Properties that guarantee integrity and... System concept

Organization theory is based on systems theory.

System– this is 1) a whole created from parts and elements of purposeful activity and possessing new properties that are absent in the elements and parts that form it; 2) the objective part of the universe, including similar and compatible elements that form a special whole that interacts with the external environment. Many other definitions are also acceptable. What they have in common is that the system is some correct combination of the most important, essential properties of the object being studied.

The characteristics of a system are the multitude of its constituent elements, the unity of the main goal for all elements, the presence of connections between them, the integrity and unity of the elements, the presence of structure and hierarchy, relative independence and the presence of control over these elements. The term “organization” in one of its lexical meanings also means “system”, but not any system, but to a certain extent ordered, organized.

The system may include a large list of elements and it is advisable to divide it into a number of subsystems.

Subsystem– a set of elements representing an autonomous area within the system (economic, organizational, technical subsystems).

Large systems (LS)– systems represented by a set of subsystems of an ever-decreasing level of complexity down to elementary subsystems that perform basic elementary functions within a given large system.

The system has a number of properties.

Properties of the system - these are the qualities of elements that make it possible to quantitatively describe the system and express it in certain quantities.

The basic properties of the systems are as follows:

– the system strives to preserve its structure (this property is based on the objective law of organization - the law of self-preservation);
– the system has a need for management (there is a set of needs of a person, an animal, society, a herd of animals and a large society);
– a complex dependence is formed in the system on the properties of its constituent elements and subsystems (a system may have properties that are not inherent in its elements, and may not have the properties of its elements). For example, when working collectively, people may come up with an idea that would not have occurred to them when working individually; The collective, created by teacher Makarenko from street children, did not accept the theft, swearing, and disorder characteristic of almost all of its members.

In addition to the listed properties, large systems have the properties of emergence, synergy and multiplicativity.

Emergence property– this is 1) one of the primary fundamental properties of large systems, meaning that the target functions of individual subsystems, as a rule, do not coincide with the target function of the BS itself; 2) the emergence of qualitatively new properties in an organized system that are absent in its elements and are not characteristic of them.

Property of synergy– one of the primary fundamental properties of large systems, meaning the unidirectionality of actions in the system, which leads to strengthening (multiplication) of the final result.

Multiplicativity property– one of the primary fundamental properties of large systems, meaning that effects, both positive and negative, in the BS have the property of multiplication.

Each system has an input effect, a processing system, final results and feedback

Classification of systems can be carried out according to various criteria, but the main one is their grouping in three subsystems: technical, biological and social.

Technical subsystem includes machines, equipment, computers and other operable products that have instructions for the user. The range of decisions in a technical system is limited and the consequences of decisions are usually predetermined. For example, the procedure for turning on and working with a computer, the procedure for driving a car, the method for calculating mast supports for power lines, solving problems in mathematics, etc. Such decisions are formalized in nature and are carried out in a strictly defined order. The professionalism of the specialist making decisions in a technical system determines the quality of the decision made and implemented. For example, a good programmer can effectively use computer resources and create a high-quality software product, while an unskilled one can spoil the computer’s information and technical base.

Biological subsystem includes the flora and fauna of the planet, including relatively closed biological subsystems, for example, an anthill, the human body, etc. This subsystem has a greater variety of functioning than the technical one. The range of solutions in a biological system is also limited due to the slow evolutionary development of the animal and plant world. However, the consequences of decisions in biological subsystems are often unpredictable. For example, a doctor’s decisions related to methods and means of treating patients, an agronomist’s decisions on the use of certain chemicals as fertilizers. Solutions in such subsystems involve the development of several alternative options and the selection of the best one based on some criteria. The professionalism of a specialist is determined by his ability to find the best of alternative solutions, i.e. he must correctly answer the question: what will happen if..?

Social (public) subsystem characterized by the presence of a person in a set of interrelated elements. Typical examples of social subsystems include a family, a production team, an informal organization, a driver driving a car, and even one individual (by himself). These subsystems are significantly ahead of biological ones in terms of diversity of functioning. The set of solutions in the social subsystem is characterized by great dynamism, both in quantity and in the means and methods of implementation. This is explained by the high rate of change in a person’s consciousness, as well as the nuances in his reactions to the same situations of the same type.

The listed types of subsystems have different levels of uncertainty (unpredictability) in the results of decision implementation

The relationship between uncertainties in the activities of various subsystems

It is no coincidence that in world practice it is easier to obtain the status of a professional in the technical subsystem, much more difficult in the biological subsystem and extremely difficult in the social one!

One can cite a very large list of outstanding designers, inventors, workers, physicists and other technical specialists; significantly fewer - outstanding doctors, veterinarians, biologists, etc.; you can list on your fingers the outstanding leaders of states, organizations, heads of families, etc.

Among the outstanding personalities who worked with the technical subsystem, a worthy place is occupied by: I. Kepler (1571–1630) - German astronomer; I. Newton (1643–1727) – English mathematician, mechanic, astronomer and physicist; M.V. Lomonosov (1711–1765) – Russian naturalist; P.S. Laplace (1749–1827) – French mathematician, astronomer, physicist; A. Einstein (1879–1955) – theoretical physicist, one of the founders of modern physics; S.P. Korolev (1906/07–1966) – Soviet designer, etc.

Among the outstanding scientists who worked with the biological subsystem are the following: Hippocrates (c. 460 - c. 370 BC) - ancient Greek doctor, materialist; K. Linnaeus (1707–1778) – Swedish naturalist; Charles Darwin (1809–1882) – English naturalist; IN AND. Vernadsky (1863–1945) – naturalist, geo- and biochemist, etc.

Among the personalities working in the social subsystem, there are no generally recognized leaders. Although, according to a number of characteristics, they include the Russian Emperor Peter I, the American businessman G . Ford and other personalities.

A social system may include biological and technical subsystems, and a biological system may include a technical one.

Social, biological and technical systems can be: artificial and natural, open and closed, fully and partially predictable (deterministic and stochastic), hard and soft. In the future, the classification of systems will be considered using the example of social systems.

Artificial systems are created at the request of a person or any society to implement intended programs or goals. For example, a family, a design bureau, a student union, an election association.

Natural systems created by nature or society. For example, the system of the universe, the cyclical system of land use, the strategy for sustainable development of the world economy.

Open systems characterized by a wide range of connections with the external environment and strong dependence on it. For example, commercial firms, the media, local authorities.

Closed systems characterized mainly by internal connections and created by people or companies to satisfy the needs and interests primarily of their personnel, company or founders. For example, trade unions, political parties, Masonic societies, the family in the East.

Deterministic (predictable) systems operate according to predetermined rules, with a predetermined result. For example, teaching students at an institute, producing standard products.

Stochastic (probabilistic) systems characterized by difficult to predict input influences of the external and (or) internal environment and output results. For example, research units, entrepreneurial companies, playing Russian lotto.

Soft systems are characterized by high sensitivity to external influences, and as a result, poor stability. For example, a system of stock quotes, new organizations, a person in the absence of firm life goals.

Rigid systems are usually authoritarian, based on the high professionalism of a small group of organizational leaders. Such systems are highly resistant to external influences and react poorly to small impacts. For example, the church, authoritarian government regimes.

In addition, systems can be simple or complex, active or passive.

Each organization must have all the features of the system. The loss of at least one of them inevitably leads the organization to liquidation. Thus, the systemic nature of an organization is a necessary condition for its activities.

System(Greek systema - a whole made up of parts, a connection) - a set of interactions of elements united by unity of goals and forming a certain integrity; it is a purposeful set of interconnected elements of any nature; this is an object that is defined by sets of elements, transformations, rules for the formation of sequences of elements; it is an object consisting of elements whose properties cannot be reduced to the properties of the object itself.

Basic properties of systems: 1. The organized complexity of a system is characterized by the presence of relationships between elements (there are three types of connections: functionally necessary, redundant (reserve), synergetic (giving an increase in the effect of the system due to the interaction of elements)). 2. Decomposability. 3. The integrity of the system is the fundamental irreducibility of the properties of the system to the sum of the properties of its constituent elements, and, at the same time, the dependence of the properties of each element on its place and functions within the system. 4. Limitation of the system. The limitations of the system are associated with the external environment. The concept of external environment includes all systems of elements of any nature that influence the system or are under its influence. The task of localizing the system (determining its boundaries and essential connections) arises. There are open and closed systems. Open systems have connections with the external environment, closed systems do not. 5. Structural structure of the system. Structurality is the grouping of elements within a system according to a certain rule or principle into subsystems. The structure of a system is a set of connections between elements of the system, reflecting their interaction. There are two types of connections: horizontal and vertical. External connections directed into the system are called inputs, and connections from the system to the external environment are called outputs. Internal connections are connections between subsystems. 6. Functional orientation of the system, the functions of the system can be represented as a set of certain transformations, which are divided into two groups.

Types of systems: 1. A simple system is a system that consists of a small number of elements and does not have a branched structure (hierarchical levels cannot be distinguished). 2. A complex system is a system with a branched structure and a significant number of interconnected and interacting elements (subsystems). A complex dynamic system should be understood as integral objects developing in time and space, consisting of a large number of elements and connections and possessing properties that are absent in the elements and connections that form them. The structure of a system is a set of internal, stable connections between the elements of the system that determine its basic properties. Systems are: social, biological, mechanical, chemical, environmental, simple, complex, probabilistic, deterministic, stochastic. 3. Centralized system – a system in which a certain element (subsystem) plays a dominant role. 4. Decentralized system – a system in which there is no dominant subsystem. 5. Organizational system – a system that is a set of people or groups of people. 6. Open systems – those in which internal processes significantly depend on environmental conditions and themselves have a significant impact on its elements. 7. Closed (closed) systems – those in which internal processes are weakly connected with the external environment. The functioning of closed systems is determined by internal information. 8. Deterministic systems – systems in which the connections between elements and events are unambiguous, predetermined. 9. A probabilistic (stochastic) system is a system in which the connections between elements and events are ambiguous. The connections between elements are probabilistic in nature and exist in the form of probabilistic patterns. 10. Deterministic systems are a special case of probabilistic ones (Рв=1). 11. A dynamic system is a system whose nature is constantly changing. Moreover, the transition to a new state cannot occur instantly, but requires some time.

Stages of building systems: goal setting, decomposition of the goal into subgoals, determination of functions that ensure the achievement of the goal, synthesis of the structure that ensures the fulfillment of functions. Goals arise when there is a so-called problem situation (a problem situation is a situation that cannot be resolved by available means). Goal is the state towards which the tendency of an object’s movement is directed. Environment is the totality of all systems except the one that realizes a given goal. No system is completely closed. The interaction of the system with the environment is realized through external connections. A system element is a part of a system that has a certain functional significance. Connections can be input and output. They are divided into: informational, resource (managing).

System structure: represents a stable ordering of system elements and their connections in space and time. Structure can be material or formal. Formal structure is a set of functional elements and their relationships that are necessary and sufficient for the system to achieve specified goals. Material structure is the real content of the formal structure. Types of system structures: sequential or chain; hierarchical; cyclically closed (ring type); “wheel” type structure; "star"; lattice type structure.

A complex system is characterized: a single purpose of functioning; hierarchical management system; a large number of connections within the system; complex composition of the system; resistance to external and internal influencing factors; the presence of elements of self-regulation; the presence of subsystems.

Properties of complex systems : 1. Multi-level (part of the system is itself a system. The entire system, in turn, is part of a larger system); 2. The presence of an external environment (every system behaves depending on the external environment in which it is located. It is impossible to mechanically extend conclusions obtained about a system under one external conditions to the same system located under other external conditions); 3. Dynamic (in systems there is nothing immutable. All constants and static states are only abstractions that are valid within limited limits); 4. A person who has worked with any complex system for a long time may become confident that certain “obvious” changes, if made to the system, will lead to certain “obvious” improvements. When the changes are implemented, the system responds in a completely different way than expected. This happens when trying to reform the management of a large enterprise, when reforming the state, etc. The cause of such errors is a lack of information about the system as a result of an unconscious mechanistic approach. The methodological conclusion for such situations is that complex systems do not change in one circle; it is necessary to make many circles, at each of which small changes are made to the system, and studies of their results are carried out with mandatory attempts to identify and analyze new types of connections that appear in system; 5. Stability and aging (the stability of a system is its ability to compensate for external or internal influences aimed at destroying or rapidly changing the system. Aging is a deterioration in efficiency and gradual destruction of the system over a long period of time. 6. Integrity (the system has integrity, which is independent new entity. This entity organizes itself, influences the parts of the system and the connections between them, replaces them to preserve itself as an integrity, orients itself in the external environment, etc.); 7. Polystructurality is the presence of a large number of structures. Considering the system from different points of view, we will identify different structures in it. The polystructural nature of systems can be considered as their multidimensionality. The functional aspect reflects the behavior of the system and its parts only from the point of view of what they do, what function they perform. this does not take into account questions about how they do this and what they are physically like. It is only important that the functions of the individual parts combine to form the function of the system as a whole. The design aspect only covers issues of the physical layout of the system. What is important here is the shape of the components, their material, their placement and joining in space, and the appearance of the system. The technological aspect reflects how the functions of the parts of the system are performed.

Systems have a number of properties that must be taken into account in the management process. Their role especially increases when organizational or social systems are considered, that is, where a person enters as the most complex element of the system.

Let's look at some of these properties.

Integrity. The property of integrity means that the organizational system exists as a formation in which each element performs certain functions. Integrity is concretized and implemented through connections.

Isolation – one of the properties that characterizes the relative isolation and autonomy of certain organizational systems. Defines the boundaries of system study.

Adaptability – a property that means the ability to adapt to changes in internal and external conditions in such a way that the efficiency and stability (sustainability) of the system do not deteriorate.

Synergy – the property of the appearance of new, additional qualities and properties in a system with increasing order (self-organization) between the elements of the system (subsystem). Synergy (synergy) is the unidirectionality of actions in the system, which leads to strengthening (multiplication) of the final result. It consists of two words: “sin” - “unifying” and “ergos” - “effort” (ergonomics). Similar to the word “synchronization” - “syn” (unifying) and “chronos” - time, “uniting in time”.

Emergence– a property meaning that the target functions of individual subsystems do not coincide with the target function of the system itself. For example, the owner’s goal is profit, the employee’s goal is salary.

Non-additive relationships. By definition, the properties of a system are not a simple sum of the properties of its constituent elements. Such relations in mathematics are called non-additive:

N > orN = +d n,

Where d n is a value reflecting the degree of non-additivity.

The physical nature of non-additivity is associated with the decomposition of the organizational system. During decomposition, there is an inevitable breakdown of not only horizontal, but also cross-links that characterize the integrity of the system.

One of the properties and most important characteristics of the system is the concept "entropy" representing a quantitative characteristic of “disorder”, “chaos”, “decomposition” in the system.

Entropy characterizes the ratio of organization and disorganization in a system.

If the system develops and progresses, then entropy decreases. If the system is dominated by processes of destruction, destruction, disorder, and uncertainty, then entropy increases.

One of the interpretations of the phrase: “The hand of the giver never fails,” precisely implies the formation and manifestation of these efforts, first to create something, and then to further restore and develop the system, using resources from the external environment. This is the meaning of development.

Otherwise - “...There is Tsar Kashchei over the gold is wasting away..."

Taking into account the features of these properties in relation to social systems (aspects: psychological, moral, value) makes them decisive in the management process in general and when making management decisions in particular.

ShP. Properties of organizational management systems

Organizational management has the most important properties that must be taken into account when developing management decisions and organizing management.

To the properties, influencing the organization of management, include: integrity; isolation; centralization; adaptability; compatibility; emergence; synergy; non-additive relationships; Feedback; data uncertainty; multi-criteria; multiplicativity; stochasticity; threshold of complexity, rare repetition of problem situations; time factor.

Let us reveal the essence of these properties.

· Integrity. The property of integrity means that the organizational system exists as a formation in which each element performs certain functions.

System integrity can be defined as a property that characterizes the stability of the functioning of an organizational system with its minimum structural complexity and minimum required resources.

Integrity means there is no need to add or remove its individual structural elements to increase stability and operational efficiency.

The problem is that systems can function with significant (and often unjustified) complication or simplification management structure, however it at the same time loses the pace of development and stability.

· Isolation – one of the properties that characterizes relative isolation, autonomy certain organizational systems. This property manifests itself when dividing powers, determining the boundaries of economic independence enterprises, regions, industries.

· Centralization – concentration of control in one center, in one hand, in one place; creation of a hierarchical management structure in which vertical connections predominate, with the upper levels having decisive authority in decision-making, and the decisions themselves are strictly binding on the lower levels. Concentrating something in one place, in one hand, in one center; condition under which the right to make decisions remains with the highest levels of management.

In organizational systems, the functions of centralized systems are performed by the head, leader, manager; at the company - administration; in the country there is a state apparatus. Socio-economic problems that require centralized efforts: pricing, foreign economic activity, social protection, environmental issues, education, science, proportions of sectoral and regional development.

· Adaptability – property meaning adaptability to change internal and external conditions, so that the efficiency and stability (sustainability) of the system does not deteriorate. Adaptability is closely related to the properties of self-regulation. In the case when the organizational system is well structured, well-functioning, has a high level of organization and good resource provision, and has qualified personnel, the adaptive properties of such a system increase sharply.

· Compatibility – means that all elements of the system must have the properties of “affinity,” mutual adaptability, and mutual adaptability.

Compatibility issues should be addressed in the following areas:

Creation of effective centralized mechanisms that overcome repulsive forces (which arise in organizational systems);

Search and formation of effective adaptation mechanisms that allow not only to overcome repulsive forces, but also to transform them into forces of rapprochement, by forming new elements of the economic mechanism in the conditions of its functioning.

· Emergence (unpredictable and not derivable from cash) – property meaning that objective functions individual subsystems do not match with the objective function itself systems.

So, for example, the target function of the entire national economy may not coincide with the target function of a separate industry; the target function of an individual employee may not coincide with the interests of the enterprise, state, etc. The use of emergence properties allows one to correctly treat the inconsistency of the target functions of production participants in any system. Resolving these contradictions and forms the development process itself and is the main content management.

· Synergy – property the emergence of new, additional qualities and properties in a system with increasing order(self-organization) between elements systems (subsystems).

Synergy (synergy) - unidirectionality of actions in the system, which leads to strengthening (multiplying) the final result.

Science of synergetics studies the connections between the elements of the subsystem due to the active exchange of energy, matter and information in the object itself and with the environment. With coordinated behavior of subsystems, the degree of orderliness and self-organization of large systems increases.

In management organizational system synergy means the conscious unidirectional activity of all members of the team as a large system (the goals and objectives of individual services cannot and should not contradict the goals and objectives of the organizational system).

Search sources and methods of strengthening positive synergy and the prevention of negative (negative) synergy, most foreign firms pay considerable attention, spending on them 10-20% of funds spent on organizing management.

(note by A.K. According to other sources, up to 30%. They are divided into “T” functions” - 70% - the actual activities of the organization and “F” functions” - 30% spent on organizing the activities (“T”). It is necessary note that reducing costs for “F” leads to a decrease in the efficiency of “T.” Finding the optimal combination for each specific organization (management systems: size, hierarchy, type of production, management culture, etc.) is the manager’s task.)

Positive synergy increases as you grow organizational integrity large systems negative synergy increases with the disorganization of large systems.

Greatest impact on development of positive synergy in socio-economic systems have (5): high level general and professional culture, good knowledge psychology, ethics, physiology, high level of moral and ethical qualities of all members of the organization and competent use of management levers and incentives.

When studying synergy, many questions still remain unclear. So, adding some elements in organizational systems, Along with increasing the efficiency of systems, it can sometimes sharply reduce sustainability) of a large system, lead to instability and even destruction. Apparently, systems can have very useful some subsystems - “antagonists”, which, although somewhat reduce the effect of the objective function big system, however, they significantly increase its stability and the ability of development rates.

In socio-economic systems this could be, for example , law enforcement, health, environmental and others.

“New systems create new problems.” Consequence: “New systems should not be created unnecessarily.”

“A system cannot be better than the leaders who make it up” S. Young.

“A system cannot learn and adapt if its leadership cannot.” R.Akoff.

· Non-additive relationships. By definition, the properties of the system is not a simple sum of the properties of its constituent elements.

In mathematics, such relations are called non-additive.

N > E ni or N = E ni + dn

dn is a value reflecting the degree of non-additivity.

Another mechanism in this system is the rating of photographs. It is especially important for girls. They select their best photos, critically screen them, and continually update them. Why? Because they are being graded by complete strangers.

Many people believe that the opinions of other people, especially strangers, do not matter to them. In fact, this is self-deception. Man is a social being, and the opinion of any other people is always important to him:

A classmate posts photos on the site because classmates are in fifth water give her grades

So, three different formulas work simultaneously on Odnoklassniki, complementing each other. The nostalgia formula is for initial interest and attracting the audience. Ratings of photographs are for the self-affirmation of the female half. Male interest - for rating photographs of the female half.

The main formula of YouTube is leisure. But at the entrance of its funnel there is a subsystem for viral distribution of videos:

Users share videos with friends because boast of a successful catch

And the output is a subsystem for maintaining attention - recommendations:

The user's attention is drawn to recommended videos,
That's why he stays to watch more and more

On the pages of films and concerts of the Yandex Poster website there was a green “Join” button:

When users clicked on it, the number next to it increased and showed how many people wanted to see that movie or concert. A useful action is that Yandex can find out how popular a particular event is.

What is the problem? Very few people pressed this beautiful shiny button. When it first appeared, this number on the most popular hits was measured in units: two, three, ten people. "Godzilla movie - three people walking." Then the picture improved somewhat. But it is worth keeping in mind that the number of all people who gathered to see this film in all cinemas during the entire time that the film was in theaters is shown. For Moscow this is an insignificant number.

The button doesn't have a nice caramel look to make it click. There must be a force that will force people to press on it.

Another example is the Last.fm website. Music lovers hang out on this music service. This site has a page for a concert, in this case Marilyn Manson’s on November 13, 2009 in Moscow at the B-2 club:

There is also a block on the page that says that 208 people are going to the concert. This number is comparable to the number we saw on Yandex, but this is a concert that takes place once in a specific location. This means the system works much more efficiently.

The secret is that each Last.fm user has a profile on the site:

We see the user's page, which displays a list of concerts he went to. People communicate on the site, and this profile is for them a certain measure of their status. You can trump in a dispute: “I’ve been to thirty concerts, why are you hanging noodles on my ears.” The passion for collecting and vanity force people to cultivate their profile.

Thus, two different subsystems - the concert and user profile pages are connected in the supersystem. The authors of the site organized a “vanity pass-through.”

In the service sector

“Imagine that you are a sales manager. A client calls you (because they know you) to tell you about an annoying bug on your website. Naturally, you forward the problem to the IT department. But how will you know if the problem is solved? Did the IT specialist take care of the client? You will find out by asking again. Clients want you, their original ally, to oversee the resolution of such issues, not “someone from IT,” even if you by definition know that the IT people will do a better job.”

Leonardo Inghilieri, Micah Solomon. Exceptional service, exceptional profit. 2010

The Amazon online store was one of the first to decide to sell a huge number of products via the Internet. If you have fifty thousand products, you need to figure out how to give people access to them.

Instead of dumping a heavy menu with product categorization on users, Amazon built the site around recommendations. The idea is to prioritize the product that is likely to be of more interest to the customer. (There is also a heavy menu, but it only falls out when you hover the mouse).

The ideal solution should get into a person’s brain. How to do this? Amazon has found a brilliant solution - to use the person himself.

When a user comes for the first time, he sees the main page and the most popular products. If he is interested in a product on the display, he goes to the detailed product page.

He is immediately offered similar products. Since he is interested in this book, it means that he will also be interested in others that are similar in some respects - for example, according to the statistics of purchases of other users.

The transition to the product page is immediately recorded. Amazon doesn't yet know this person's name or email address, but they already have a file on him. Everything he does, clicks, request history and further purchases is stored in the database. Using cookie technology, a numeric identifier is placed in the browser by which a person using a specific computer is associated with his file.

Thanks to the fact that Amazon accumulates information about a person’s real actions and interests, recommendations become more and more accurate.

In Amazon, an end-to-end passage of energy and information is organized - the user moves the mouse, warms the table, clicks on the site, generates information about his own history of visits, requests and purchases, and ultimately directs the necessary goods to himself.

In Elon Musk's companies, the source of energy is the sun, and the resulting energy literally passes through them. Solarcity's energy grid is powered by sunlight. The company develops, installs and leases home and commercial solar energy conversion and electricity storage systems, that is, it supplies electricity to private homes and to free car charging stations of its other company, Tesla.

Interface is evil

From the point of view of systems theory, any interface is a bottleneck with low efficiency, in which energy, speed, bandwidth, time, audience and money are lost. The most ineffective type of interface is the user interface. Unlike hardware and software, the user interface opens up limitless scope for human decisions and errors.

Another example is mandatory registration in an online store. The buyer is forced to come up with a login and password, and then confirm the postal address, as if making excuses to the system. These actions, meaningless for the user, delay the moment of purchase, weeding out inexperienced buyers and reducing store turnover.

An efficient store sells goods without artificial barriers:

Registration is combined with the purchase, as if disguised there.

After registering with Apstore, all applications can be purchased in one or two clicks:

All information about the user and his bank card is stored in the system, so he does not need to reach for his wallet. Money is debited automatically:

At first glance, it seems that it is impossible to sell something to a person without his desire. But mobile operators do not provide subscribers with a “buy SMS” or “buy minutes of conversation” button. If the subscriber does not make a purchase decision every time, it is easier for him to spend money from his own account. There is a purchase, there is no interface.

The only task of the interface subsystem is to ensure the passage of information between other subsystems. It is ideal if the information passes directly.

Launch and development

The bureau works on products iteratively according to the “FFF” principle. The abbreviation FFF stands for fix time, fix budget, flex scope. We work with fixed deadlines and budgets, but leave functionality flexible.

If a deadline approaches, you have to abandon individual functions or even entire subsystems. These decisions are especially important when launching a product for the first time. The critical loop determines which functions can be temporarily abandoned, and without which the product will not work at all.

But the product does not have to be launched entirely. Understanding the critical loop helps plan the gradual launch of autonomous subsystems that are part of the critical loop of the future product.

In aviation

Aviation pioneer Otto Lilienthal promoted the concept of "jump before you fly," which was that inventors should start with gliders and be able to get them into the air, rather than simply designing a powered machine on paper and hoping it would work. .

This is a higher level design - the system is designed not on one “blueprint”, but on a multi-screen diagram - over time. Each “screen” represents the operational state of the system at the selected stage of development.

Below is a simplified multi-screen diagram of the development of the Apple ecosystem over the past fifteen years. To simplify the picture, I excluded tablets, watches and future TVs - the logic of their appearance and interaction with other subsystems is not much different from the general line.

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Lecture 2: System properties. System classification

Properties of systems.

So, the state of a system is the set of essential properties that the system possesses at each moment in time.

A property is understood as a side of an object that determines its difference from other objects or its similarity to them and manifests itself when interacting with other objects.

A characteristic is something that reflects some property of the system.

What properties of systems are known.

From the definition of “system” it follows that the main property of the system is integrity, unity, achieved through certain relationships and interactions of the system elements and manifested in the emergence of new properties that the system elements do not possess. This property emergence(from English emerge - arise, appear).

Emergence is the degree to which the properties of a system are irreducible to the properties of the elements of which it consists.
Emergence is a property of systems that causes the emergence of new properties and qualities that are not inherent in the elements that make up the system.

Emergence is the opposite principle of reductionism, which states that a whole can be studied by dividing it into parts and then, by determining their properties, determining the properties of the whole.

The property of emergence is close to the property of system integrity. However, they cannot be identified.

Integrity system means that each element of the system contributes to the implementation of the target function of the system.

Integrity and emergence are integrative properties of the system.

The presence of integrative properties is one of the most important features of the system. Integrity is manifested in the fact that the system has its own pattern of functionality, its own purpose.

Organization- a complex property of systems, consisting in the presence of structure and functioning (behavior). An indispensable part of systems is their components, namely those structural formations that make up the whole and without which it is not possible.

Functionality- this is the manifestation of certain properties (functions) when interacting with the external environment. Here the goal (purpose of the system) is defined as the desired end result.

Structurality- this is the orderliness of the system, a certain set and arrangement of elements with connections between them. There is a relationship between the function and structure of a system, as between the philosophical categories of content and form. A change in content (functions) entails a change in form (structure), but also vice versa.

An important property of a system is the presence of behavior - actions, changes, functioning, etc.

It is believed that this behavior of the system is associated with the environment (surrounding), i.e. with other systems with which it comes into contact or enters into certain relationships.

The process of purposefully changing the state of a system over time is called behavior. Unlike control, when a change in the state of the system is achieved through external influences, behavior is implemented exclusively by the system itself, based on its own goals.

The behavior of each system is explained by the structure of the lower order systems that make up the system and the presence of signs of equilibrium (homeostasis). In accordance with the sign of equilibrium, the system has a certain state (states) that are preferable for it. Therefore, the behavior of systems is described in terms of the restoration of these states when they are disrupted by environmental changes.

Another property is the property of growth (development). Development can be seen as an integral part of behavior (and the most important one at that).

One of the primary, and, therefore, fundamental attributes of the systems approach is the inadmissibility of considering an object outside of it. development, which is understood as an irreversible, directed, natural change in matter and consciousness. As a result, a new quality or state of the object arises. The identification (maybe not entirely strict) of the terms “development” and “movement” allows us to express it in such a sense that without development the existence of matter, in this case a system, is unthinkable. It is naive to imagine development occurring spontaneously. In the vast variety of processes that seem at first glance to be something like Brownian (random, chaotic) movement, with close attention and study, the contours of tendencies first appear, and then quite stable patterns. These laws, by their nature, act objectively, i.e. do not depend on whether we desire their manifestation or not. Ignorance of the laws and patterns of development is wandering in the dark.

He who does not know which harbor he is sailing to has no favorable wind.

The behavior of the system is determined by the nature of the reaction to external influences.

The fundamental property of systems is sustainability, i.e. the ability of the system to withstand external disturbances. The lifespan of the system depends on it.

Simple systems have passive forms of stability: strength, balance, adjustability, homeostasis. And for complex ones, active forms are decisive: reliability, survivability and adaptability.

If the listed forms of stability of simple systems (except for strength) concern their behavior, then the determining form of stability of complex systems is mainly structural in nature.

Reliability- the property of preserving the structure of systems, despite the death of its individual elements through their replacement or duplication, and survivability- as active suppression of harmful qualities. Thus, reliability is a more passive form than survivability.

Adaptability- the ability to change behavior or structure in order to preserve, improve or acquire new qualities in conditions of changing external environment. A prerequisite for the possibility of adaptation is the presence of feedback connections.

Every real system exists in an environment. The connection between them can be so close that it becomes difficult to determine the boundary between them. Therefore, the isolation of a system from its environment is associated with one degree or another of idealization.

Two aspects of interaction can be distinguished:

in many cases it takes on the character of an exchange between the system and the environment (matter, energy, information);
the environment is usually a source of uncertainty for systems.

The influence of the environment can be passive or active (antagonistic, purposefully opposing the system).

Therefore, in the general case, the environment should be considered not only indifferent, but also antagonistic in relation to the system under study.

Rice. — System classification

Basis (criterion) of classification	System classes
By interaction with the external environment	Open Closed Combined
By structure	Simple Complex Large
By nature of functions	Specialized Multifunctional (universal)
By the nature of development	Stable Developing
By degree of organization	Well organized Poorly organized (diffuse)
According to the complexity of behavior	Automatic Decisive Self-organizing Foresighted Transforming
By the nature of the connection between elements	Deterministic Stochastic
By the nature of the management structure	Centralized Decentralized
By purpose	Producing Managers Attendants

Classification called division into classes according to the most essential characteristics. A class is understood as a collection of objects that have certain characteristics of commonality. A characteristic (or a set of characteristics) is the basis (criterion) of classification.

A system can be characterized by one or more characteristics and, accordingly, a place can be found in various classifications, each of which can be useful when choosing a research methodology. Typically, the purpose of classification is to limit the choice of approaches to displaying systems and to develop a description language suitable for the corresponding class.

Real systems are divided into natural (natural systems) and artificial (anthropogenic) systems.

Natural systems: systems of inanimate (physical, chemical) and living (biological) nature.

Artificial systems: created by humanity for its own needs or formed as a result of deliberate efforts.

Artificial ones are divided into technical (technical and economic) and social (public).

A technical system is designed and manufactured by a person for a specific purpose.

Social systems include various systems of human society.

The identification of systems consisting of technical devices alone is almost always conditional, since they are not capable of generating their own state. These systems act as parts of larger organizational and technical systems that include people.

An organizational system, for the effective functioning of which a significant factor is the way of organizing the interaction of people with a technical subsystem, is called a human-machine system.

Examples of human-machine systems: car - driver; airplane - pilot; Computer - user, etc.

Thus, technical systems are understood as a single constructive set of interconnected and interacting objects, intended for purposeful actions with the task of achieving a given result in the process of functioning.

Distinctive features of technical systems in comparison with an arbitrary set of objects or in comparison with individual elements are constructiveness (practical feasibility of relations between elements), orientation and interconnectedness of constituent elements and purposefulness.

In order for a system to be resistant to external influences, it must have a stable structure. The choice of structure practically determines the technical appearance of both the entire system and its subsystems and elements. The question of the appropriateness of using a particular structure should be decided based on the specific purpose of the system. The structure also determines the ability of the system to redistribute functions in the event of complete or partial waste of individual elements, and, consequently, the reliability and survivability of the system for the given characteristics of its elements.

Abstract systems are the result of the reflection of reality (real systems) in the human brain.

Their mood is a necessary step in ensuring effective human interaction with the outside world. Abstract (ideal) systems are objective in their source of origin, since their primary source is objectively existing reality.

Abstract systems are divided into direct mapping systems (reflecting certain aspects of real systems) and generalizing (generalizing) mapping systems. The former include mathematical and heuristic models, and the latter include conceptual systems (theories of methodological construction) and languages.

Based on the concept of the external environment, systems are divided into: open, closed (closed, isolated) and combined. The division of systems into open and closed is associated with their characteristic features: the ability to preserve properties in the presence of external influences. If a system is insensitive to external influences, it can be considered closed. Otherwise - open.

An open system is a system that interacts with its environment. All real systems are open. An open system is part of a more general system or several systems. If we isolate the system under consideration from this formation, then the remaining part is its environment.

An open system is connected to the environment by certain communications, that is, a network of external connections of the system. Identification of external connections and description of the mechanisms of “system-environment” interaction is the central task of the theory of open systems. Consideration of open systems allows us to expand the concept of system structure. For open systems, it includes not only internal connections between elements, but also external connections with the environment. When describing the structure, they try to divide external communication channels into input (through which the environment influences the system) and output (vice versa). The set of elements of these channels belonging to their own system are called the input and output poles of the system. In open systems, at least one element has a connection with the external environment, at least one input pole and one output pole, by which it is connected with the external environment.

For each system, connections with all subsystems subordinate to it and between the latter are internal, and all others are external. The connections between systems and the external environment, as well as between the elements of the system, are, as a rule, directional in nature.

It is important to emphasize that in any real system, due to the laws of dialectics on the universal connection of phenomena, the number of all interrelations is enormous, so it is impossible to take into account and study absolutely all connections, therefore their number is artificially limited. At the same time, it is impractical to take into account all possible connections, since among them there are many insignificant ones that practically do not affect the functioning of the system and the number of solutions obtained (from the point of view of the problems being solved). If a change in the characteristics of a connection, its exclusion (complete break) lead to a significant deterioration in the operation of the system, a decrease in efficiency, then such a connection is significant. One of the most important tasks of the researcher is to identify the systems that are essential for consideration in the conditions of the communication problem being solved and to separate them from the unimportant. Due to the fact that the input and output poles of the system cannot always be clearly identified, it is necessary to resort to a certain idealization of actions. The greatest idealization occurs when considering a closed system.

A closed system is a system that does not interact with the environment or interacts with the environment in a strictly defined way. In the first case, it is assumed that the system does not have input poles, and in the second, that there are input poles, but the influence of the environment is constant and completely (in advance) known. Obviously, under the last assumption, the indicated impacts can be attributed to the system itself, and it can be considered as closed. For a closed system, any element of it has connections only with elements of the system itself.

Of course, closed systems represent some abstraction of the real situation, since, strictly speaking, isolated systems do not exist. However, it is obvious that simplifying the description of the system, which involves abandoning external connections, can lead to useful results and simplify the study of the system. All real systems are closely or weakly connected with the external environment - open. If a temporary break or change in characteristic external connections does not cause deviations in the functioning of the system beyond predetermined limits, then the system is weakly connected with the external environment. Otherwise it’s cramped.

Combined systems contain open and closed subsystems. The presence of combined systems indicates a complex combination of open and closed subsystems.

Depending on the structure and spatiotemporal properties, systems are divided into simple, complex and large.

Simple - systems that do not have branched structures, consisting of a small number of relationships and a small number of elements. Such elements serve to perform the simplest functions; hierarchical levels cannot be distinguished in them. A distinctive feature of simple systems is the determinism (clear definition) of the nomenclature, number of elements and connections both within the system and with the environment.

Complex - characterized by a large number of elements and internal connections, their heterogeneity and different quality, structural diversity, and perform a complex function or a number of functions. The components of complex systems can be considered as subsystems, each of which can be detailed by even simpler subsystems, etc. until the element is received.

Definition N1: a system is called complex (from an epistemological standpoint) if its cognition requires the joint involvement of many models of theories, and in some cases many scientific disciplines, as well as taking into account the uncertainty of a probabilistic and non-probabilistic nature. The most characteristic manifestation of this definition is multi-model.

Model- a certain system, the study of which serves as a means of obtaining information about another system. This is a description of systems (mathematical, verbal, etc.) reflecting a certain group of its properties.

Definition N2: a system is called complex if in reality the signs of its complexity clearly (significantly) appear. Namely:

structural complexity - determined by the number of elements of the system, the number and variety of types of connections between them, the number of hierarchical levels and the total number of subsystems of the system. The following types of connections are considered the main types: structural (including hierarchical), functional, causal (cause-and-effect), informational, spatiotemporal;
complexity of functioning (behavior) - determined by the characteristics of a set of states, the rules of transition from state to state, the impact of the system on the environment and the environment on the system, the degree of uncertainty of the listed characteristics and rules;
the complexity of choosing behavior - in multi-alternative situations, when the choice of behavior is determined by the purpose of the system, the flexibility of reactions to previously unknown environmental influences;
complexity of development - determined by the characteristics of evolutionary or discontinuous processes.

Naturally, all signs are considered in interrelation. Hierarchical construction is a characteristic feature of complex systems, and the levels of hierarchy can be both homogeneous and heterogeneous. Complex systems are characterized by factors such as the impossibility of predicting their behavior, that is, poor predictability, their secrecy, and various states.

Complex systems can be divided into the following factor subsystems:

the decisive one, which makes global decisions in interaction with the external environment and distributes local tasks among all other subsystems;
information, which ensures the collection, processing and transmission of information necessary for making global decisions and performing local tasks;
manager for the implementation of global decisions;
homeostasis, maintaining dynamic balance within systems and regulating the flow of energy and matter in subsystems;
adaptive, accumulating experience in the learning process to improve the structure and functions of the system.

A large system is a system that is not simultaneously observable from the position of one observer in time or space, for which the spatial factor is significant, the number of subsystems of which is very large, and the composition is heterogeneous.

The system can be large and complex. Complex systems unite a larger group of systems, that is, large systems - a subclass of complex systems.

Fundamental to the analysis and synthesis of large and complex systems are the procedures of decomposition and aggregation.

Decomposition is the division of systems into parts, followed by independent consideration of individual parts.

It is obvious that decomposition is a concept associated with a model, since the system itself cannot be dismembered without violating the properties. At the modeling level, disparate connections will be replaced by equivalents, or the system model will be built in such a way that its decomposition into separate parts turns out to be natural.

When applied to large and complex systems, decomposition is a powerful research tool.

Aggregation is the opposite concept of decomposition. In the process of research, the need arises to combine elements of the system in order to consider it from a more general perspective.

Decomposition and aggregation represent two opposing approaches to the consideration of large and complex systems, applied in dialectical unity.

Systems for which the state of the system is uniquely determined by the initial values and can be predicted for any subsequent point in time are called deterministic.

Stochastic systems are systems in which changes are random. With random influences, data on the state of the system is not enough to make a prediction at a subsequent point in time.

According to the degree of organization: well organized, poorly organized (diffuse).

To present the analyzed object or process in the form of a well-organized system means to determine the elements of the system, their relationships, and the rules for combining into larger components. The problem situation can be described in the form of a mathematical expression. The solution of a problem, when presented in the form of a well-organized system, is carried out by analytical methods of a formalized representation of the system.

Examples of well-organized systems: the solar system, which describes the most significant patterns of planetary motion around the Sun; display of the atom as a planetary system consisting of a nucleus and electrons; description of the operation of a complex electronic device using a system of equations that takes into account the peculiarities of its operating conditions (presence of noise, instability of power supplies, etc.).

The description of an object in the form of a well-organized system is used in cases where it is possible to offer a deterministic description and experimentally prove the legitimacy of its application and the adequacy of the model to the real process. Attempts to apply the class of well-organized systems to represent complex multi-component objects or multi-criteria problems are not successful: they require an unacceptably large amount of time, are practically impossible to implement and are inadequate to the models used.

Poorly organized systems. When presenting an object in the form of a poorly organized or diffuse system, the task is not to determine all the components taken into account, their properties and the connections between them and the goals of the system. The system is characterized by a certain set of macro-parameters and patterns that are found on the basis of a study not of the entire object or class of phenomena, but on the basis of a selection of components determined using certain rules that characterize the object or process under study. Based on such a sample study, characteristics or patterns (statistical, economic) are obtained and distributed to the entire system as a whole. In this case, appropriate reservations are made. For example, when statistical regularities are obtained, they are extended to the behavior of the entire system with a certain confidence probability.

The approach to displaying objects in the form of diffuse systems is widely used in: describing queuing systems, determining the number of staff in enterprises and institutions, studying documentary information flows in management systems, etc.

From the point of view of the nature of the functions, special, multifunctional, and universal systems are distinguished.

Special systems are characterized by a unique purpose and narrow professional specialization of service personnel (relatively uncomplicated).

Multifunctional systems allow you to implement several functions on the same structure. Example: a production system that provides the production of various products within a certain range.

For universal systems: many actions are implemented on the same structure, but the composition of functions is less homogeneous (less defined) in type and quantity. For example, a combine.

According to the nature of development, there are 2 classes of systems: stable and developing.

In a stable system, the structure and functions practically do not change during the entire period of its existence and, as a rule, the quality of functioning of stable systems only worsens as their elements wear out. Remedial measures can usually only reduce the rate of deterioration.

An excellent feature of evolving systems is that over time, their structure and functions undergo significant changes. The functions of the system are more constant, although they are often modified. Only their purpose remains virtually unchanged. Evolving systems have higher complexity.

In order of increasing complexity of behavior: automatic, decisive, self-organizing, anticipatory, transformative.

Automatic: they unambiguously respond to a limited set of external influences, their internal organization is adapted to transition to an equilibrium state when withdrawn from it (homeostasis).

Decisive: have constant criteria for distinguishing their constant response to broad classes of external influences. The constancy of the internal structure is maintained by replacing failed elements.

Self-organizing: have flexible discrimination criteria and flexible responses to external influences, adapting to different types of influence. The stability of the internal structure of higher forms of such systems is ensured by constant self-reproduction.

Self-organizing systems have the characteristics of diffuse systems: stochastic behavior, nonstationarity of individual parameters and processes. Added to this are signs such as unpredictability of behavior; the ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions, change the structure when the system interacts with the environment, while maintaining the properties of integrity; the ability to form possible behavior options and choose the best one from them, etc. Sometimes this class is divided into subclasses, highlighting adaptive or self-adjusting systems, self-healing, self-reproducing and other subclasses corresponding to various properties of developing systems.

Examples: biological organizations, collective behavior of people, organization of management at the level of an enterprise, industry, state as a whole, i.e. in those systems where there is necessarily a human factor.

If stability in its complexity begins to exceed the complex influences of the external world, these are anticipatory systems: it can foresee the further course of interaction.

Transformables are imaginary complex systems at the highest level of complexity, not bound by the constancy of existing media. They can change material media while maintaining their individuality. Examples of such systems are not yet known to science.

A system can be divided into types based on the structure of their construction and the significance of the role that individual components play in them in comparison with the roles of other parts.

In some systems, one of the parts may play a dominant role (its significance >> (symbol of the relationship of “significant superiority”) the significance of other parts). Such a component will act as a central one, determining the functioning of the entire system. Such systems are called centralized.

In other systems, all the components that make them up are approximately equally important. Structurally, they are not located around some centralized component, but are interconnected in series or in parallel and have approximately the same importance for the functioning of the system. These are decentralized systems.

Systems can be classified by purpose. Among the technical and organizational systems there are: producing, managing, servicing.

In production systems, processes for obtaining certain products or services are implemented. They, in turn, are divided into material-energy ones, in which the transformation of the natural environment or raw materials into the final product of a material or energy nature, or the transportation of such products is carried out; and information - for collecting, transmitting and converting information and providing information services.

The purpose of control systems is to organize and manage material, energy and information processes.

Servicing systems are engaged in maintaining the specified limits of performance of production and control systems.