Tickets and answers for the exam on Russian history
Economy of the Slavs
Formation of the Old Russian state
State of Rus' (IX - beginning of the 12th century)
Acceptance of Christianity
Russian culture before the Mongol invasion
Russian lands and principalities at the beginning of the 12th - first half of the 13th century.
The struggle of Russian lands and principalities with the Mongol conquest and the crusaders in the 13th century.
Russian lands and principalities in the second half of the 13th - first half of the 15th centuries.
The beginning of the unification of Russian lands
Completion of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow at the end of the 15th century - early XVI V.
Russian state in the 16th century.
Domestic policy and reforms of Ivan IV
Foreign policy
Russia at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries.
Socio-economic development in the 17th century. Russia after the Troubles
Reforms of the first quarter of the 18th century.
Noble empire in the second quarter - mid-15th century. Palace coups
Russia in the second half of the 18th century. Enlightened absolutism of Catherine the Great
Socio-economic development
Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 16th century.
Domestic policy in Russia in the first half of the 19th century.
Public administration system
Russian foreign policy in the first half of the 19th century.
Foreign policy at the beginning of the 19th century.
Patriotic War of 1812
European policy of Russia in the 1813-20s of the 19th century.
Russian politics in eastern question in the 20s of the XIX century.
Uprising in St. Petersburg
Nikolay I.
Peasant question
Government and education system
Crimean War 1853-1856
Ideological struggle and social movement in Russia in the first half of the 19th century.
Conservatives, liberals and radicals of the second quarter of the 19th century.
Domestic policy of Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
Ideological struggle and social movement in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
Alexander sh
Russian foreign policy at the end of the 19th century.
Economic development of Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century.
Social political system and social movement in Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century.
Social and political crisis at the beginning of the twentieth century.
Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905
Revolution 1905-1907
In October 1905, on the basis of the “Union of Liberation” and the “Union of Zemstvo Constitutionalists”, the “Party of Russian Constitutional Democrats” (Cadets) was formed.
Sh State Duma.
Russia in the First World War 1914-1918.
February Revolution
From February to October
The time from February to October is a special period in the history of Russia.
October Revolution
Civil War in 1918-1920
The Soviet state in the first half of the 20s of the twentieth century.
New Economic Policy (NEP) essence and goals of NEP.
Education USSR
USSR in the second half of the 20s - 30s of the twentieth century.
Economic policy
The transition to collectivization.
Socio-political development
Foreign policy of the Soviet state in the 20-30s of the twentieth century.
Foreign policy in the 20s
Foreign policy in the 30s
USSR during the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945)
Soviet rear during the war
Post-war reconstruction and development of the USSR (1945-1952)
Socio-economic development
The beginning of the Cold War.
Development of the USSR in 1953-1964.
Transformations in the economy
Contradictions of economic development
USSR in the international arena
Domestic and foreign policy of the USSR in 1965-1984.
The last years of the USSR (1985-1991)
“Perestroika” in socio-political life
Economic development
Russia in the 90s of the twentieth century.
Russian domestic policy
International relations of Russia
Ticket No. 1
Economy of the Slavs. The main occupation of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture. This is confirmed by archaeological excavations that discovered seeds of cereals (rye, wheat, barley, millet) and garden crops (turnips, cabbage, beets, carrots, radishes, garlic, etc.). Man in those days identified life with arable land and bread, hence the name of grain crops - “zhito”, which has survived to this day. The agricultural traditions of this region are evidenced by the adoption by the Slavs of the Roman grain norm - quadrantal (26.26 l), called 18 tetraik in Rus' and which existed in our system of weights and measures until 1924.
The main farming systems of the Eastern Slavs are closely related to natural and climatic conditions. In the north, in the area of taiga forests (the remnant of which is Belovezhskaya Pushcha), the dominant farming system was slash-and-burn. In the first year, trees were cut down. In the second year, the dried trees were burned and grain was sown using the ash as fertilizer. For two or three years the plot produced a high harvest for that time, then the land was depleted and it was necessary to switch to new site. The main tools of labor were an axe, a hoe, a plow, a harrow and a spade, which were used to loosen the soil. Harvesting was done with sickles. They threshed with flails. The grain was ground with stone grain grinders and hand millstones.
In the southern regions, the leading farming system was fallow. There was a lot of fertile land there and plots of land were sown for two to three years or more. As the soil became depleted, they moved (transferred) to new areas. The main tools used here were a plow, a ralo, a wooden plow with an iron ploughshare, i.e.
implements adapted for horizontal plowing.
Livestock breeding was closely related to agriculture. The Slavs raised pigs, cows, and small cattle. In the south, oxen were used as draft animals, and horses were used in the forest belt. Other occupations of the Slavs include fishing, hunting, beekeeping (collecting honey from wild bees), which had a large share in northern regions. Industrial crops (flax, hemp) were also grown.
Community. The low level of productive forces in farming required enormous labor costs. Labor-intensive work that had to be carried out within a strictly defined time frame could only be completed by a large team; his task was also to ensure the proper distribution and use of land. Therefore, the community - mir, rope (from the word “rope”, which was used to measure the land during divisions) acquired a large role in the life of the ancient Russian village.
By the time the state was formed among the Eastern Slavs, the clan community was replaced by a territorial, or neighborhood, community. The community members were now united primarily not by kinship, but by a common territory and economic life. Each such community owned a certain territory on which several families lived. All possessions of the community were divided into public and private. The house, personal land, livestock, and equipment constituted the personal property of each community member.
In common use were arable land, meadows, forests, reservoirs, and 19 fishing grounds. Arable land and meadows were to be divided between families.
As a result of the transfer of the right to own land by the princes to the feudal lords, part of the communities came under their authority. (A fief is a hereditary possession granted by the prince-senior to his vassal, who is obliged to bear the court fee for this, military service. A feudal lord is the owner of a fief, a landowner who exploited the peasants dependent on him.) Another way to subjugate neighboring communities to feudal lords was to seize them by warriors and princes. But most often, the old tribal nobility turned into patrimonial boyars, subjugating the community members.
Communities that did not fall under the power of feudal lords were obliged to pay taxes to the state, which in relation to these communities acted both as the supreme power and as the feudal lord.
Peasant farms and the farms of feudal lords were of a subsistence nature. Both of them sought to provide for themselves through internal resources and have not yet worked for the market. However, the feudal economy could not survive completely without a market. With the advent of surpluses, it became possible to exchange agricultural products for handicraft goods; Cities began to emerge as centers of craft, trade and exchange and, at the same time, as strongholds of feudal power and defense against external enemies.
Social system. At the head of the East Slavic tribal unions were the princes of the 3rd tribal nobility and the former clan elite - “deliberate people”, “ best men" The most important issues of life were decided at public meetings - veche gatherings.
There was a militia (“regiment”, “thousand”, divided into “hundreds”). At their head were the thousand and sotskys. Special military organization there was a squad. According to archaeological data and Byzantine sources, East Slavic squads appeared already in the 6th-7th centuries.
The squad was divided into the senior squad, which included ambassadors and princely rulers who had their own land, and the junior squad, which lived with the prince and served his court and household. The warriors, on behalf of the prince, collected tribute from the conquered tribes. Such trips to collect tribute were called “polyudye”. The collection of tribute usually took place in November-April and continued until the spring opening of the rivers, when the princes returned to Kyiv. The unit of tribute was smoke (peasant household) or land area, cultivated by a peasant yard (ralo, plow).
Slavic paganism. The ancient Slavs were pagans. At an early stage of their development, they believed in evil and good spirits. A pantheon of Slavic gods emerged, each of which personified various forces of nature or reflected the social and public relations of that time. The most important gods of the Slavs were: Perun, the god of thunder, lightning, war; Svarog - god of fire; Veles is the patron of cattle breeding; Mokosh - who protected the female part of the household; Simargl god underworld. The sun god was especially revered, who was called differently by different tribes: Dazhdbog, Yarilo, Khoros, which indicates the absence of stable Slavic inter-tribal unity.
Ticket No. 2
Formation of the Old Russian State. The tribal reigns of the Slavs had signs of emerging statehood. Tribal principalities often united into large super-unions, revealing features of early statehood.
One of these associations was a union of tribes led by Kiy (known from the end of the 5th century). At the end of the VI-VII centuries. there was, according to Byzantine and Arab sources, a “Power of the Volynians”, which was an ally of Byzantium. The Novgorod chronicle reports about the elder Gostomysl, who headed in the 9th century. Slavic unification around Novgorod. Eastern sources suggest the existence 21 on the eve of the formation of the Old Russian state of three large associations of Slavic tribes: Cuiaba, Slavia and Artania. Cuiaba (or Kuyava) was apparently located around Kyiv. Slavia occupied the territory in the area of Lake Ilmen, its center was Novgorod. The location of Artania is determined differently by different researchers (Ryazan, Chernigov). Famous historian B.A. Rybakov claims that at the beginning of the 9th century. On the basis of the Polyansky Tribal Union, a large political association “Rus” was formed, which included some of the northerners.
Thus, the widespread spread of agriculture using iron tools, the collapse of the clan community and its transformation into a neighboring community, the growth in the number of cities, and the emergence of squads are evidence of the emerging statehood.
The Slavs developed the East European Plain, interacting with the local Baltic and Finno-Ugric populations. The military campaigns of the Antes, Sklavens, and Rus against more developed countries, primarily against Byzantium, brought significant military booty to the warriors and princes. All this contributed to the stratification of East Slavic society. Thus, as a result of economic and sociopolitical development, statehood began to emerge among the East Slavic tribes.
Norman theory. A Russian chronicler of the early 12th century, trying to explain the origin of the Old Russian state, in accordance with medieval tradition, included in the chronicle a legend about the calling of three Varangians as princes - the brothers Rurik, Sineus and Truvor.
Many historians believe that the Varangians were Norman (Scandinavian) warriors who were hired to serve and swore an oath to the Byzantine emperor. A number of historians, on the contrary, consider the Varangians to be a Russian tribe that lived on south coast Baltic Sea and on the island of Rügen.
According to this legend, on the eve of formation Kievan Rus The northern tribes of the Slavs and their neighbors (Ilmen Slovenes, Chud, Ves) paid tribute to the Varangians, and the southern tribes (the Polyans and their neighbors) were dependent on the Khazars. In 859, the Novgorodians “expelled the Varangians overseas,” which led to civil strife. Under these conditions, the Novgorodians who gathered for the council sent for the Varangian princes: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order (order - Author) in it. Come reign and rule over us.” Power over Novgorod and surrounding areas Slavic lands passed into the hands of the Varangian princes, the eldest of whom Rurik, as the chronicler believed, laid the beginning of the princely dynasty. After the death of Rurik, another Varangian prince Oleg (there is information that he was a relative of Rurik), who ruled in Novgorod, united Novgorod and 22 Kyiv in 882. This is how, according to the chronicler, the state of Rus' (also called Kievan Rus by historians) was formed.
The legendary chronicle story about the calling of the Varangians served as the basis for the emergence of the so-called Norman theory the emergence of the Old Russian state. It was first formulated by German scientists G.-F. Miller and G.-Z. Bayer, invited to work in Russia in the 18th century. M.V. was an ardent opponent of this theory. Lomonosov.
The very fact that the Varangian squads, by which, as a rule, Scandinavians are understood, were in the service of Slavic princes, their participation in the life of Rus' is beyond doubt, as are the constant mutual ties between the Scandinavians and Russia. However, there are no traces of any noticeable influence of the Varangians on the economic and socio-political institutions of the Slavs, as well as on their language and culture. IN Scandinavian sagas Rus' is a country of untold riches, and serving the Russian princes is the surest way to gain fame and power. Archaeologists note that the number of Varangians in Rus' was small. No data was found on the colonization of Rus' by the Varangians. The version about the foreign origin of this or that dynasty is typical of antiquity and the Middle Ages. Suffice it to recall the stories about the calling of the Anglo-Saxons by the Britons and the creation of the English state, about the founding of Rome by the brothers Romulus and Remus, etc.
In the modern era, the scientific inconsistency of the Norman theory, which explains the emergence of the Old Russian state as the result of foreign initiative, has been fully proven. However, its political meaning is still dangerous today. The “Normanists” proceed from the position of the supposedly primordial backwardness of the Russian people, who, in their opinion, are incapable of independent historical creativity.
It is possible, as they believe, only under foreign leadership and according to foreign models.
Historians have convincing evidence that there is every reason to assert: the Eastern Slavs had strong traditions of statehood long before the calling of the Varangians. State institutions arise as a result of the development of society. The actions of individual major individuals, conquests or other external circumstances determine the specific manifestations of this process. Consequently, the fact of the calling of the Varangians, if it really took place, speaks not so much about the emergence of Russian statehood as about the origin of the princely dynasty. If Rurik was real historical figure, then his calling to Rus' should be considered as a response to the real need for princely power in Russian 23 society of that time. IN historical literature the question of Rurik’s place in our history remains controversial. Some historians share the opinion that the Russian dynasty Scandinavian origin, like the name “Rus” itself (“Russians” were the Finns’ name for the inhabitants of Northern Sweden). Their opponents are of the opinion that the legend about the calling of the Varangians is the fruit of tendentious writing, a later insertion caused by political reasons. There is also a point of view that the Varangians-Rus and Rurik were Slavs who originated either from the southern coast of the Baltic (Rügen Island) or from the area of the Neman River. It should be noted that the term “Rus” is repeatedly found in relation to various associations both in the north and in the south of the East Slavic world.
The formation of the state of Rus' (the Old Russian state or, as it is called after the capital, Kievan Rus) is the natural completion of a long process of decomposition of the primitive communal system among one and a half dozen Slavic tribal unions that lived on the way “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” The established state was at the very beginning of its journey: primitive communal traditions retained their place in all spheres of life of East Slavic society for a long time.
Ticket number 3.
STATE OF Rus' (IX - BEGINNING of the 18th century) The Old Russian state can be characterized as an early feudal monarchy. The head of state was Grand Duke Kyiv
His brothers, sons and warriors carried out the administration of the country, the court, and the collection of tribute and duties. The income of the princes and their entourage was then largely determined by tribute from subordinate tribes and the possibility of exporting it to other countries for sale. The young state faced major foreign policy tasks related to the protection of its borders: repelling the raids of the nomadic Pechenegs, fighting the expansion of Byzantium and the Khazar Khaganate. Volga Bulgaria. It is from these positions that the domestic and foreign policies of the Kyiv Grand Dukes should be considered.
Early feudal monarchy IX - NG 14. XII centuries.
Grand Duke of Kyiv Druzhina The erased squad. Boyars (nobility) Junior squad (gridi) Local (appanage) princes Posadniks, volosts Local squad Churchyards, encampments, volosts History of Kievan Rus, chronological framework which most historians define as DC - the beginning of the 12th century, can be conditionally divided into three large periods. The first (IX - mid-X century) time of the first Kyiv princes. Second (second half of the 10th century - first half of the 11th century) - the time of Vladimir I and Yaroslav the Wise), the era of the heyday of the Kyiv state; third period - second half of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century, transition to territorial and political fragmentation.
THE FLOWING OF KIEVAN Rus' (END OF THE FIRST HALF OF THE YEAR) Vladimir I. After the death of Svyatoslav, his eldest son Yaropolk (972-980) became the Grand Duke of Kyiv. His brother Oleg received the Drevlyansky land. Svyatoslav's third son Vladimir, born from his slave Malusha, housekeeper of Princess Olga (Dobrynya's sister), received Novgorod. In the civil strife that began five years later between the brothers, Yaropolk defeated Oleg’s Drevlyan squads. Oleg himself died in battle.
Vladimir, together with Dobrynya, fled “overseas”, from where two years later he returned with a hired Varangian squad. Yaropolk was killed. Vladimir took the grand-ducal throne.
Under Vladimir I (980-1015), all the lands of the Eastern Slavs were united as part of Kievan Rus. The Vyatichi, the lands on both sides of the Carpathians, and the Chervlensk cities were finally annexed. Happened further strengthening state apparatus. Princely sons and senior warriors received control of the largest centers.
One of the most important tasks of that time was solved: ensuring the protection of Russian lands from the raids of numerous Pecheneg tribes.
For this purpose, a number of fortresses were built along the Desna, Osetr, Suda, and Stugna rivers. Apparently, here, on the border with the steppe, there were “heroic outposts” that protected Rus' from raids, where the legendary Ilya Muromets and other epic heroes stood for their native land.
Acceptance of Christianity. In 988, under Vladimir I, Christianity was adopted as the state religion. Christianity, as the chronicler says, has been widespread in Rus' since ancient times. It was preached by the Apostle Andrew the First-Called, one of Christ’s disciples. At the beginning of our era, the Apostle Andrew, the elder brother of the Apostle Peter, went to Scythia. As the Tale of Bygone Years testifies, the Apostle Andrew rose to the middle reaches of the Dnieper, erected a cross on the Kyiv hills and predicted that Kyiv would be “the mother of Russian cities.” The further path of the apostle lay through Novgorod, where, according to the chronicler, he was amazed by the Russian bathhouse, to the Baltic and further around Europe to Rome. Stories about subsequent baptisms of certain groups of the population of Rus' (during Askold and Dir, Cyril and Methodius, Princess Olga, etc.) show that Christianity gradually entered the life of ancient Russian society.
The baptism of Vladimir and his entourage took place in the city of Korsun (Chersonese), the center of Byzantine possessions in Crimea (Chersonese is located within the boundaries of present-day Sevastopol). It was preceded by the participation of the Kyiv squad in the fight of the Byzantine Emperor Vasily II against the rebellion of the commander Vardas Phocas. The emperor won, but did not fulfill his obligation to give his daughter Anna for Vladimir.
Then Vladimir besieged Korsun and forced Byzantine princess marry in exchange for the baptism of a “barbarian” who had long been attracted to the Greek faith.
30 Vladimir, having been baptized himself, baptized his boyars, and then the whole people. The spread of Christianity often met resistance from the population, who revered their pagan gods. Christianity took hold slowly. On the outlying lands of Kievan Rus it was established much later than in Kyiv and Novgorod.
The adoption of Christianity was of great importance for the further development of Rus'. Christianity with its idea of eternity human life(perishable earthly life precedes the eternal stay in heaven or hell of a person’s soul after his death) affirmed the idea of equality of people before God. According to the new religion, the path to heaven is open to both rich nobles and commoners, depending on their honest performance of their duties on earth.
History of Russia in questions and answers: Textbook. allowance/...
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Geography 9th grade Tickets and answers for quick preparation for the oral exam
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Domestic history of the 9th-19th centuries / Ed. A. A. Fedulina. - M.: KnoRus, 2013. - P. 103.
Polyakov A. N. Kievan Rus as a civilization. - Orenburg: IPK OSU, 2010. - P. 160.
1. Origin and settlement of the Slavs.
Initially, the settlement of the Great Slavs (ancestors of the Slavs). Settlement of the Proto-Slavs. The Sklavens lived in Central and Southern Poland. The Antes inhabited the area between the Dniester and Dnieper rivers. Wenedy - on the territory of the Polish Seaside, the Vistula River basin. The ancestors of the Eastern Slavs are the Antes. They were engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding, crafts, hunting, and gathering. The most public occupation is war. The political structure is military democracy. The transition from the primitive communal system to the early state. 4th – 7th centuries AD The Great Migration of Peoples. There are two concepts of the community of Slavs: 1) Slavic-Germanic; 2) Balto – Slavic. Settlement of the ancient Slavs in Eastern and Central Europe. Division into three great branches: eastern, western, southern. Design according to geographical principle. Tribes of the Eastern Slavs settled in the territory of the East. and center. Europe in the 6th – 8th centuries AD. This is known from chronicle sources (“The Tale of Bygone Years”) and, thanks to archaeological finds. The Polyans, the most powerful warlike tribe, were located on the territory of the middle reaches of the Dnieper, Kyiv region. Drevlyans - the territory of Pripyat woodland (modern Belarus). Slovenians lived along the shores of Lake Ilmen, Novgorod region (western part). The Dregovichi lived between the Pripyat River and the Western Dvina. The northerners lived north of Polyany. Vyatichi - on the Oka River. Radimichi - basin of the Sozh River. Krivichi - west of Polyany. They were engaged in agriculture. Main crops: rye, barley, millet, wheat, buckwheat. Two types of land cultivation. 1) Arable land (in the south). The main tool is the plow. 2) Slashing - fire. In the north. The main weapon is a plow. Cattle breeding. Cattle, pig breeding. The working animal is a horse. Trades: hunting, fishing, gathering, beekeeping (honey from wild bees). Crafts (pottery, weaving, jewelry, leather). Public organization- tribal system. At the head is the prince (only a military leader, judicial functions of an arbiter). The squad is the prince's comrades-in-arms. The Council of Elders took part in the management of the tribe and organized the economy. The bulk were free community members who participated in the people's assembly - the veche. Neighbors of the Slavs: Byzantine Empire southwest); in the northeast - Finno-Ugric tribes (Chud, Ves, Izhora); in the northwest - Varangians (Normans) - Frisians, Sveii; in the southeast - the Turks, Volga Bulgaria (Tatars); in the east - the Khazar Kaganate. Trade was developed. The most important and main trade route is the “Road from the Varangians to the Greeks.” It passed along the Baltic Sea, through the Neva, Volkhov, Ilmen Lake, Lovat, to the Dnieper, and then to the Black Sea. Along this route it was possible to get to the east along the Great Volga Route, along the Volga to the Caspian Sea and to the Arab countries and Persia. They exported fur, wax, honey, slaves, and grain. They imported fabrics, jewelry, wine, and weapons. Belief – paganism. Gods of the Slavs. Rod is the supreme god of earth and sky. Perun is the god of thunder, lightning, and also the god of war. Veles (Veres) – god of cattle breeding, trade, and the underworld. Stribog is the god of the wind, the elements, and nature. May God be the god of light and warmth. Simargl is a winged sacred dog that protects crops and plants. Makosh is the goddess of family, childbirth, fertility, and blessings.
2. Kievan Rus in the 9th-10th centuries.
Political genesis is the process of the emergence of a state. Formation of tribes into unions and super-unions. The reason is defense against external enemies from the Khazars, Pechenegs (until 1306), and Varangians. That. at the beginning of the 9th - 10th centuries, thanks to an external threat, a super-union of tribes appeared, known as the Russian Land (cities - Kyiv, led by Polyany, Chernigov, Pereslavl). 862 – the calling to Rus' of the Varangians (Slovenes, Krivyachi, Chud), namely Rurik, who settled in Novgorod, Sineus, who settled on Beloozero, and Truvor, who settled in Izborsk.
Theories about the origin of the state in Rus'. Norman theory of the 30s - 40s of the 18th century. In 1749, Miller put forward a theory “about the origin of the name of the people and the state.” It was that the Russians were not capable of creating a state; they needed supporters (Miller, Bayer, Schlödzer). This theory was opposed by M.V. Lomonosov (anti-Norman theory). Now it is impossible to say for sure which theory is correct, so there is a compromise option. The state was formed in any case, since the tribes were ready to unite; the Varangians only accelerated this process.
Origin of the name "Rus". There are several opinions here too. Here are the most basic ones. 1) The Normanists believed that the name Rus' came from the word Ruotsi, which is how the Finns called the Swedes. 2) Lomonosov believed he was from the Roxalan tribe (but such a tribe did not exist). 3) B.D. Grekov (a Soviet scientist historian) believed that the name came from the Ros River, a tributary of the Dnieper.
The emergence of Kievan Rus, led by Prince of Kyiv. Initially, Askold and Dir ruled in Kyiv. Kyiv was founded back in the 6th century. After Rurik’s death in 879, his son Igor was supposed to rule, but since he was small, Oleg (Igor’s guardian) began to rule. The date of his reign is 879 - 912. In 882, he made a trip to Kyiv, killed Askold and Dir. Bottom line. Kyiv was proclaimed the main city of Kievan Rus. The capital. Oleg became the first Grand Duke of Kyiv. For the next 25 years, Oleg was busy expanding his power. He subjugated the Drevlyans (883), the Northerners (884), and the Radimichi (885) to Kyiv. The last two tribal unions were tributaries of the Khazars. According to legend, Oleg allegedly said: “ I am their enemy, but I have no enmity with you. Don't give to the Khazars, but pay me" Then Oleg annexed the lands of the southernmost of the East Slavic tribes - the Ulichs and Tivertsi.
Foreign policy. Campaigns against Byzantium. 907 unsuccessful campaign against Constantinople (first campaign). Second campaign (successful) in 911. The conclusion of a peace treaty, according to which Rus' was exempted from paying trade duties, Byzantium was obliged to support Russian merchants at the expense of the treasury, and the obligation to exchange prisoners. Oleg reigned as Grand Duke of Kyiv from 882 - 912.
After his death, Rurik’s son, Igor, became king. He reigned from 912 - 945. He also made a trip to Constantinople. 941,944 – unsuccessful trips. 944 - an agreement according to which the Russians must again pay duties, not fight against Byzantium, Rus' must fight against the Bulgars. In 945, the Drevlyans, when Igor tried to take double tribute, killed Igor. Iskorost is the capital of the Drevlyans.
Olga, Igor’s wife, after this incident, first brutally took revenge on the Drevlyans, then established a fixed amount of tribute - a lesson, determined a special place - graveyards and the time of tribute - late fall. From now on, tribute was collected not by the prince, but by special people. She was the first to convert to Christianity. She ruled from 945 to 962, since at the time of Igor’s death, his son Svyatoslav was 3 years old, so Olga began to rule. Svyatoslav spent more time hiking. The first campaigns were against the Khazar Kaganate (965 - 967), took the capital Itil and crushed the Kaganate. He conquered the Vyatichi, according to the treaty of 944, he helped Byzantium in the war with Bulgaria, during the campaigns from 967 to 971 all eastern Bulgaria was conquered, Pereslavl was founded on the Danube. But there was a conflict with Byzantium. 970-972 years. The Russians, led by Svyatoslav, took Adrianople and launched an attack on Byzantium, until they were defeated. In 971, a peace treaty was concluded with Byzantium, according to which Svyatoslav refused to fight against Byzantium, but, on the contrary, fought on its side. In 972, returning home from a campaign, he was killed by the Pechenegs.
The reign of Vladimir Krasno Solnyshko or the Baptist. After the death of Svyatoslav in 972, an internecine war occurred between his sons (Yaropolk, who received Kyiv in his will, Oleg, who ruled in the land of the Drevlyans, and Vladimir, who reigned in Novgorod). It all started with the confrontation between Yaropolk and Oleg, and Oleg was killed in the battle. In 980, Vladimir kills Yaropolk. And in 980 the reign of Vladimir began. Domestic and foreign policy of Vladimir. He conquered the remaining tribes of the Vyatichi and Radimichi. He actively fought against Poland, conquered Cherven and Przemysl. From 981 to 985 he fought against Volga Bulgaria. He also took measures to protect the southern borders from the Pechenegs.
Baptism of Rus'. The peasantry spread to Rus' long before the appearance of Vladimir; back in 944, Igor’s warriors were peasants, and Olga adopted the peasantry in 957. Kievan Rus was politically unstable. Vladimir has been trying to get out of the crisis since 980. He is trying to reform the old faith, setting up idols of Slavic pagan gods led by Perun in Kyiv. But the attempt to unite the land under the leadership of Kyiv was unsuccessful. Therefore, Vladimir begins to search for new religions. 986 – test ver. According to legend, Vladimir chooses among existing faiths. Vladimir's choice stops at Orthodoxy. In 987, an uprising broke out in Byzantium. Vasily II asked Vladimir for help, promising to give his sister in marriage to Vladimir. Vladimir helped, but Vasily II was in no hurry to marry his sister to Vladimir, then Vladimir surrounded Byzantium and forced him to fulfill his promise, while he himself was baptized. Upon returning to Rus' in 988, the baptism of the Kievites took place in the waters of the Dnieper, as well as the construction of a stone church - the Cathedral of the Blessed Virgin Mary. So, from the end of the 10th – 11th centuries, the peasantry actively penetrated. There is a clash between peasants and paganism.
What is the significance of accepting the peasantry? Vladimir was an excellent politician. But the faith was accepted to unite the tribes through planting. There is no clear answer to this question. The downside was that the church depended on the authorities and the state and was cut off from the people. On the plus side, political unity was achieved, trade began to develop, political connections began to be established, culture and mentality began to change. But connections with Western Europe did not appear. Slavic writing appeared in Rus', and the Old Russian nationality (territory, language, writing, faith, ethnicity) was formed.
The role of the church. Sources of the existing church (tithes, judicial and trade duties, the church owned movable and immovable property). Administration of the Russian Orthodox Church. At its head was the metropolitan (a Greek who was sent from Constantinople). His residence was the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. There are bishops on the ground. The clergy was divided into black (lived in monasteries, monks) and white (served in rural and urban churches). The Church will play an important role in the perception of reality that will lead to the collapse of the Church in 1917, as freedom of thought and value is reduced to nothing.
3. Kievan Rus in XI – early XIII V. (political and socio-economic development).
From the 2nd half of the 10th to the middle of the 11th century, the decomposition of tribal relations and the collapse of the clan community took place. From the 10th to the end of the 12th century it was called the pre-feudal period, i.e. transitional stage from the tribal system to early feudal relations. This time was characterized by the predominance of free communal land ownership (the patrimony of princes and boyars). There was no division along class lines. These characteristics are the main ones before the Mongol invasion, then private land ownership will prevail due to the increase in power. At the end of the 10th and beginning of the 11th centuries, city-states appeared. The structure of the city-state: the main city and the suburbs, which were in close communal relations, veche system, weak government princes (it is important that all this happened only before the Tatar-Mongol invasion).
Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. The main cities are Rostov and Suzdal. Dependent cities are Vladimir and Moscow. City government bodies:
1) City community, people's assembly (veche);
2) The prince, who currently performs only a military function + squad (senior warriors are boyars; junior warriors are youths).
3) Volost people's militia - a thousand led by a thousand.
The first legal and legislative code of laws is “Russian Truth”. This set of laws reflected changes in social relations. The blood feud was replaced by a monetary fine. Composition of “Russian Truth”: Part 1 – Brief Truth(operated in the 11th and early 12th centuries); Part 2 – Long truth (approximately valid in the second half of the 12th century at the beginning of the 13th). Categories of the dependent population were determined, therefore, a step was taken towards enslavement.
1) Free population - men. For his murder there was a fine of 40 hryvnia.
2) Semi-dependent population: purchases - debtors who had to repay the debt in %; outcasts - lost their family, home, everything; launchers - slaves released by the master at his request; strangled - slaves who received freedom according to the will of the master. For their murder they gave various amounts from 5 hryvnia, and for purchases they could give about 40.
3) Dependent population: servants - slaves-prisoners of war; serfs - slaves of local origin; smerds (external - conquered non-Slavic tribes who paid tribute, internal - captives from non-Slavic tribes who were resettled on Russian territory). For killing them, the fine is 5 hryvnia.
The legislative sphere of Rus' was in effect until the 40s of the 13th century.
Contradictions and conflicts (for power), internecine strife, dynastic wars, economic (monetary) and religious (the bloodiest). The 11th century is the era of the appearance of pagan Magi. In 1024, the uprising of the Magi takes place in Suzdal. 1071 in Rostov. The most major uprisings were brutally suppressed.
Division of Rus' into city-states. Collapse of Kievan Rus. In 1015 Vladimir dies. A bloody internecine war begins between his sons. Svyatopolk the Accursed seized the throne, Boris reigned in Rostov, Gleb ruled in Murom, Yaroslav ruled in Novgorod. There is a conflict between Svyatopolk, Boris and Gleb. Svyatopolk kills Boris and Gleb (they were canonized). Then Svyatopolk begins actions against Yaroslav. In 1019 Yaroslav strikes crushing defeat Svyatopolk and from 1019 the independent rule of Yaroslav in Kyiv began until 1054. In 1036, Yaroslav finally defeated the Pechenegs at the walls of Kyiv. Will make campaigns against Poland in 1041 - 1047. Under Yaroslav, Rus''s international position and dynastic ties with Sweden, France, etc. strengthened. in 1054, the death of Yaroslav and his will (the first political will) in it calls for living in brotherly love, not waging internecine wars and transfers Kyiv to Izyaslav, Chernigov to Svyatoslav, and Pereslavl to Vsevolod. In 1068, the Yaroslavichs were defeated by the Polovtsians on the Alta River. In 1097, a congress of princes took place in Lyubich, at which the princes agreed to live in friendship, it was decided that each prince would rule alone. This gave rise to the beginning of the fragmentation of Rus'.
Political fragmentation of Rus'. Disintegration into city-states with veche system. After the reign of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich from 1093 to 1113 and his expulsion from Kyiv, Vladimir Monomakh was called to the throne, he ruled from 1113 to 1125. He finally conquered the Vyatichi and undertook campaigns against the Polovtsians. He adopted the Monomakh Charter - the “Charter on Purchases and Slaves”, according to which purchases received the right to leave their master to earn money and be freed from dependence, a ban on turning purchases into slaves, but only if the purchase ran away and did not want to pay the debt, the purchase turned into a slave. After his death, he left to his sons “Instructions of Vladimir Monomakh to his sons.” After his death, Mstislav began to rule until 1132, but after his death, Rus' finally collapsed into separate principalities (about 40). A new stage of rule began - the fragmentation of Rus'.
Feudal fragmentation in Rus' (second half of the 12th century - mid-13th century).
1) A confusing system of inheritance of power;
2) There is no single economic space;
3) The difficulty of managing a huge state;
4) New centers and large cities appear on the water frontiers.
In 1204, the Crusaders captured Constantinople, making trading waterways unnecessary. Land vehicles are developing trade routes. Former cities are falling into decay (Kyiv).
Pros: it is easier to manage a separate principality, now the prince was interested in equipping his principality, this is the time of flowering of culture, Russian culture, architecture, purely Russian art appears. The Romanesque style comes from Europe. Churches of stunning beauty are being built (Protection on Merli). The economy is developing in most principalities. High literacy among the population.
Perhaps the most important disadvantage is that the defense capability was weakened, namely, there was no unified army.
The selection of strong principalities, such as: Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn, which claimed to be the unifier of the Russian Lands.
Principality of Novgorod. It was located in the northwest. From the Kola Peninsula to the Urals. Novgorod is called the port of three seas (Ladoga, Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Caspian Sea). A very famous port, occupies a favorable position economic situation. Trade is developed (furs, handicrafts). He was famous for his merchants. Novgorod was part of the Tadzian Union. There was a high level of jewelry art here. But there was not enough grain. We were hungry. Grain was imported. Novgorod gained independence in 1136. The system of princely power changed. The prince was now chosen. The prince was vested only with military functions; he was not in Novgorod, only on business and only during the day. He had a residence outside the city. All matters were supervised by the veche by voting. The decision was made by voice, i.e. who will outshout whom. Very often there were disagreements. The meeting took place outside the walls of the Kremlin, and sometimes it ended in a fight. Posadniki - the head of administrative power, the role of governor, he had an assistant - a thousand, who performed a police function, in wartime he led the militia and was subordinate to the prince, he was also elected. Current affairs were in charge of the council of masters, which consisted of boyars who manipulated public consciousness. A typical boyar republic.
Vladimir-Suzdal land in the 11th and early 13th centuries. G. O. was located in the northeast, a forest zone, there were hills, fertile areas of land, beneficial for agriculture. The principality did not have clear boundaries, and the colonization of lands continued. There were fertile lands here. The oldest and main cities are Vladimir, Rostov and Suzdal. The proximity of the Great Volga Road, the independence of Rostov from Kyiv, helped this principality become one of the strongest, richest and most influential principalities in Rus'. The founder of the dynasty was the son of Vladimir Monomakh - Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157). In 1147, the first chronicle mention of Moscow (Yuri Dolgoruky). Yuri Dolgoruky began to build cities, promoted trade and agriculture (slash-and-burn farming). Captured Kyiv in 1155, since Kyiv was still the capital, but no longer had important and fell into decay. After his death in 1157, Andrei Bogolyubsky began to rule. After the capture of Kyiv, he also became the Great Prince of Kyiv, but did not reign in Kyiv. He made campaigns against Volga Bulgaria from 1164 to 1172. He was killed as a result of a boyar conspiracy in 1174. After his death, Vsevolod Yuryevich the Big Nest ruled from 1176 to 1212. He was one of the Outstanding Princes. He further strengthened the principality. Vladimir became the capital after Suzdal. He made campaigns against Volga Bulgaria in 1183 and 1185. Unlike Novgorod, power was hereditary; the prince was not only a warrior, but also a senior administrative official. Vsevolod made his last attempt at personal power. But after his death, his sons divided the principality.
Galicia-Volyn principality. Fertile lands. Cities: Vladimir-Volynsky, Galich, Przemysl. A special feature is active trade with Byzantium, Poland, and Hungary. The emergence of boyar land ownership. Strong power of the boyars. In 1199 Roman annexed the Galician principality to Volyn, but in 1205 he was killed, and during internecine war Daniil Romanovich won. He reigned until 1238.
4. Culture of Rus'.
The first chronicle work is “The Tale of Bygone Years,” written in 1113 by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor. Its origins date back to 862. Is one of the main sources. In 1117, Vladimir Monomakh’s teaching to children (a call for brotherly love has a social connotation (do not offend orphans, widows, do not kill, obey your elders)). After 1185, the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign” was created.
The population of Kievan Rus was quite literate; writing existed. They wrote on birch bark letters. Architecture: the 12-domed St. Sophia Cathedral was built in 1037 in Kyiv. Assumption Cathedral. The direction in architecture is classical ancient Russian architecture.
Topic 1. Ancient Rus' (9th - 13th centuries)
1) On what territory was the Old Russian state created?
On the territory of modern Ukraine.
2) Who created the Old Russian state?
Old Russian state in Eastern Europe, which arose in the last quarter of the 9th century. as a result of the unification under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty of the two main centers of the Eastern Slavs - Novgorod and Kyiv, as well as lands located along the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”.
3) Which city became the capital of the Old Russian state?
In 882, Prince Oleg captured Kyiv and made it the capital of the state.
4) When did Rus' accept Christianity?
Under Vladimir I Svyatoslavovich, also known as Vladimir the Holy, Vladimir the Great, in the history of the church - Vladimir the Baptist.
6) What is the religious symbol of Christianity?
7) Which ones are famous? Orthodox churches were built in Ancient Rus'?
Church of the Tithes, the three-domed St. Sophia Cathedral, the churches of St. Irene and the Great Martyr George, the Transfiguration Cathedral in Chernigov.
8) Which state did Rus' become dependent on in the 13th century?
In the 13th century, Rus' became dependent on the Golden Horde.
Alexander Nevsky - Prince of Novgorod (1236–1240, 1241–1252 and 1257–1259), Grand Duke of Kiev (1249-1263), Grand Duke of Vladimir (1252-1263), famous Russian commander, defender of the holy Russian Orthodox Church and land. Headed Novgorod army in the battle with the Swedes on the Neva River in 1240 and in the Battle of the Ice with the Teutonic Knights in 1242. Holy noble prince, who has not lost a single battle.
Topic 2. Moscow state (XIV - XVII centuries)
1) When did it happen?
2) Who won the Battle of Kulikovo?
Rus', led by Dmitry Donskoy, won the Battle of Kulikovo.
3) Which city became the center of the unification of Russian lands?
Moscow became the center of unification of Russian lands.
4) When did the Russian lands unite around Moscow?
The middle of the 15th century began the unification of Russian lands around Moscow.
5) In what year did the liberation of Rus' from the Horde yoke (dependence) take place?
In 1480.
6) What name did Tsar Ivan IV receive in history?
V. M. Vasnetsov. Tsar Ivan the Terrible, 1897.
7) Conqueror of Siberia?
Ermak T. - “Unknown by birth, famous in soul.”
8) Which 15th century artist painted the famous Trinity icon?
Andrey Rublev.
Andrei Rublev is the most famous and revered master of the Moscow school of icon painting, book and monumental painting of the 15th century. Canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church as a venerable saint.
9) What is the name of the architectural monument-fortress in Moscow, which was built as a symbol of the formation of a unified Moscow state?
All Saints Bridge and the Kremlin at the end of the 17th century. Drawing by A. M. Vasnetsov
10) In what century was the period of Troubles in Russia?
The turn of the XVI-XVII centuries.
11) When Moscow was liberated from Polish troops people's militia led by Minin and Pozharsky?
Moscow was liberated in October 1612.
12) Which dynasty began to rule in Russia in 1613?
Romanov dynasty.
Section II. Russian Empire (XVIII - early XX centuries)
Topic 3. Russia in the 18th century
1) Who carried out reforms in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century?
Posthumous romanticized portrait of Peter I.
Artist Paul Delaroche (1838).
2) What is the name of the city that became the capital of Russia in the era of Peter I?
Saint Petersburg.
3) In which city in the 18th century was the first university in Russia created?
In Moscow.
4) Which Russian scientist played a major role in the creation of the first university in Russia?
Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilievich.
5) When and under what Russian empress did it become part of Russia? Crimean peninsula?
On April 8, 1783, Catherine II signed a manifesto on the “Annexation of the Crimean Peninsula, Taman Island and the entire Kuban side under the Russian Empire.”
Catherine II Alekseevna - Empress and Autocrat of All Russia. She pursued a policy of enlightened absolutism.
6) Who was A.V. Suvorov?
Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov - great Russian commander, military theorist, strategist, national hero Russia.
7) Which monument is the symbol of the city of St. Petersburg?
8) In which city is the most major museum Russia - Hermitage?
Saint Petersburg.
Topic 4. Russia in the 19th century
1) When was the Patriotic War?
The Patriotic War took place in 1812.
2) What is the name of the major battle Patriotic War?
Battle of Borodino.
3) Who won the Patriotic War?
Russia won. Napoleon's army was almost completely destroyed.
4) Who was the commander-in-chief of the Russian army during the war?
Mikhail Illarionovich Golenishchev-Kutuzov - Russian commander and diplomat, field marshal general from the Golenishchev-Kutuzov family, commander-in-chief of the Russian army during the Patriotic War of 1812. The first full holder of the Order of St. George.
Portrait of M.I. Kutuzov brushes R.M. Volkova
5) Who are the Decembrists?
Russian revolutionaries who rebelled against autocracy and serfdom in December 1825.
6) When was it canceled in Russia? serfdom?
The abolition of serfdom occurred in 1861.
7) Under which Russian emperor was serfdom abolished?
Under Alexander II.
Alexander II Nikolaevich - Emperor of All Russia. Conducted large-scale reforms. Abolished serfdom (manifesto of February 19, 1861). Under him, victory was won in the Russian-Turkish War (1877–1878). Died as a result of a terrorist attack organized by a secret organization " People's will».
8) When did the annexation of Central Asia to Russia take place?
In 1880.
9) Who was A.S. Pushkin?
Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin is a great Russian poet, playwright and prose writer, literary critic, translator, publicist, historian.
10) What Russian scientist discovered in the second half of the 19th century periodic law chemical elements?
Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev is a Russian scientist-encyclopedist: chemist, physical chemist, physicist, metrologist, economist, technologist, geologist, meteorologist, oil worker, teacher, aeronaut, instrument maker. Professor at St. Petersburg University. Among the most famous discoveries is the periodic law of chemical elements, one of the fundamental laws of the universe, integral to all natural science.
11) Who was L.N. Tolstoy?
Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy - count, great Russian writer, thinker, known throughout the world, educator, publicist, religious thinker. Participant in the defense of Sevastopol.
12) Who was P.I. Chaikovsky?
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky - great Russian composer, conductor, teacher, musical public figure, music journalist.
13) Who was F.M. Dostoevsky?
Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky is a great Russian writer, thinker, philosopher and publicist. Dostoevsky is a classic of Russian literature and one of the best novelists of world significance.
Topic 5. The Russian Empire at the beginning of the twentieth century
1) What main religions were represented in Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century?
The main religions represented in Russia are Christianity (Orthodoxy predominates), as well as Islam and Buddhism.
2) Representatives of which religion made up the majority of the population of the Russian Empire?
The majority of the population is Orthodox.
3) When did the First Russian Revolution take place?
In 1905.
4) What was the main result of the First Russian Revolution?
New government bodies emerged - the beginning of the development of parliamentarism; some limitation of autocracy; democratic freedoms were introduced, censorship was abolished, trade unions and legal political parties were allowed; the bourgeoisie received the opportunity to participate in the political life of the country; the situation of workers has improved, wages have increased, the working day has decreased to 9–10 hours; redemption payments to peasants have been cancelled, and their freedom of movement has been expanded; The power of zemstvo chiefs is limited.
5) Who was the leader of the Bolshevik party?
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin - Russian revolutionary, Soviet political and statesman, founder of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (Bolsheviks), one of the main organizers and leaders of the October Revolution of 1917 in Russia, chairman of the Council of People's Commissars (government) of the RSFSR, creator of the first in the world history of the socialist state.
6) When was the First World War?
7) Who was A.P. Chekhov?
Anton Pavlovich Chekhov is a famous Russian writer, playwright, classic of world literature.
8) What was the name of the Russian scientist and inventor of radio?
Alexander Stepanovich Popov.
9) What is the name of the theater in Moscow, famous all over the world for its productions of opera and ballet?
Section III. History of the USSR
Topic 6. History of the USSR before the Great Patriotic War
1) What revolution took place in Russia in 1917?
Great October Revolution socialist revolution.
2) What was the name of the last Russian emperor?
Nicholas II - Emperor of All Russia, colonel. The reign of Nicholas II was marked by the economic development of Russia and at the same time the growth of socio-political contradictions in it, revolutionary movement which resulted in the revolution of 1905–1907 and the February Revolution of 1917; the war with Japan, as well as Russia’s participation in the military blocs of European powers and the First World War.
Nicholas II abdicated the throne during the February Revolution of 1917 and was under house arrest with his family in the Tsarskoe Selo Palace. In the summer of 1917, by decision of the Provisional Government, he and his family were sent into exile in Tobolsk, and in the spring of 1918, the Bolsheviks moved him to Yekaterinburg, where in July 1918 he was shot along with his family and associates. Canonized (along with his wife and children) by the Russian Orthodox Church.
3) Which party came to power in Russia in the fall of 1917?
The Bolshevik Party led by V.I. Lenin.
4) What was the name of the state that was created in 1922 on the territory of the former Russian Empire?
USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics).
5) Under which leader of Russia was the church separated from the state, and the school from the church?
Under Vladimir Ilyich Lenin.
6) What was the name of the policy for creating in the USSR large industry?
Industrialization.
7) What was the name of the policy for creating collective farms in the countryside in the USSR?
Collectivization.
8) What was the most important achievement of the USSR in the field of education in the first half of the twentieth century?
Elimination of illiteracy.
Topic 7. USSR during the Great Patriotic War (1941 - 1945)
1) When was the Great Patriotic War?
2) Which countries were allies of the USSR in the fight against Nazi Germany?
The allies of the USSR were the USA, Great Britain, the Mongolian People's Republic, the Tuvan People's Republic (countries of the anti-Hitler coalition).
3) What was the name of the most important (turning point) battle of the Great Patriotic War?
4) Who were G.K. Zhukov and K.K. Rokossovsky?
Georgy Konstantinovich Zhukov - four times Hero Soviet Union, holder of two Orders of Victory, many other Soviet and foreign orders and medals. During the Great Patriotic War, he successively held the positions of Chief of the General Staff, Front Commander, Member of the Headquarters of the Supreme High Command, and Deputy Supreme Commander-in-Chief. In the post-war period, he served as Commander-in-Chief of the Ground Forces, commanding the Odessa and then the Ural military districts. After the death of I.V. Stalin, he became the first deputy minister of defense of the USSR.
Konstantin Konstantinovich Rokossovsky - Soviet and Polish military leader, twice Hero of the Soviet Union (1944, 1945). Marshal of the Soviet Union (1944), Marshal of Poland (1949). The only marshal of two countries in the history of the USSR. He commanded the Victory Parade on June 24, 1945 on Red Square in Moscow. One of the greatest commanders of World War II.
5) Who won the Great Patriotic War?
6) In what city soviet soldiers M. Egorov and M. Kantaria raised the Victory Banner in May 1945?
In Berlin, Germany.
7) How many Soviet people died during the Great Patriotic War?
27 million people.
Victory Day.
Topic 8. USSR in the post-war period (1945 - 1991)
1) In what year and on what initiative Soviet leader Was Crimea transferred from the RSFSR to the Ukrainian SSR?
2) Who was the Chief Designer of the first Soviet spacecraft of the USSR?
Sergei Pavlovich Korolev - Soviet scientist, designer and main organizer of the production of rocket and space technology and missile weapons of the USSR, the founder of practical cosmonautics. One of the largest figures of the 20th century in the field of space rocketry and shipbuilding. On his initiative and under his leadership, the first artificial Earth satellite and the first cosmonaut on the planet, Yuri Gagarin, were launched.
3) What was the name of the world's first astronaut?
Gagarin Yuri Alekseevich - Soviet pilot-cosmonaut, Hero of the Soviet Union, holder of the highest insignia of a number of states, honorary citizen of many Russian and foreign cities. On April 12, 1961, Yuri Gagarin became the first person in world history to fly into outer space.
4) In what year did Yu.A. Gagarin made the world's first flight into space?
5) What is the name of the world's first female astronaut?
Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova - Soviet cosmonaut, the world's first female cosmonaut, major general (1995). Candidate of Technical Sciences, Professor. The only woman in the world to fly solo in space. The first woman in Russia with the rank of major general.
6) What important international sporting event took place in Moscow in 1980?
Olympics.
7) What was the name of M.S.’s reform policy? Gorbachev?
Perestroika.
8) Who was the president of the USSR?
Gorbachev Mikhail Sergeevich - Soviet and Russian statesman, political and public figure. The last General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. The last Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, then the first Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. The only President of the USSR. He has a number of awards and honorary titles, the most famous of which is the 1990 Nobel Peace Prize. Included in the list of the 100 most studied personalities in history.
9) How many Soviet republics were part of the USSR in the 1960-1980s?
15 republics.
10) When did the collapse of the USSR occur?
11) What organization was created after the collapse of the USSR by some former Soviet republics?
CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States).
12) Who was A.I. Solzhenitsyn?
Solzhenitsyn Alexander Isaevich is a Russian writer, playwright, publicist, poet, public and political figure. Winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature (1970). A dissident who for several decades (1960–1980s) actively opposed communist ideas, the political system of the USSR and the policies of its authorities.
Section IV. Modern Russia
Topic 9. Reforms in the Russian Federation in 1991-1999.
1) When was the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Russia adopted?
2) Who was the first president of Russia?
3) What reforms did B.N. begin to carry out in Russia? Yeltsin?
Liberalization of foreign trade, reorganization tax system and other transformations that radically changed the economic situation in the country. The result of the reforms marked Russia's transition to a market economy.
4) When was the Constitution of the Russian Federation adopted?
5) Which state in its own way national composition is Russian Federation?
Multinational.
6) What language is the official language in Russia?
Russian language.
7) Which city is the capital of Russia?
8) What is it called main square capital of Russia?
Topic 10. Russia in the 21st century
1) In what years were V.V. presidents of the Russian Federation? Putin and D.A. Medvedev?
V.V. Putin - from May 2, 2000 to May 7, 2008,
May 7, 2012 to present;
YES. Medvedev - from May 7, 2008 to May 7, 2012.
2) Who is currently the President of Russia?
3) Which new republic became part of Russia in 2014?
4) Who is the Head of the Russian Orthodox Church?
Patriarch Kirill (Vladimir Mikhailovich Gundyaev).
5) What is the name of one of the main organizations of Muslims in Russia?
Central Spiritual Administration of Muslims of Russia (TSDUM of Russia).
6) In which Russian city did the XXII Winter Games take place? Olympic Games 2014?
Sochi, Russia.
Block of cultural issues (Modern holidays of Russia)
1) When is New Year celebrated in Russia?
Nativity.
Defender of the Fatherland Day.
International Women's Day.
Russia Day.
National Unity Day.
Constitution Day of the Russian Federation.
Ticket No. 1
1. Ancient Rus' in the 9th - early 12th centuries: the emergence of the state, ancient Russian princes and their activities.
2. To what period of Russian history do the names RSDLP, Octobrists, Cadets, Socialist-Revolutionaries belong? What two groups can they be divided into? Explain how these groups were different.
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 2
1. The struggle of Rus' against external aggression in the 13th century.
2. Compare the development of culture in the USSR in 1945-1953. and during the “thaw” period, name the common features and differences.
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 3
1. Culture of Rus' in the XIV-XVI centuries.
2. What events and processes in the history of Russia are associated with the concepts of “cut”, “farm”, “Peasant Bank”? Explain their meaning.
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 4
1. The unification of Russian lands around Moscow and the formation of a single Russian state in the XIV-XV centuries.
2. What events and processes in the history of Russia are associated with the concepts of “privatization”, “price liberalization”, “ shock therapy"? Explain their meaning.
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 5
1. Transformations of Peter I: content, results.
2. Compare the foreign policy of the USSR in the mid-1950s - mid-1960s. and in the 1970s. Explain what was common and what were the differences.
3.Working with the source.
Ticket number 6
1. Enlightened absolutism of Catherine II.
2. To what period(s) of Russian history does the concept of “multi-party system” refer? Explain what events and processes it is associated with.
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 7
1. Foreign policy of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century: objectives, main directions, results.
2. To what period of Russian history do the concepts of “rehabilitation”, “economic council”, “development of virgin lands” refer? Explain what characteristic features of this period they reflected.
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 8
1. Culture and social thought of Russia in the second half of the 18th century.
2. Compare the periods of economic recovery in Russia and the USSR after the Civil War and after the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. Explain the similarities and differences.
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 9
1. Patriotic War of 1812. Foreign campaign of the Russian army.
2. To what period of Russian history do the concepts of “glasnost”, “political pluralism”, “parade of sovereignties” refer? Explain what features and processes of this period reflected these concepts.
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 10
1. The Decembrist movement: prerequisites for its emergence, participants, goals, main speeches, significance.
2. What does the concept of “a radical change during the Great Patriotic War” mean? Explain what events at the front and in the rear it was connected with.
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 11
1. Social movements in Russia in the 70-90s. XIX century: organizations, participants, activities.
2. With what event in Russian history of the 1920-1930s. Are the concepts of “autonomization” and “federal structure” related? Explain what positions of party leaders they reflected.
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 12
1. Modernization in Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century: main directions, features.
2. What period of Russian history are the concepts “Elected Rada” and “oprichnina” associated with? Explain what policies each of these concepts reflected.
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 13
1. Revolution 1905-1907 in Russia: causes, main events, results.
2. To what period of Russian history does the emergence of the concepts “all-Russian market”, “manufacture”, “New trading charter” belong? Explain what processes they were associated with.
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 14
1. Revolutionary events of 1917 in Russia from February to October: main events, their participants, results.
2. With the events of which of the wars of the 18th century. Are the names Narva, Lesnaya, Poltava, Gangut related? Reveal the place and significance of each of these events in the history of the war.
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 15
1. Civil war 1918-1920 in Russia: reasons, participants, results.
2. Explain how the nature of Alexander I’s internal policy changed in the first and second half of his reign. What did this mean?
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 16
1. The transition from the policy of “war communism” to the new economic policy: reasons for the introduction, main activities and results of the NEP.
2. When in the history of Russia did the palace coups? Explain what consequences they led to.
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 17
1. Social and political life in the USSR in the 1920-1930s.
2. What events in the history of Russia are associated with the concepts of “impostor”, “Seven Boyars”, “Tushino thief”? Explain what caused these events.
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 18
1. The main directions and events of the foreign policy of the USSR in the 1920-1930s.
2. Explain why the 17th century. national history was called “rebellious.” What events gave rise to this name?
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 19
1. Industrialization in the USSR: reasons, features of implementation, results.
2. Compare the views of Slavophiles and Westerners on the path of development of Russia. Explain what the main differences were.
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 20
1. The Great Patriotic War: main stages, events, reasons for the victory of the Soviet people.
2. What events in Russian history are associated with the concepts of “redemption payments”, “segments”, “charter charters”, “ temporary peasants"? Explain how they characterize these events.
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 21
1. USSR in 1945-1953: main directions and events of domestic and foreign policy.
2. To what period of Russian history does the concept “golden age of Russian culture” belong? The work of which cultural figures gave rise to this name?
3. Working with the source.
Ticket number 22
1. “Thaw” in the USSR: changes in political, socio-economic life, culture. Results of the “thaw”.
2. Compare the political system of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality and the Novgorod land in the XIII-XIV centuries. Explain what the main differences were.
3. Working with the source.
Texts for the third task
1. Read an excerpt from a historical source and indicate what it was called. Explain why you determined this.
“The Glades lived separately in those days and were governed by their own clans... And there were three brothers: one named Kiy, the other - Shchek and the third - Khoriv, and their sister - Lybid. Kiy sat on the mountain where Borichev now rises, and Shchek sat on the mountain that is now called Shchekovitsa, and Khoriv on the third mountain, which was nicknamed Khorivitsa after his name. And they built a city in honor of their elder brother, and named it Kyiv. There was a forest and a large forest around the city, and they caught animals there, and those men were wise and sensible, and they were called glades, from them glades are still in Kyiv.”
2. Read an excerpt from the chronicle and indicate what battle it is about. Explain why you determined this.
It was then the Sabbath day, and at sunrise both armies met. And here there was an evil and great slaughter for the Germans and the Chud, and the crack of breaking spears and the sound of the blows of swords was heard, so that the ice on the frozen lake broke, and the ice was not visible, because it was covered with blood.
And the Germans fled, and the Russians drove them with battle as if through the air, and they had nowhere to run, they beat them 7 miles on the ice... and 500 Germans fell, and countless miracles, and they took 50 of the best German commanders prisoner and brought them to Novgorod, and other Germans drowned in the lake because it was spring. And others ran away seriously wounded.”
3. Read an excerpt from the chronicle story and indicate what event is being discussed. Explain why you determined this.
“The prince crossed the Don into an open field, into Mamaev’s land, at the mouth of the Nepryadva.
And both great forces came together for a long time and covered the regiments for ten miles from many warriors, and there was a fierce and great slaughter and a stubborn battle, a very great concussion: since the beginning of the world such a slaughter had never happened among the great Russian princes... And God exalted our prince for the victory over foreigners. And Mamai, trembling in fear and groaning heavily, said: “Great is the Christian God and great is his power, brothers... run on unbeaten roads.” And, taking flight himself, he quickly ran back to the Horde... Seeing this, others... young and old took to flight..."
4. Read an excerpt from the essay by N.M. Karamzin and indicate which church figure we are talking about. Explain why you determined this.
“This holy elder... predicted terrible bloodshed for Dmitry, but victory... sprinkled holy water on all the military leaders who were with him and gave him two monks as associates, named Alexander Peresvet and Oslyabya...”
5. Read an excerpt from a foreigner’s notes about the Russian state and indicate with which sovereign the event described is associated. Explain why you determined this
“The Sovereign and Grand Duke of the archbishops and bishops accepted the petition so that he would impose his disgrace on those who betrayed him, the Sovereign, and execute others and confiscate all their property without reserve, and inflict it on him in his own state.” oprichnina..."
6. Read a passage from a historical source and indicate what event it talks about. Explain why you determined this.
“We don’t want for the Grand Duke of Moscow, we don’t want to be called his patrimony, we are free people, we don’t want to endure insults from Moscow, we want for the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir” - this is what the boyars and their supporters shouted at the assembly.”
7. Read an excerpt from the chronicle and indicate what event it describes. Explain why you determined this.
“...That same winter, on the 3rd day, the Tsar and Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich with his queen and his children went from Moscow to the village of Kolomenskoye: and from Trinity from the Sergius Monastery he went to Sloboda; On the 3rd day, the tsar sent a list from Sloboda to the Metropolitan of All Rus', in it were written the treasons of the boyars and governors and all the commanding people who committed treason and losses to the state. And the Tsar Grand Duke directed his anger at them.
...The king ordered to create a special court for him in his state...”
8. Read an excerpt from a historical source and indicate the name of the period in the history of Russia in question. Explain why you determined this.
“After that, they galloped at full speed from one city to another all the way to Putivl, leaving behind this news in all the inns, namely, that Dmitry was not killed, but was saved, as a result of which the whole country from Moscow to Polish border I believed that Tsar Dmitry had really escaped and was still alive. Rumors about this reached Moscow, and wild and absurd thoughts arose among the common people in connection with this.”
9. Read an excerpt from the document and indicate which century the events described in it belong to. Explain why you determined this.
“...Boris Godunov... began to commit many untruths: and God took revenge on him for the murder... and the thief Grishka Otrepiev-undressed took revenge from God for his deeds and died an evil death; but not many people elected Tsar Vasily to the state, and then, due to enemy action, many cities did not want to serve him, but separated from the Moscow state ... "
10. Read an excerpt from a document published during the reign of Catherine II, and indicate the name of this document. Explain why you determined this.
“We confirm the permission of nobles to enter into the services of others European countries our allies and travel to foreign lands.
The right to buy villages is confirmed to the nobles.
The nobles confirm the right to sell wholesale what is born in their villages, or is produced by handicrafts. Have factories and factories in villages. Set up small towns on their estates and hold auctions and fairs there. The right to own or buy houses in cities, and to have handicrafts in them.”
11. Read an excerpt from the historian’s work and name the emperor in question. Explain why you determined this.
“Retreat from reforms meant for him, in essence, the collapse of everything that he had professed since his youth, in which he saw his high destiny.
Illusions were crumbling, and the world around became more and more hesitant and alarming. Revolutions in Europe and secret noble organizations within the country... the indignation of the most reliable of the most reliable Semyonovsky regiment, which had to be reformed, and the inability to further hide from himself his own powerlessness - all this pushed him towards a person who possessed what he increasingly lacked - determination and firmness in his actions - to Arakcheev."
12. Read an excerpt from a historical source and indicate in which year the events described took place. Explain why you determined this.
“From that moment on, Ryleev’s house became the gathering place for our meetings, and he was the soul of them. In the evening we told each other the information we had collected: it was unfavorable. The army swore allegiance to Constantine coldly, but without expressing displeasure. The city did not yet know whether Constantine would abdicate; the secret of his previous abdication in favor of Nicholas had not yet spread. Couriers galloped to Warsaw, and everyone was sure that things would remain in the same situation.”
13. Read an excerpt from the historian’s work and indicate which emperor is being discussed. Explain why you determined this.
“The reign of the emperor began with the suppression of the uprising on Senate Square. As the emperor himself stated, he received the throne “at the cost of the blood of his subjects.” Personally participating in interrogations and investigations, he tried to understand the reasons for this movement. Like the Decembrists, the emperor realized the detrimental nature of serfdom, arbitrariness, and lack of enlightenment for the country. However, he believed that the necessary reforms should come from the government. Having concluded that the nobility was in an unfavorable mood, he sought to rely on the bureaucracy.”
14. Read an excerpt from a historical source and indicate during which war of the 19th century. the events described occurred. Explain why you determined this.
“...Our troops, after a bloody battle with a superior enemy, retreated to Sevastopol in order to defend it with their breasts. The commander-in-chief decided to sink 5 old ships on the fairway: they will temporarily block the entrance to the roadstead... It’s sad to destroy your work: a lot of our efforts were used to keep the ships, but we must submit to necessity..."
15. Read an excerpt from the document, indicate its name and in what year it was adopted. Explain why you determined this.
"Fair or democratic world, which the overwhelming majority of the exhausted, exhausted and war-torn workers and laboring classes of all warring countries crave - the peace that the Russian workers and peasants most definitely and persistently demanded after the overthrow of the monarchy - such a peace the government considers immediate peace without annexations ... and without indemnities "
16. Read an excerpt from the decree of the Council of People's Commissars and indicate the name of the policy discussed in the excerpt. Explain why you determined this.
“The free exchange, purchase and sale of agricultural products remaining with the population after the in-kind tax has been completed is permitted. The right of exchange, purchase and sale also applies to products and items of handicraft and small industry...”
17. Read an excerpt from the memoirs and indicate what party and state policy is being discussed. Explain why you determined this.
“Until the last minute, he couldn’t believe that someone else would just come and take away everything that he had acquired “with his labor, with his calluses”... That day, six cows were taken from our long yard to the collective farm, three working horses in an old harness and a one-year-old red foal..."
18. Read an excerpt from the memoirs of a contemporary and indicate what period of Soviet history we are talking about. Explain why you determined this.
“...New construction projects were unfolding: Magnitogorsk, Dneproges, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, the Stakhanov movement began. The youth were filled with enthusiasm..."
19. Read an excerpt from a letter sent to the party congress and indicate in what years the events described took place. Explain why you determined this.
“...A policy directed against the kulak was applied to the middle peasants... The Plenum called for the strictest punishment for anti-middle peasant deviations. We decide one thing, but in reality we carry out another. ...Due to the massive application of repressive measures against the middle peasant and the poor, the middle peasant barbarously destroyed not only commercial livestock, but also breeding and other types of essential products. The latter were still the main sources of supply for industrial centers.”
20. Read an excerpt from the memoirs of Marshal G.K. Zhukov and indicate the name of the policy of the USSR leadership that led to the results described. Explain why you determined this.
“...A powerful defense base for the country has been created. What did our army look like after the technical reconstruction carried out in pre-war five-year plans? In general, it has turned from technically backward to advanced modern army… Dozens and hundreds of defense enterprises were built.”
21. Read an excerpt from the memoirs of Marshal K.K. Rokossovsky and name the city in which the described battle took place. Explain why you determined this.
“There were twenty-two divisions in the ring... The fascist command doomed hundreds of thousands of its soldiers to death. For several months it forced them to fight without any hope of salvation. Essentially, these people, by the will of the Hitler clique, were doomed to complete destruction... Among the prisoners were 24 generals led by Field Marshal Paulus. Yesterday’s enemies stood before us unarmed and suppressed.”
22. Read an excerpt from the memoirs of the leader of the USSR, an active participant in the events described, and name their author. Explain why you determined this.
“The question was this: either the party openly, in Leninist fashion, condemns the mistakes and perversions made during the period of the personality cult, rejects those methods of party and state leadership that became a brake on movement forward, or the forces that clung to the old and resisted everything will prevail in the party. new, creative. This is exactly how the question was posed."
23. Read an excerpt from the book and say the name of its author. Explain on what basis you determined it.
“The ship entered orbit - a wide space highway. Weightlessness has set in - the same state that I read about as a child in the books of K.E. Tsiolkovsky. At first this feeling was unusual, but soon I got used to it, got used to it and continued to carry out the program assigned for the flight. “I wonder what people on Earth will say when they are informed about my flight,” I thought... At 10:35 a.m., “Vostok”, having flown around the globe, safely landed in a given area on a plowed field...”
24. Read an excerpt from the speech of the President of the USSR and say his last name. Explain on what basis you determined it.
“Dear compatriots! Fellow citizens!
Due to the current situation with the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States, I am ceasing my activities as President of the USSR. I make this decision for reasons of principle. I firmly stood for independence, independence of peoples, for the sovereignty of republics. But at the same time, for the preservation of the union state, the integrity of the country.”
5 Russia in the 16th century
15 The formation of Soviet society
16 During the years of severe trials
17 From the Soviet Union to modern Russia
Answers to History tickets:
1 Subject and tasks of historical science.
Historical science is a broad concept that includes several related scientific disciplines (economics, politics, culture, etc.) aimed at obtaining knowledge about various historical processes.
In general, the subject of historical science is the regularity of the process of development of human society and the characteristics of individual nations and states.
Precisely because historical science is trying to give a holistic vision of the historical process, it is logical to highlight the following tasks of its activity:
1) study of the historical process for a better understanding of reality;
2) an objective explanation of phenomena and events of the past;
3) search for cause and effect relationships as the basis of events;
4) awakening historical memory, national identity;
5) education of patriotism, responsibility for the fate of the country.
2 Eastern Slavs and the formation of the Old Russian state in the 9th - first third of the 13th centuries.
According to most historians, the separation of the Slavs from the Indo-European community occurred in the 2nd millennium BC. The Slavs developed the territory of Central and South-Eastern Europe during the period of the Great Migration of Peoples. As they developed, they developed a settled agricultural economy and formed the Bulgarian kingdom, the Khazar Khaganate and the Turkic Khaganate.
The Eastern Slavs occupied the territory from the Carpathian Mountains in the west to the Middle Oka and the upper reaches of the Don in the east, from the Neva and Lake Ladoga in the north to the Middle Dnieper region in the south. Having mastered the East European Plain, the Slavs began to contact Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. Since that time, the process of assimilation of peoples has been noted. Already in the VI-IX centuries. The Slavs began to form communities that had a tribal and territorial-political character.
The Slavs have come a long way in their development. Agriculture and cattle breeding developed successfully, but the low level of productivity required great labor effort, so the community played a huge role as a body of control over its relatives. However, already by the 8th century. There was a division of the communal system into farms in which each family had the right to its share of communal property.
At the head of the East Slavic tribal unions were princes from the tribal nobility and the former clan elite - “deliberate people”, “the best men”. And the main clan issues were resolved at veche gatherings. There was a militia with commanders in chief - sotskys and squads. Tribal unions became the starting point on the path to the formation of statehood of the Eastern Slavs. One of the largest associations of tribal principalities was the union of tribes led by Kiy (5th-6th centuries), and the first state formed at the beginning of the 9th century. On the basis of the Polyansky Union of Tribes it received the name Rus.
The formation of the state of Rus' (Old Russian state, Kievan Rus) became a natural and final stage of a long process of decomposition of the primitive communal system of a huge number of Slavic tribal unions. Khakan-Rus became the first prince of the state.
3 The struggle of Rus' against the Horde yoke and Swedish-German crusader aggression.
The struggle against the Horde yoke went on from the moment of its formation in the form of spontaneous popular uprisings, which were too weak for a complete overthrow, but contributed to its weakening.
The “Batu pogrom” had serious consequences, as a result of which a large number of people died and artisans were captured. Cities suffered, experiencing decline, complex crafts disappeared and stone construction ceased.
The second half of the 8th century is marked by Horde invasions (the Mongol-Tatars undertook large campaigns against North-Eastern Rus' 15 times). "Dudenev's army" in their own way devastating consequences in 1293 it was reminiscent of Batu’s campaign.
A system of robbery was founded by collecting regular tribute - these are 14 different burdens that “break” the economy of Rus', preventing it from recovering after ruin. There was a massive leak of jewelry and silver.
The result of such invasions was the division of Russian lands, the weakening of the southern and western principalities, which became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: the Polotsk and Turov-Pinsk principalities - by the beginning of the 14th century, Volyn - in the middle of the 14th century, Kiev and Chernigov - in the 60s years 14th century, Smolensk - at the beginning of the 15th century.
The Mongol-Tatar conquest led to the fact that the masses fell under the influence not only of their feudal lords but also of the Mongol-Tatar ones. And the khan’s policy emphasized inciting the feudal
strife to prevent the country from uniting.
At the same time, in the 13th century it was necessary to fight the German-Swedish invaders, who were attracted by the land of Northern Rus' (Novgorod, the richest trading city).
German spiritual- knightly orders: Order of the Swordsmen (1202) and Teutonic Order (at the end of the 12th century), attacking the borders in 1220.
The Swedes, also wanting to capture Novgorod, in agreement with the Order, attempted to capture the city, under the leadership of the Pope. Erik Kartavy’s campaign took place under the slogan “Turn the Rus into true Christians.” Alexander Yaroslavich with his squad and militia made a lightning-fast transition from Novgorod and suddenly attacked the Swedes’ camp, hitting the commander himself. Alexander's victory on the Neva became turning point liberation and made it easier for the Russian people in their long struggle against the Horde yoke.
4 From Rus' to Russia. The formation of the Russian centralized state.
From the middle of the 14th century. Northeastern Rus' sought to unite the lands. The center of unification became the Moscow principality, which was separated from the Vladimir-Suzdal principality in the 12th century.
The main factors leading to the unification were the collapse of the Golden Horde, the struggle for national independence, the development of trade and economic ties and the strengthening of the nobility. The center gravitated towards a system of landownership: the nobles received land plots for their service and for the duration of its performance, which strengthened the power and authority of the prince.
Centralization of the state meant the unification of lands around Moscow and the creation of a fundamentally new government. The unification took place in the northeastern and northwestern lands of the former Kievan Rus in short time due to the danger of a collision with the Golden Horde. Monasteries, fortresses and cities are colonized. A feudal society with serfdom and estates is being formed. However, the structure of the lightning-quickly formed state was too shaky.
In history, 3 stages of state centralization have been identified:
1. end XIII- beginning of the 14th century. Associated with the loss of old cities of their power (Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir). The new cities of Moscow and Tver are rising. The rise of Tver is associated with active political activity after the death of A. Nevsky. Attempts are being made to subjugate Lithuania and the Tatars. The rise of Moscow occurs from the moment of the appearance of Nevsky’s son, Daniil, who annexes Kolomna and Pereyaslavl. Moscow becomes a principality.
2. second half of the 14th - first half of the 15th centuries. Moscow is strengthening under the rule of Prince Dmitry Donskoy. On September 8, 1380, the Battle of Kulikovo took place. The Tatar army of Khan Mamai was defeated.
3. end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. The unification of Russian lands was completed under the great-grandson of Dmitry Donskoy, Ivan III (1462 - 1505) and Vasily III (1505 - 1533). Ivan III annexed the entire North-East of Rus' to Moscow: in 1463 - the Yaroslavl principality, in 1474 - the Rostov principality. Ivan III overthrew the Mongol-Tatar yoke (in 1480 on the Ugra River).
5 Russia in the 16th century
In the 16th century Russia's territorial expansion continues. The Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberian khanates and Bashkiria were annexed. Earth southern outskirts countries (“wild field”) were actively being developed. Attempts have been made to reach the Baltic Sea.
During this period of time, the country's population numbered about 7 million people. And after the annexation of the Volga and Siberian lands, the population of Russia became multinational. The only seaport was Arkhangelsk.
Throughout the century, a system of serfdom developed. The code of law of Ivan III (1497) fixed the period for the transfer of peasants - a week before November 26 and a week after. As a result of the mass exodus of peasants, the government issues the decree “Sacred Years” (1581).
However, despite having significant advantages, the country also had many problems. The unification of the state had not yet been completed, but Russia was on the path of “autocracy” and understood the urgency of the problem of centralized management of the annexed lands. The elected Rada carried out reforms, and the Zemsky Sobor regularly discussed pressing matters (the Livonian War, the election of Fyodor Ivanovich, Boris Godunov, etc.). The estates belonged to the king and his relatives, and the princes did not have the right to carry out independent policies, but still had rights to the throne.
A class system is emerging - legislative consolidation of provisions social strata and the inheritance of privilege.
The church remained a powerful and relatively independent structure. The Metropolitan gave his own orders and had boyars and secular service people under his command. The local nobility (princes of Rostov, Obolensky, etc. and their former boyars) retained their strength and independence.
Another problem was the growth of serfdom in the context of large-scale development of market relations.
A big breakthrough for the country was the creation of the Streltsy army, the adoption of the “Code of Service” - military reform. Now nobles could serve from the age of 15, and also transfer this right by inheritance.
The system of orders and localism are actively developing. The “feeding” system is being abolished (local government reform) and the positions of governor, elders, and policemen are introduced. A tax collection unit is established - a large plow (tax reform).
6 “Rebellious” century of Russian history.
The century was called “rebellious” because of the large number of wars and uprisings in the 17th century, which had multiple negative consequences.
The main reason for such a turbulent era was the reign of Boris Morozov, who had great influence on Alexei Mikhailovich. As a result of active intervention, namely the increase in tax payments, the introduction of emergency taxes, the emergence of the townspeople's tax population and the abuse of power, popular uprisings occurred.
During the “rebellious” century, several uprisings and revolts of the people took place. In 1648 began " Salt riot", due to a sharp increase in the salt tax. Ordinary people, as well as peasants and archers, destroyed the houses of the Moscow nobility and demanded Morozov; many boyars were executed. In 1650, the price of bread was raised due to its migration to Sweden (payment for defectors from areas that Russia had captured), which also led to riots.
And July 25, 1662 was marked by “ copper riot", as a sign of the excessive issue of copper coins. Coins began to be counterfeited, and copper money simply became worthless. Hunger began. Since 1663 copper money was no longer printed.
In 1661-1667, a peasant uprising began under the leadership of Stepan Razin against the boyars and the tsar's associates. This uprising is considered one of the bloodiest in the 17th century. Stepan Razin was executed.
The Streltsy revolt of 1682 ended the “rebellious” century. According to historians, its reasons were the abuse of power by the Streltsy military leaders. The result was the actual reign of Sofia Alekseevna.
We can conclude that the result of the century was futility. The population was not understood and heard. Taxation and abuse of power continued to flourish.
7 Russia in the 18th century: the birth of an empire.
In Russia in the 18th century. Radical socio-economic transformations are taking place, affecting all aspects of the country’s economic life, as well as the formation of the class system.
The reason that gave rise to such transformations was the decomposition of feudalism and capitalist relations.
Peter I consciously approached the country's problems and purposefully solved them one after another. For everything he did for the country, he was called the Tsar-Transformer.
Under the reign of Peter I (proclaimed emperor), absolutism established itself in Russia: the strengthening of the tsar's power led to his autocracy and unlimited possibilities.
Instead of the Boyar Duma, the Senate legislative body was created (reform of the state apparatus), which included nine dignitaries close to Peter I. The Senate was headed by the Prosecutor General. The orders were replaced by collegiums (12), each of which governed a specific area: foreign relations were managed by the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, the Admiralty fleet, revenue collection by the Chamber Collegium, noble land ownership by the Patrimony, etc. The cities were in charge of the Chief Magistrate.
The struggle between the supreme, secular authorities and the church continued. But in 1721 the Spiritual College (Synod) was established, subordinating the church to the state. The conduct of church affairs was given to the Chief Prosecutor of the Synod.
In 1708 a reorganization of local self-government took place, as a result of which the country was divided into 8 provinces (Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov and Siberian) led by governors and their troops. The provinces were divided into 50 provinces, which included counties. Thus, a unified administrative-bureaucratic management system was created in Russia - a sign of an absolutist state.
Since 1705, conscription was introduced with a unified principle of recruitment and armament. The norm for conscripting a soldier for lifelong service is one recruit from 20 peasant households. Officer schools were organized. It was under Peter I that the Russian army and navy became one of the strongest in Europe.
An important result and legislative consolidation of all Peter’s reform activities was the Table of Ranks (1722), which was a law on the procedure for public service. The report card put an end to the patriarchal tradition of management and localism, and also contributed to the unification and expansion of the nobility at the expense of all class strata.
8 Social and economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century.
The main feature of the socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. began the ever-increasing process of decomposition of the feudal-serf system.
Agriculture in Russia developed very slowly, and the growth of commodity-money relations led to the expansion of the landowner's arable land. Own expansion could be carried out in two ways: by plowing other lands, or by reducing the land plots of peasants. There were also frequent cases of landowners unlawfully depriving peasants of their land, transferring them to a “month.” The increase in quitrents led to the need to look for part-time work on the side, which also reduced the level of agricultural production. That is why the peasants were not interested in the results of their labor.
We can conclude that the serf economy of this period was characterized by its impoverishment and growing debt to the landowners. And in lean years, farms were on the verge of ruin.
The central phenomenon in industry was the beginning of the industrial revolution - the transition to factory production. During the revolution, new classes were founded - the industrial proletariat and the bourgeoisie.
Railways appeared in the country: Tsarskoye Selo (1837), Warsaw-Vienna (1839-1848), Petersburg-Moscow (1843-1851). However, the main cargo flow still passed through waterways. The formation of a single all-Russian market continued. Fairs became an important form of trade: Nizhny Novgorod, Irbit (in Siberia), Korennaya (near Kursk). Shop trade and peddling trade developed successfully.
Thus, the development of commodity-money relations was facilitated by the formation of new economic regions with different specializations. Thus, the largest commercial and industrial centers of the country were located in the Central Industrial Region.
One of the signs of the social crisis was a significant reduction in the number of serfs. A trend towards urbanization has emerged (the urban population has doubled).
9 Russian Empire in the first quarter of the 19th century.
Development of Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century. associated with the reforms of Alexander I (1801 - 1825) aimed at solving such problems as the elimination of serfdom, limiting autocracy, and introducing constitutional principles.
M. M. Speransky, on behalf of Alexander I, developed a program of political reforms (by 1809), which provided for the transformation of Russia into constitutional monarchy. The program clearly demonstrated the principle of “separation of powers” and multi-level representative institutions. January 1, 1810 established State Council in the form of the highest legislative body of the empire, and the functions of the highest administrative and judicial power were assigned to the Senate.
As a result of the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, the constitution of the Kingdom of Poland was approved - Polish lands that became part of the Russian Empire.
Merchants, burghers and state peasants were allowed to buy uninhabited lands and cultivate them with the help of hired force (1801). This phenomenon stopped the monopoly of the nobles on land. And the decree on “free cultivators” allowed the owners of serfs to release peasants with their families “to freedom” with the obligatory allotment of land to them for ransom or on the condition of fulfilling duties.
In Estland, Courland and Livonia, serfdom was abolished (1816-1819) on the condition that peasants received personal freedom and land was assigned to landowners.
With the advent of the 20s. Russia's innovation is entering the stage
"Arakcheevshchina." The central phenomenon of this period was the system of military settlements, with the prevailing military-feudal order. Religious mysticism spread in educational institutions.
Beginning of the 19th century marked “European”, since the solution of pan-European problems became impossible without the participation of the empire. The main objective of foreign policy was to maintain the European and Middle Eastern expansion of France as part of the program to achieve world domination. However, the result of Russia's participation in anti-Napoleonic coalitions were defeats in 1805 at Austerlitz, in 1807 at Friedland and the signing of the difficult Peace of Tilsit.
On the eve of the Patriotic War of 1812, the tsarist government strengthened its position through wars and peace treaties with Sweden (1808 - 1809) and Turkey (1806 - 1812). As a result of political altercations, most of Poland (the Kingdom of Poland) went to Russia.
The most significant phenomenon public life After the war, the Decembrists emerged - military men from the liberal strata of the nobility (1816 - 1826), in the form of an opposition movement against the authorities. The open demonstration of the Decembrists against the autocracy on December 14, 1825 on Senate Square in the capital was not successful.
10 Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.
December 14, 1825 Nicholas I ascends the throne, younger brother Alexandra and begins his reign with the fight over the Decembrist uprisings. TO death penalty 5 participants were sentenced and more than 100 people were exiled to hard labor or to remote regions.
Nicholas’s reign passed under the slogan “no changes”; the main tasks were to maintain the existing order with the help of legislation, without the participation of society.
Nikolai complicated the centralized control mechanism. Was created big number departments and offices, including the office of “His Majesty”. In 1830 comes out" full meeting laws of the Russian Empire” under the leadership of Speransky (who received the Order of A. the First-Called) from all charters, laws, decrees, starting with the Code of 1649 (in 45 volumes).
Nicholas signs a manifesto about the absence of changes in the lives of serfs, creates secret committees to consider the issue of their liberation. The result was the creation of a special department for state peasants - the Ministry of State Property, headed by Kiselev, who a short time raised the peasantry to its feet and increased their well-being. With the support of Kiselev, a number of laws were passed on the organization of serfs: the Law of “soul ownership” (1827); Law prohibiting the sale of peasants (1841); Prohibition on the purchase and sale of peasants without land (1843); The right for peasants of debtor estates to buy their freedom with the land (1847); The right to acquire land by peasants (1848). However, thanks to the bureaucratic apparatus, the laws disappeared from subsequent editions of the Code of Laws.
In the period 1839 - 1843. monetary reform is being carried out under the leadership of Kankrin. The main idea is to limit government spending, reduce leverage, and reduce protectionism. Introduced the silver ruble.
Educational institutions (1828) were divided by class into primary, parish, district and gymnasiums.
In the military life of the country, the main thing was the Crimean War (1853-1856) with Turkey, which became a disgrace for Russia. The country showed itself to be disorganized, ruined and backward in all respects. As a result, Nikolai cannot withstand such a blow to his pride and dies on a campaign across Russia.
11 Russia in the era of the “Great Reforms” (60-70s of the 19th century).
The era of the Great Reforms passed under the name of Alexander II, who set the goal of improving all spheres of state life.
The following prerequisites for the introduction of reforms into the life of society can be identified: the crisis of the serfdom system, hunger, debts. Dependent serf relations hampered the development of industry. All this exacerbated the economic and political crisis in the Russian Empire. According to the results Crimean War It was not difficult to understand that serfdom hampered the development of the country and needed to be eliminated.
The peasant reform (1857) began with the creation of the Secret Committee, which was later transformed into the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs. Editorial commissions and provincial committees were created, which included only nobles. On February 19, 1861, Alexander II signed the General Regulations on Peasants Emerging from Serfdom, and other acts on peasant reform (17 acts), which resolved such issues as: personal peasant liberation, land plots and duties, redemption of plots by peasants, organization of peasant governance. The laws abolished serfdom and established the right of peasants to land allotment.
Thus, after the announcement of the reform on the abolition of serfdom, the peasants received personal freedom.
The main legal act zemstvo reform became the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” of January 1, 1864, based on the principles of all-class zemstvo representation; property qualification; independence exclusively within the boundaries of economic activity.
According to the Regulations of 1864, the district zemstvo assembly elected a zemstvo council for three years, which consisted of two members and a chairman and was the executive body of zemstvo self-government.
The prerequisite for the Judicial Reform of 1864 was the discrepancy between justice and the requirements of society, cases were considered for an extremely long time, and corruption also occurred. The result of the reform was a court organized in accordance with the principles of transparency and competition, with a sworn attorney (lawyer).
The implementation of the Judicial Statutes of 1864 continued until 1884. However, jury trials on the outskirts of the Russian Empire never began to operate.
Reforms have led to the need for reorganization Russian army under the leadership of Milyutin D.A. He introduced a system of military districts throughout the country, which made it possible to improve conscription and military training.
A three-level judicial-military system was formed: regimental, military district, and main military court. The main achievement military reform became the Judicial Charter of November 20, 1864 and the Military Judicial Charter of May 15, 1867, dividing the judicial sphere into higher and lower.
Summing up the results of the reformation, we can conclude that the road to capitalism was open, absolutism turned into a bourgeois monarchy. Large-scale in nature and consequences, the reforms led to significant changes in all aspects of the life of Russian society.
12 Russia during the period of stabilization of political and social relations (80s - 90s of the 19th century)
The period of stabilization took place under the banner of the development of capitalism. Serfdom and autocracy, which hampered the development of the country, have been eliminated. Alexander III (1881 - 1894) put an end to bourgeois reforms. On April 29, 1881, the manifesto “On the Inviolability of Autocracy” was adopted, proclaiming faith in “the strength and truth of autocratic power.”
The essence of Alexander's policy boiled down to carrying out counter-reforms (1881-1892) and moving away from democratic elements. The position of zemstvo chiefs is established, who supervise the communal self-government of peasants. The World Court was abolished.
University autonomy was eliminated, expressed in restricting access to gymnasiums for children of the lower strata of the population (ministry circular public education"About the cook's children").
Among the ministries, the Ministry of Internal Affairs enjoyed enormous influence and authority, supervising the activities of local authorities, zemstvos and city governments. The Ministry included the State Police Department with the gendarmerie corps and security departments.
The main branch of the economy was still agriculture. However, the nobility was in decline and suffered from land shortages, especially in the central part of Russia. This issue became more acute by 1861 with the parallel struggle between Prussian and American capitalism.
However, significant changes were observed in the industry. Old (textile, food) industries are developing, and new ones are also emerging - oil production, chemical, engineering.
In the 80s and 90s, the industrial revolution ended, and the machine industry nevertheless came to replace manufactories. Thanks to this, Russia took first place in terms of production volumes. However, the revolution did not affect agriculture; half of the peasants worked the land with plows.
Stabilization of financial policies was carried out by such famous figures as N.H. Bunge and S.Yu. Witte. They carried out a number of reforms to improve the tax system and industrialize the country. Witte's policy made it possible to attract foreign capital to many areas of activity.
In 1897, a monetary reform was carried out, proclaiming the replacement of paper money with the gold ruble.
External political situation was difficult for Russia, since the government focused all its efforts on restoring its influence after the Crimean War (in particular in the Balkans and Turkey).
On April 24, 1877, Russia declared war on Turkey (Military leaders I.R. Gurko and M.D. Skobelev). The final stage of the war was the offensive of Russian troops south of Shipka - the Turkish army was defeated.
On March 3, 1878, the San Stefano Peace Treaty was concluded, according to which Turkey had to accept the independence of Montenegro, Serbia and Romania, as well as pay part of the indemnity to the Russians. Russia received Kars, Batum, Ardahan and Bayazit (in Turkey).
Thanks to Alexander III, France joined the Russian allies. In 1881, the Austro-Russian-German treaty “Union of the Three Emperors” was extended for three years, and three years later it was extended again.
By 1895, all of Central Asia became part of the Russian Empire. This accession was of great economic importance and made it possible to reach the world level for the supply of cotton.
13 Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century (1901-1914)
Industrial rise of the late 19th century. was slowed down by what began in 1899. global monetary, financial and economic crisis, which lasted until 1903. Due to the depression (1904-1908), the number industrial enterprises decreased by 25%, and the process of ruin led to the concentration of production. Monopolies developed powerfully - cartels and syndicates that united enterprises for joint sales - Prodamet, Produgol, Prodparovoz, Gvozd and others.
In 1902, oil production was completely monopolized. In parallel with the monopolization of production, banking activities also expanded, leading to the formation of banking groups - the Russian-Asian Bank, the Azov-Don Bank and others.
The leading and most stable industry remained textile in Yaroslavl, Tver, Kostroma, and railways made it possible to transport goods to the central region.
The social stratification of society, as well as the economy, was unstable; it included landowners and peasants, the bourgeoisie and workers. The subjects of the Russian monarch were members of one of the main classes, which were divided into tax-paying (peasants, city dwellers) and non-tax-paying (nobility, clergy). The process of stratification also affected the peasants. Now they could be divided into groups: wealthy peasants (20%), middle peasants (30%), poor peasants (50%). The bourgeoisie occupied the leading place.
The highest state bodies were the State Council, whose decisions were advisory to the tsar, and the Senate, the highest court and interpreter of laws. Political power carried out by 11 ministries, coordinated by a committee of ministers. The unlimited power of the supreme power at the local level was clearly manifested in the omnipotence of the administration, officials and police.
In 1902, on the basis of the old populist circles, the Socialist Revolutionary Party arose (L.M. Chernov, N.D. Avksentyev, B.V. Savinkov). Who considered the working people (peasantry, intelligentsia, proletariat and student youth) the basis of society. The Social Revolutionaries advocated a revolution and the establishment of a dictatorship, which was supposed to carry out the socialization of the land - the transfer of all land to peasant communities for further division according to the labor standard among those who cultivate it.
In addition, the liberal movement became officially recorded. In 1903, the “Union of Zemstvo Constitutionalists” (P.A. Heiden, S.N. Trubetskoy, D.N. Shipov) and the “Union of Liberation” (P.N. Milyukov, P.B. Struve, V.) arose. D. Nabokov).
In 1895, the Russian-Chinese Bank was organized and the development of the Chinese-Eastern railway, which led to dissatisfaction with the Japanese side (with the support of England and the USA). The Russian army was significantly superior to the Japanese, but our country was not ready for war and was defeated. A peace treaty was signed in Portsmouth (USA, August 23, 1905). Russia recognized Korea as a Japanese sphere of influence and transferred to Japan the right to lease part of the Liaodong Peninsula with Port Arthur and the southern part of Sakhalin Island.
Political and economic contradictions, as well as the confrontation between the bourgeoisie and the workers, led to the revolution (1905 - 1907). On January 3, 1905, workers of the Putilov plant began a strike, demanding the reinstatement of their dismissed comrades. On January 8 the strike became general. On January 9, a procession of workers took place to the Winter Palace. More than 1,200 people were killed, this day was called " Bloody Sunday"and marked the beginning of the revolution. Outrage and protests swept across the country. By 1905 revolutionary unrest reached its climax. Workers' strikes combined with political demonstrations and reached the point of armed struggle. On October 15, the All-Russian political strike began, in which more than 2 million people took part. On October 17, 1905, Nicholas II signed the Manifesto “On Improving the State Order,” which promised to introduce civil liberties: conscience, speech, meetings and unions, and personal inviolability.
The culmination of the revolution was an armed uprising in Moscow. About 6 thousand workers took part in it. On December 19, the uprising was suppressed. In January 1906, a period of gradual decline of the revolution began, which lasted until the summer of 1907.
On June 3, 1907, Nicholas II dissolved the Second State Duma ahead of schedule and set the convening of the next Duma on November 1. The Tsar's Manifesto announced fundamental changes to the election law. This act went down in history as a coup d’etat, since the Manifesto of October 17, 1905 and Article 86 of the “Fundamental state laws» 1906, according to which any new law could not be adopted without the approval of the Duma.
14 From the Russian Empire to the Soviet Republic: the era of wars and revolutionary upheavals (1914 - 1920)
The era of revolutionary upheavals began with the First World War (August 1, 1914), which was the result of the confrontation between the Entente blocs - Russia, France, England and the Triple Alliance. The cause of the war was the desire of the powers to expand their zones of economic and political influence, and the murder of the heir to the Austrian throne only aggravated the situation. In the autumn of 1914 Türkiye joined the Triple Alliance, opening the Caucasus to Russia. Russia was not ready for war, but it was on our side that the entire burden of military command fell. We left Galicia, Poland, Lithuania and Belarus due to lack of weapons. However, already in 1916. under the command of A.M. Brusilov, the Austrian front was broken through, which forced the Germans to redeploy some of their troops.
In August 1915 Against the backdrop of heated political events, the Duma formed the Progressive Bloc of Opposition Parties. There was a huge turnover of ministers in the government, and due to the lack of stability, G.E. was able to achieve great influence. Rasputin initiated many strikes and peasant riots. In February 1917 strikes became a constant occurrence, further draining the country. On February 14, Petrograd went on strike against the war and autocracy. On February 17, the Putilov plant closed. On February 24, Petrograd already had more than 200 thousand people. strikers. The strike became widespread.
To suppress the uprising, Nicholas II sent General Ivanov’s corps to the capital, who was immediately disarmed without reaching his destination. Trying to save the monarchy, the Provisional Committee invited Nicholas II to abdicate the throne. However, the hatred for the Romanov dynasty was so great that Nicholas’s brother, Mikhail, did not dare accept the inheritance and also announced his abdication. The autocracy collapsed within a few days. On March 2, the Provisional Government was formed.
After the February Revolution, two unsuccessful attempts were made to attack German front. Russia emerged from the First World War after the October Revolution, as a result of the separate Brest Peace Treaty concluded by the Bolshevik government in March 1918.
In the military conflict, Russia was embraced by the spirit of patriotism with the support of right-wing parties. Even liberals abandoned opposition movements against tsarism during the war.
The Cadets supported the expansionist claims of the government, and the Mensheviks came up with the slogan of defense of the fatherland. The only ones who remained on the sidelines were the legal organizations of the Social Revolutionaries and the “Trudoviks” (A.F. Kerensky), who opposed military action.
Russia lost many people during the war (4 million people), national economy came into decline, and the number of cultivated areas was critically reduced. Given that provisions were sufficient, railway transport could not cope with the large number of deliveries throughout the country.
The starting point of the transition to Soviet society was the NEP policy - strengthening the alliance of the working class and the peasantry as the basis of the dictatorship of the proletariat.
The measures of the new economic policy were: replacing the surplus appropriation system with a tax in kind; introduction of free trade; denationalization of small and medium-sized industrial enterprises; carrying out monetary reform, etc. In 1924, the monetary reform was completed, which made it possible to eliminate the budget deficit. In agriculture, since 1923, sown areas began to gradually increase, and the gross grain harvest was almost 20% higher than the average annual harvest for previous years.
However, contradictions in the economic and political system, including the lack of funds for investment in new industry, led to the curtailment of the NEP. By the mid-20s, the NEP experienced two crises. Due to political bickering within the party (N.I. Bukharin, G.E. Zinoviev, L.D. Trotsky, L.B. Kamenev, I.V. Stalin), two directions for the further development of the country arose:
a) transform the NEP into a market model of socialism (Bukharin)
b) move on to the construction of “socialism” in town and countryside (Stalin). In 1928-1930 The implementation of Stalin's plan for the economic development of the country began. Industrialization begins with heavy industry and is carried out at an extremely high pace. Despite the fact that the established five-year plans had inflated indicators and were not fulfilled, the achievements in industry were significant: 6,000 new enterprises were built, new industries emerged, and new cities were founded. At the end of the 1930s, the Soviet Union became one of three or four countries capable of producing any type of product then available. In the summer of 1929, the goal was set - the collectivization of peasant farms and the creation of collective farms.
Increased volumes of procurement for export made it possible to purchase new equipment, but the gross grain harvest decreased and fell general level life of the people, mass famine broke out in a number of areas.
The political system of the new society was initially formed to wage revolutionary war against internal and external class enemies.
The Constitution of 1936 declared the victory of socialism and the construction of a state-planned economy. We can say that Soviet totalitarianism took place in several stages from the formation of basic premises (1923) to the collapse of the system (1953)
The social structure of the new Soviet society is an alliance of the working class, collective farm peasantry and working intelligentsia. A social group of leaders of the party and state apparatus began to form, which had the right to full state support. Workers and employees received the right to vacation, a seven-hour working day and pensions. In the summer of 1922, the unification of the Soviet republics began. On December 30, 1922, at the 1st All-Union Congress of Soviets, the Declaration and the Union Treaty were adopted. They proclaimed that the RSFSR, Ukrainian SSR, BSSR and ZSFSR were uniting into a single union state. The USSR was established as a federation of sovereign republics.
16 During the years of severe trials
The beginning of the Great Patriotic War began at dawn on June 22, 1941 with the bombing of large industrial USSR by fascist troops. All of Belarus was captured and German troops reached the approaches to Smolensk. On September 9, Leningrad was blocked, Moldova and Ukraine were occupied. The success of the capture was explained by Germany's advantage in all economic and strategic plans, and the Germans' use of the resources of already captured countries. The technical equipment of the Wehrmacht (tanks, aircraft, communications equipment, etc.) was significantly superior to the Soviet one in mobility and maneuverability.
The Russian Red Army was not rearmed and ready for war, as a result of which a significant part of Soviet aviation was destroyed in the first days of the war. Large formations of the Red Army were captured or liquidated.
On June 23, the Headquarters of the Main (Supreme) Command was formed under the leadership of I.V. Stalin, V.M. Molotova, S.K. Timoshenko, S.M. Budyonny, K.E. Voroshila, B.M. Shaposhnikov and G.K. Zhukov, who set a large-scale task of national mobilization of all the country's resources. Tactics have been put forward to organize a strategic defense in such a way as to wear down and stop the advance of the fascist troops. Large defensive border battles unfolded (defense of the Brest Fortress, etc.). The defense of Kyiv was carried out until September 1941, and Odessa until October. The stubborn resistance of the Red Army in the summer and autumn of 1941 thwarted Hitler's plan for a lightning war.
At the end of September and beginning of October 1941, the German operation"Typhoon", aimed at capturing Moscow, but the Red Army managed to stop the enemy.
The second stage of the Nazi offensive on Moscow began on November 15, 1941. The enemy was repulsed, and Kalinin, Maloyaroslavets, Kaluga, and other cities and towns were liberated.
Since September 1942 The defense of Stalingrad lasted until the end of 1942, and the enemy suffered enormous damage to its troops. The headquarters of the Supreme High Command began to develop a plan for a grandiose offensive operation, three new fronts were created: Southwestern (N.F. Vatutin), Don (K.K. Rokossovsky) and Stalingrad (A.I. Eremenko). By February 2, 1943, German troops were liquidated.
After successful actions The so-called Kursk ledge was formed. Hitler's command, wanting to regain the strategic initiative, developed Operation Citadel, which became the largest military battle. The Battle of Kursk was commanded by G.K. Zhukov and A.M. Vasilevsky, N.F. Vatutin and K.K. Rokossovsky. After tank battles on July 12, the enemy was stopped. The counter-offensive of the Red Army began.
The result of the war was the achievement of military and political superiority over the enemy. The USSR increased its tactical level of planning and conducting combat operations. In 1944-1945. A number of other operations were undertaken to completely liberate the country and overthrow Hitler's power. The blockade of Leningrad, which lasted 900 days, was lifted. The northwestern part of the USSR territory was liberated.
The victory in World War II was of great importance not only for us, but also for Bulgaria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia in the fight against fascism. These countries were able to free themselves from the pro-German regime and move on to patriotism.
The mobilization of efforts from all spheres of the country's society was carried out under the slogan “Everything for the front, everything for victory!”, which has important practical significance. The attack on the USSR caused a powerful patriotic upsurge of the entire population. Without sparing themselves, Soviet citizens enrolled in the people's militia, donated their blood, and participated in air defense, donated money and jewelry to the defense fund. The Red Army received great assistance from millions of women sent to dig trenches, build anti-tank ditches and other defensive structures.
In general, two stages can be distinguished in the country’s economy:
Perestroika (22 June 1941 - end of 1942) to military tasks and missions, as well as stabilization due to the loss of the economically developed European part of the Soviet Union.
Growth (1943-1945) military build-up industrial production, achieving economic superiority over the Nazis and restoring the economy in the liberated territories.
The transition to modern Russia is associated with the period 1953-1964. Khrushchev's "thaw", which was characterized by political liberalization. The transformation took place in almost all areas, but many reforms did not find understanding of the party-state apparatus and were doomed to failure.
The composition of the CPSU and the Government was modified in 1953: the secretariat of the party Central Committee was headed by N.S. Khrushchev; Chairmanship of the Council of Ministers - G.M. Malenkov, foreign affairs - V.M. Molotov, defense - N.A. Bulganin. L.P. became the head of the new Ministry of Internal Affairs. Beria, and K.E. was approved as chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. Voroshilov.
The leaders publicly declared their desire for collective leadership, but from the very first days L.P.’s internal struggle began. Beria (arrested later in 1953), G.M. Malenkova and N.S. Khrushchev. The country's leadership has declared a course towards democratization of social life.
N.S. Khrushchev advocated the reorganization of the personnel of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and State Security, and organized work on the rehabilitation of those illegally repressed.
In the second half of the 50s, a reform of the justice system was carried out in order to strengthen law and order in the country. New criminal legislation and the Regulations on prosecutorial supervision were approved. At the end of the 50s, work was underway to restore the autonomy of many deported peoples (Chechens, Kalmyks, Ingush, etc.). However, Khrushchev’s policies caused increasing discontent among the party and state apparatus, which believed that the exposure of Stalin’s personality cult would lead to a decline in the authority of the USSR. The June (1957) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee expelled Molotov, Milenkov and Kaganovich from the highest party bodies, which was the beginning of renewal higher authorities authorities.
The new program proclaimed the country's entry into a period of "expanded communist construction" with such tasks as: achieving the highest per capita production in the world, the transition to communist self-government, and educating a new person.
In the second half of 1953, radical changes began in the country's economy. Their character and direction indicated some change in the economic course. The changes concerned primarily agricultural production, its accelerated rise in order to provide the population with food and light industry with raw materials. Improving the well-being of the people was declared one of the central tasks of the new leadership. To resolve it, the development of a new agricultural policy began, the foundations of which were approved at the September (1953) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee. Financing of agricultural sectors increased. Since 1954, the development of virgin and fallow lands began. In 1958, MTS was reorganized. Collective farms received the right to buy equipment from MTS. The entire set of economic measures made it possible to achieve certain successes in the development of agricultural production. In 1953-1958. the increase in agricultural products was 34% compared to the previous five years.
In the second half of the 50s, the country's industry rose to a qualitatively new level. There were about 300 industries and types of production. In 1957, a law was adopted to restructure the management of industry and construction. The main organizational form of government was the Councils of National Economy and Economic Councils. The scale of housing construction has increased. New principles for the development of residential neighborhoods were developed, combining residential complexes with cultural and community institutions. In the second half of the 50s, almost a quarter of the population moved to new apartments.
18 Crisis and collapse of the USSR. Modern Russia
The crisis of Soviet society gained momentum in the late 80s. due to the emergence of powerful political parties in union republics ah (Ukrainian “Rukh”, Lithuanian “Sąjūdis”, popular fronts in Latvia, Estonia, Moldova, Georgia, Azerbaijan, etc.) with the goal of creating independent national states.
In August 1987, mass protests began for the abolition of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact in the Baltic states. In February 1988, Armenian-Azerbaijani clashes took place in Nagorno-Karabakh. The year 1989 was marked by interethnic Central Asian conflicts that turned into pogroms with a large number of victims. Attempts by the allied authorities to suppress the separatist movement led to the opposite result.
Thus, the following reasons for the collapse of the USSR can be identified: forced inclusion into the USSR different nations, the impossibility of further development of the empire, the weakening of economic and political ties between the regions and the center during the period of “perestroika”, the fall of the CPSU, the elite’s desire for independence and its support for the separatist movement.
The crisis of the USSR led to the collapse of the Soviet state in four stages:
1. The withdrawal of a number of republics from the USSR (March-October 1990) began with the election of people's deputies in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Georgia, etc. The nationalists who headed for secession from the Soviet Union won. Lithuania was declared an independent state, and another neighboring countries began preparations for this event.
2. Acceleration of decay (October 1990 - April 1991). Russia and Ukraine B.N. supported the overthrow of the union center. Yeltsin entered into an open struggle with the authorities of the USSR (in connection with their refusal of the “500 days” program), and in Ukraine the II Congress of Rukh announced the beginning of the struggle for “restoration of independent and democratic republic». The main danger for the USSR was the conclusion of a dual agreement between these two states on November 20, 1990. The process of the Baltic republics leaving the USSR accelerated. Latvia and Estonia were declared independent. Russian radicals came out in support of democratic forces in the Baltics. On January 20, 1991, a demonstration of solidarity by three hundred thousand people took place in Moscow, and Yeltsin demanded Gorbachev’s resignation as president and the dissolution of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.
3. Temporary equilibrium of centrifugal and centripetal forces (April-August 1991). As a result of the meeting on March 17, 1991, Gorbachev opened the “Novo-Ogarevsky process”, during which there was
The “9+1 Statement” was signed (9 union republics and the leadership of the USSR) on the preparation of a new Union Treaty. The project provided for the Russian language to be made interethnic, and the military-industrial complex was transferred to the joint management of the Union and the parties to the agreement.
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