustic soda. Under the influence of dilute acids (up to 10%), the strength of wool increases slightly. When exposed to concentrated nitric acid, wool turns yellow; when exposed to concentrated sulfuric acid, it becomes charred. Insoluble in phenol and acetone.
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The range of dresses is varied, and the requirements for dress materials are correspondingly varied, as the conditions in which they are used are varied.
Hygienic requirements are especially important for fabrics used for sewing home and everyday dresses. The fabrics of everyday dresses should have good hygroscopic properties: moisture absorption and moisture release. For summer dresses, materials must have good breathability, for winter dresses - good heat-insulating properties.
For elegant and evening dresses hygienic requirements are less significant, so failure to comply with them can be compensated for by choosing the appropriate model and design of the product.
Everyday clothing requires practical, wrinkle-resistant, shape-resistant materials. Fabrics for everyday dresses should be stable to abrasion, to repeated washing, to pilling, must maintain linear dimensions during operation.
Aesthetic requirements change from season to season depending on fashion trends. Changing the requirements for the appearance, structure, color, and plastic properties of the material entails permanent shift range of materials for dresses. At the same time, the following requirements remain unchanged: low weight, increased flexibility and elasticity of materials, limited rigidity.
Fabrics for summer dresses can be bright and multi-colored, for everyday dresses - calm, non-staining colors, for elegant dresses - unusual colors are needed. external effects materials.
Characteristics of the main types of materials for dresses.
Cotton fabrics widely used for children's dresses, for women's home and summer dresses, these are such classic cotton fabrics as chintz, calico, flannel, satin.
Denim fabric with a lightweight structure and reduced rigidity is used for sewing women's and children's sundresses and dresses.
Linen fabrics used for sewing summer dresses. Clean fabrics have increased creasing, so nitron, lavsan, polynose, and siblon staple fibers are added to the yarn. Such fabrics retain the effect of linen fabrics, have sufficient hygroscopicity, wear resistance and shape stability. They are produced in plain, finely patterned and jacquard weaves; the finishing is plain-dyed, printed, variegated, melange.
Wool dress fabrics produced from wool yarn with the addition of chemical fibers: nitron, lavsan, nylon, viscose. These fabrics are intended for the winter and demi-season range of dresses.
The classic ones are. They are easily stretchable, drape well, have slight creasing, and crumble when cut.
To sew dress-suits, they use fine-woven fabrics that are fluffy, soft and warm.
Worsted fabrics made from combed yarn are also used. They are somewhat dry to the touch, have a clear weave pattern, and crumble along the cuts.
The structure and finishing of fabrics are extremely varied. They are produced plain-dyed, variegated, printed, with the addition of goat or rabbit down, Angora wool, from screw-in yarn with complex chemical threads, using textured threads, with neps effects (multi-colored lumps spun into yarn).
Silk fabrics are the most numerous and varied in the range of dress fabrics.
Distinctive properties of polyacrylonitrile fiber
They have a good range of consumer properties. In terms of their mechanical properties, PAN fibers are very close to and in this respect they are superior to all others. They are often called “artificial wool”.
They have maximum light resistance, fairly high strength and relatively high elongation (22-35%). Due to low hygroscopicity, these properties do not change when wet. Products made from them retain their shape after washing
They are characterized by high heat resistance and resistance to nuclear radiation.
They are inert to pollutants, so products made from them are easy to clean. Not damaged by moths and microorganisms.
Teacher: Mironiceva Natalya Leonidovna technology teacher MBOU "Razdolnenskaya school - lyceum No. 1"
LESSON PLAN.
Subject: Technology. Technology programs for the basic level are compiled on the basis of Federal State Educational Standards LLC
Class: 5;
Date of:
Chapter: Creation of products from textile and ornamental materials.
UMK: textbook 5th grade O.A. Kozhina, E.N. Kudakova, S.E. Markutskaya. Workbook 5th grade pp. 31-36.
Lesson type: combined
TOPIC: Materials science. Properties of textile materials.
PRACTICAL WORK: Identifying warp and weft threads in fabric.
Plain weave of threads in fabric. Making a plain weave sample.
LESSON OBJECTIVES: students’ assimilation of information about textile fibers of natural origin; developing skills and abilities to work with fabrics made from natural fibers; learn to distinguish between natural fabrics made from cotton and linen; adhere to the rules of safe work and hygiene. hygiene, organize a workplace when working with textile materials. Improve skills in identifying fabrics made from natural fibers, the ability to distinguish yarn, threads, fabric. Get acquainted with weaving weaves. The structure of plain weave.
Didactic: To consolidate students’ skills in distinguishing between cotton and linen fibers and formulating requirements for fabrics made from natural fibers.
To consolidate students’ knowledge on the topic “Textile materials” and generalize knowledge about fibers
Educational: ensure that students acquire knowledge of elements of materials science; to develop the ability to identify warp and weft threads, the front and back sides of fabric; recognize plain weave fabrics.
Introduce students to various types natural fibers and fabrics.
Learn to distinguish between cotton and linen fabrics.
To help students develop an idea of the sequence of making fabrics on a loom.
Expand knowledge about the operation of the weaving machine and the features of weaving threads;
To promote the development of cognitive interest in the subject,
Educational: To promote neatness, attentiveness, accuracy when performing work, and elements of self-control.
Contribute to the proper organization of the workplace and compliance with safety regulations.
To promote the cultivation of aesthetic taste, respect for work and interest in the professions of clothing production; to promote the cultivation of interest in the profession of the textile industry; cultivate interest in everyday objects.
Educational:
Develop a complex of knowledge and skills about the properties of weaving and the properties of fibers (develop logical thinking).
Develop the ability to identify warp and weft threads, taking into account their properties, colors and fabric patterns;
Development of creativity and imagination; accuracy and abstract thinking through working with tissue samples.
Developing the ability to analyze your activities.
Develop skills in selecting and preparing fabric, consolidate the ability to determine the plain weave of the fabric of its choice and the impact on the product.
Methodological equipment of the lesson: cards - reminders, samples of cotton and linen fabrics
Didactic support: workbook, textbook, loom model, samples of threads and fibers.
Chalkboard design: Lesson topic, new terms.
EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS:OBJECT OF WORK:
Weave samples. Plain weave samples
INTER-SUBJECT RELATIONS: biology, geography, fine art.
TYPELESSON: combined
STUDENTS must:
Know: Be able to:
1. Brief information about 1. Determine direction in tissues
textile fibers, warp and weft threads.
of natural origin; 2.Determine facial and
wrong side,
2.Structure of threads: 3.Produce linen
properties of warp and weft threads; weave
front and back side.
3.Structure of linen
weave
PROGRESS OF THE CLASS:
Stage. Organizing time
Purpose of the stage:
prepare students for learning activities and acquiring new knowledge
create conditions for student motivation, the internal need for inclusion in educational process
greetings
checking student attendance
filling out the class journal
checking students' readiness for the lesson
students' mood for work
Personal UUD
Actions taken:
emotional mood for the lesson, etc.
manifestation of emotional attitude in educational and cognitive activity
Cognitive UUD
Actions taken:
active listening
making assumptions about the topic of the lesson
:
setting your own expectations
Communicative UUD
Actions taken:
listening to your interlocutor
Formed methods of activity:
building understandable
interlocutor's statements
Safety precautions and hygiene.
II. stage. Update background knowledge
Purpose of the stage:- organize the updating of the studied methods of action sufficient to present new knowledge
Update the mental operations necessary to present new knowledge
Organize recording of difficulties in students’ performance of a task or in justifying it.
Personal UUD
Actions taken:
activation of previously existing knowledge
active immersion in the topic
Formed methods of activity:
ability to listen in accordance with the target setting
accept and save learning goal and task
supplement, clarify the opinions expressed
Cognitive UUD
Actions taken
listen to the teacher's questions
answer teacher questions
Formed methods of activity:
developing the ability to find answers to questions .
Communicative UUD
Actions taken:
interaction with the teacher during the survey
Formed methods of activity:
the formation of competence in communication, including the conscious orientation of students to the position of other people as partners in communication and joint activities
formation of the ability to listen, conduct dialogue in accordance with the goals and objectives of communication
Stage III. Presentation of new material
Purpose of the stage:
Formulate and agree on lesson objectives
Organize clarification and agreement on the topic of the lesson
Organize a leading or encouraging dialogue to explain new material
Organize a record of overcoming the difficulty
So, guys, what will we learn about in today's lesson?
Once again, voicing the topic and purpose of the lesson and the tasks that need to be solved during the lesson.
Testing students' knowledge:
QUESTIONNAIRE:
1.Rules internal regulations, in the office of service workers.
2.What is the difference between the technology room for service types of labor and the rest?
offices?
3.Organization of the student’s workplace?
4.What does the subject of service labor study?
Sensual and everyday experience .
You, as future housewives, should be able to distinguish natural fibers from unnatural fibers that you can name. Who can say why this is needed in everyday life?
List the types of materials that surround you?
List what materials they are made of? (wood, fabric, plastic, glass, metal, etc.)
What fabrics are you familiar with?
How many of you know what serves as raw material for fabrics?
Raw materials - material for further industrial processing
Students consider types of natural raw materials, cotton, linen, wool, silk). SAMPLES FROM TRAINING KITS
Cotton linen
Wool Silk
On the left on the board there are educational and visual aids “Types of fibers”.
I talk about the cultivation and history of flax and cotton fiber in detail.
The attendants hand out tables - memos: classification of textile fibers.
Cards with four types of fabrics are distributed on the tables.
Assignment to students: identify and label the types of cotton and linen fabrics and their properties.
QUESTIONNAIRE:
1. How many of you know where fabrics are made and by whom?
2.Name the fairy tales in which weaving professions are found?
3.What is obtained from fibers? (Color table - cards, Madzigon.)
FIBER CLASSIFICATION
VegetableMineralAnimals
X L A SH
l e s e e
o n b r l
p e s k
o s t
kt
| Fiber | Strength | Tortuosity |
||||
| Cotton | ||||||
| Brilliant |
Exercise: Take a strand of cotton wool in your left hand, with your index finger and right thumb, pull out several fibers without tearing them from the bundle and turn them in your fingers. We received the yarn. (paste)
| Properties | Properties |
||||
| Properties | Properties |
||||
| Properties | Properties |
||||
| Properties | Properties |
||||
Information about new material.
The use of fibrous materials in production and at home;
Materials Science - studies structure and properties of fabrics, p used in wine industry.
Process of obtaining fabric:
From fibers small, thin, durable bodies, get:
Yarn- a thread made from short fibers by twisting them, intended for the production of fabrics.
Profession - spinner.
The purpose of spinning is to obtain yarn of uniform thickness.
A thread- yarn is more twisted, used for sewing machines and in weaving.
Profession- twister, warper,
The yarn goes to weaving factories,
Weaving- interlacing of warp and weft threads.
Warp thread- threads running along the fabric.
Weft threads- pass across the fabric and. bending around the outer warp threads it forms an edge - a non-fraying edge of the fabric on both sides with a width of 0.5-2.0 mm. (depending on the type of fabric),
Textile- material made on a machine by interlacing threads or yarn.
We get weaving weave- this is the alternation of threads, warp and weft in a certain sequence.
There are four main types of weave :
linen,satin, twill, satin.
The threads in fabrics with this weave are woven differently, which gives them different appearance and fabric properties.
PolotnyanyWeaving is characterized by the most frequent interlacing of warp and weft threads.
Report - weaves- this is the minimum weave number of threads after which the weaves are repeated.
Using examples of student work, I show production layouts
plain weave by thread method and from paper.
In teams, students perform weaves on miniature looms,
I focus on the color scheme of the warp and weft threads.
Identification of warp and weft threads :
Along the edge, the warp thread is parallel to the EDGE;
By the degree of stretching of the warp and weft threads by crimp and sound; according to the thickness of the threads.
Determining the front and back sides of fabric: -
On the front side the pattern is brighter;
In plain-dyed fabrics, the fibers are located on the wrong side (the front side is smoother).
Weaving defects (thread breaks, knots, etc.) are always on the wrong side
Regulatory UUD
Actions taken:
self-determination lesson topics
awareness of the goals and objectives of training
perception, comprehension, memorization of educational material
understanding the topic of new material and the main issues to be learned
Formed methods of activity :
developing the ability to learn to express one’s assumption based on working with textbook material
developing the ability to evaluate educational actions in accordance with the assigned task
developing the ability to listen and understand others
developing the ability to formulate one’s thoughts orally
Cognitive UUD
Actions taken:
development and deepening of needs and motives for educational and cognitive activity
development of the ability to obtain information from drawings, text and construct messages orally
development of the ability to compare studied objects on independently identified grounds
developing the ability to search for necessary information using additional sources of information
development of building skills simple reasoning
Formed methods of activity :
formation of the ability to carry out cognitive and personal reflection.
IV.Physical education minute
V.Primary consolidation students' knowledge
Independent work in a workbook.
Purpose of the stage: fix the execution algorithm, organize students’ assimilation of new material (in pairs or groups), use various methods of consolidating knowledge, questions that require mental activity, creative comprehension of the material Independent work can be done individually. So break into pairs or groups.
Working with the textbook: write down the definition of yarn, spinning, warp, weft, selvedge, weaving, weaving, plain, fabric finishing.
Sketch the weave using drawing tools.
Divide into groups and complete the task:
Stages of work:
Think over possible ideas and make a choice of a collection of cotton and linen fabrics, what you would like to design from the selected sample (4-6 fabric samples). Suggest what materials they color scheme you would like to use and justify it. Identify samples of plain weave fabrics.
Control of accumulated knowledge. Discussion of completed sketches:
the teacher’s appeal to the class regarding the student’s answer with a proposal: to supplement, clarify, correct, look at the problem being studied from a different angle,
identifying students’ skills to recognize and relate facts to concepts, rules and ideas.
Formation of students' skills and abilities: practical work
“Making a Plain Weave Sample.”
job analysis;
provision of necessary materials;
safety rules and workplace organization;
independence in completing a task;
control to identify deficiencies and eliminate them;
current briefing;
self-control and mutual control of students;
Summing up the practical work:
What new did you learn in the lesson?
What did you learn in the lesson?
Where can you use the acquired knowledge and skills?
Motivation for grades for the lesson, posting in the journal and diaries.
Personal UUD
Actions taken:
understanding the topic of new material and the main issues to be learned
application in practice and subsequent repetition of new material
Formed methods of activity:
developing the ability to express one’s attitude to new material and express one’s emotions
formation of motivation for learning and purposeful cognitive activity
Communicative UUD
Actions taken:
developing the ability to take into account the position of the interlocutor, collaborate and cooperate with the teacher and peers
Formed methods of activity:
developing the ability to construct a speech utterance in accordance with the assigned tasks
VI. Homework. Teacher instructing on homework
Purpose of the stage:
turn on new way actions into the students' knowledge system
train the ability to apply new algorithm actions in standard and non-standard situations
Cognitive UUD
Actions taken:
creative processing of studied information
search in traditional sources (dictionaries, encyclopedias)
search in computer sources (on the Internet, in e-books, in electronic catalogs, archives, using search programs, in databases)
search in other sources (in society, radio broadcasting, television broadcasting, audio and video sources)
Formed methods of activity :
development and deepening of needs and motives for educational and cognitive activity
search and selection of information
application of information retrieval methods, including using computer tools
VII.Cleaning workplaces
VIII.Reflection on learning activities in the classroom
Purpose of the stage:
Organize recording of new content learned in class
Organize recording of the degree of correspondence between the results of activities in the lesson and the set goal at the beginning of the lesson.
Organize self-assessment of students’ work in class
Based on the results of the analysis of work in the lesson, fix the directions for future activities
Reflection of the teacher and students on achieving the lesson goals
objective and commented assessment of the results of collective and individual work of students in the lesson
placing grades in the class journal and student diaries
Communicative UUD
Actions taken:
assessment and self-assessment of educational activities
generalization and systematization of knowledge
students express their emotions about the lesson
Formed methods of activity :
developing the ability to fully and accurately express one’s thoughts
Homework announcement:
paste fabric samples and memory cards into your notebook;
make a creative task from pieces of cotton fabrics and
flax
Cleaning the workplace.