IN different years In past centuries, foreign conquerors have repeatedly tried to conquer Rus', but it stands, unbroken, to this day. Difficult times on Russian soil have arisen more than once in history. But the same as in the 13th century, difficult period, which threatened the very existence of the state, did not exist, it seems, either before or since. Attacks were carried out both from the west and from the south by various aggressors. We've arrived hard times on Russian soil.
Rus' in the 13th century
What was she like? At the beginning of the 13th century, Constantinople had already lost its influence as a center of spirituality. And some countries (for example, Bulgaria, Serbia) recognize the power and primacy of Catholicism. Rus', then still Kiev, becomes the stronghold of the Orthodox world. But the territory was heterogeneous. Before the invasion of Batu and his horde, the Russian World consisted of several principalities competing for spheres of influence among themselves. The civil strife tore apart the princely relatives and did not contribute to the organization of one united army capable of providing worthy resistance to the invaders. This paved the way for difficult times to happen on Russian soil.
Invasion of Batu
In 1227, Genghis Khan, the great eastern warrior, passed away. The usual redistribution of power between relatives took place. One of the grandsons, Batu, had a particularly militant character and organizational talents. He gathered a huge army by those standards (somewhere around 140 thousand people), consisting of nomads and mercenaries. In the autumn of 1237 the invasion began.
The Russian army was less numerous (up to 100 thousand people) and scattered. That's why we lost in the tragic situation. It would seem that here is an opportunity to unite and unanimously resist the enemy. But the ruling elite of the princes continued the strife, and in Novgorod, in the north, popular unrest broke out with renewed vigor. The result is further ruin of the principalities. First Ryazan, then Vladimir-Suzdal. Kolomna, Moscow... Having ruined Vladimir, Batu went to Novgorod, but before reaching it, he turned south and went to the Polovtsian steppes to replenish his strength. In 1240, Batu’s hordes ravaged Chernigov and Kyiv, entering Europe, the Mongol-Tatar warriors reached all the way to the Adriatic. But later they stopped the war in these territories. And then difficult times came on Russian soil. The two-hundred-year yoke was established within two decades after the invasion and implied the payment of tribute by all conquered lands to the Tatar rulers. According to historians, it ended only in 1480.
Threat from the West
Hard times on Russian soil were not limited to problems in the east and south in the 13th century. If the invasions of the invaders there were more of a punitive nature of expeditions, then in the western part there were constant regular military attacks. Rus' resisted with all its might the Swedes, Lithuanians, and Germans.
In 1239 he sent a large army against Novgorod. But in the same year the Swedes were pushed back and defeated (Smolensk was taken). They also won on the Neva. Prince Alexander of Novgorod, at the head of his squad, defeated a well-armed and trained Swedish army. For this victory he was nicknamed Nevsky (at that time the hero was only 20 years old!). In 1242, the Germans were expelled from Pskov. And Alexander in the same year dealt a crushing blow to the knightly troops in ( Battle on the Ice). So many knights died that for another 10 years he did not risk attacking Russian lands. Although many of the battles of the Novgorodians were successful, these were still rather difficult, difficult times on Russian soil.
The world around us (4th grade)
To summarize, we can say, generalizing, that the entire 13th century was difficult for both the ruling princes and the elite. common people, who died and shed blood as a result of prolonged and numerous military actions. The Mongol yoke certainly affected the development Russian statehood, and on the material well-being of cities forced to pay tribute.
And due to its importance, battles with crusader knights are glorified in films and literature. This material can be used for a lesson
Pannonia- a Roman province located on the territory of modern Hungary, Austria, Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia. and to the east (towards the upper reaches of the Volga, Upper and Middle Dnieper). The ancestors of today's Poles were among those who decided to stay in the land of their fathers and grandfathers. In the 9th-10th centuries, the rulers of the Polyan tribe, from which the name of the state came, began the successful conquest of the surrounding tribes. The legendary ancestor of the first dynasty was the peasant Piast, who was elevated to the throne by God's providence. Boleslav the Brave and Svyatopolk enter the Golden Gate in Kyiv. Painting by Jan Matejko. 1884 Wikimedia CommonsRelations with Russia. The development of Rus' and Poland occurred in parallel. Already really early stage In their relationships, wars and conflicts occurred much more often than alliances and cooperation. The reason for this was the civilizational choice made by their rulers with a difference of 20 years. In 966, Mieszko I adopted Christianity according to the Western model, and in 988, Prince Vladimir - according to the Eastern one. In medieval Europe, there was no idea of ethnic solidarity: the main criterion in determining “friend or foe” was religious affiliation. Different faiths predetermined the hostility of two related Slavic peoples. However, there were also more utilitarian reasons for this. Rus' and Poland conflicted over the Cherven lands (now - Western Ukraine). After the victories of Vladimir in 981 and Yaroslav the Wise in 1030-1031, these territories went to Kyiv.
Poles also took part in Russian strife. In 1018, Boleslav I the Brave supported his son-in-law Svyatopolk the Accursed in the fight against Yaroslav the Wise and for some time even took possession of Kiev - however, the rebel townspeople soon expelled the “Poles”. In 1069, similar events occurred: Izyaslav Yaroslavich, expelled by his brothers from Kyiv, fled to Poland to his nephew Boleslav II the Bold, who made a campaign against Rus' and restored his uncle to the throne. Occasionally, Russians and Poles entered into military alliances, as, for example, in 1076, when Prince of Smolensk Vladimir Monomakh and the Volyn prince Oleg Svyatoslavich acted in alliance with Boleslav II against the Czechs.
Mongols near Legnica. At the peak is the head of Henry II of Silesia. From Freytag's Hedwig manuscript. 1451 Wrocław University Library In 1237 (the beginning of Batu’s invasion of the Russian principalities). The history of the two Slavic states continued to develop in parallel. In 1138, after the death of Bolesław III Wrymouth, the appanage period began in Poland, just as it had a few years earlier in Rus'. Poland entered the 13th century as a conglomerate of principalities warring among themselves: Kuyavia, Mazovia, Sandomierz, Silesia and others. Characteristic feature Polish feudalism became the tradition of veche meetings (the prototype of future diets), necessary to establish control over appanage prince by the feudal lords. In the 1230s, a unifying trend was associated with the names of the Silesian princes - Henry the Bearded and Henry the Pious. However, the Mongol-Tatar invasion and defeat Polish army in the battle of Legnica in 1241, led to a new round of discord and civil strife.
Livonian Order
Map of Livonia. Prepared by cartographer Joanness Portantius. 1573 Wikimedia Commons Where did it come from? In the 8th-13th centuries, the Germans waged an irreconcilable struggle with the Slavic tribes to expand their lands to the east. To conquer the neighboring Slavs, and later the pagan Baltic and Finno-Ugric tribes of Livonia (present-day Latvia and Estonia), knightly orders were created and crusades were carried out. In 1202, the Order of the Sword Bearers was created. The knights subjugated the Livonian tribes and founded a number of fortress cities to control these lands, including Revel (present-day Tallinn). The Sword Bearers also fought with the Novgorodians and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1236, in the battle of Siauliai, they suffered a crushing defeat from the Lithuanians - 48 knights and the master of the order were killed. In 1237, the Order of the Swordsmen joined the Teutonic Order, which had moved from Palestine to Prussia, and became its Livonian branch.
Minnesinger Tannhäuser in the garb of the Teutonic knights. Illustration from the Manes Codex. XIV century Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg Relations with Russia. Livonian Order laid claim not only to the Baltic lands: the knights sought to spread their faith (and with it power) further to the northeast - the southern coast Gulf of Finland, Izhora land, Pskov, and eventually Novgorod. The Novgorod troops, in turn, inflicted a number of defeats on the Livonian knights. In 1242, Alexander Nevsky defeated the knights in the Battle of the Ice, and in 1253 his son Vasily, at the head of the Novgorod and Pskov troops, continued his father’s work. Somewhat less known is the Battle of Rakovor in 1268, during which, according to the chronicler, Pskov, Novgorod and Vladimir troops defeated the Livonians and Danes. It is worth noting that the confrontation was not widespread and constant. In particular, in 1224, the Pskov boyars entered into an agreement with the Order of the Swordsmen, according to which they renounced the alliance with Novgorod, promised not to interfere in the Novgorod-German conflicts and recognized the order as allies in the event of an attack by the Novgorodians on Pskov.
In 1237. Pope Gregory IX and Grandmaster Teutonic Order Hermann von Salza performed the ceremony of joining the remnants of the Order of the Swordsmen to the Teutonic Order. The emerging Livonian Order existed until 1562, and in XIV-XVI centuries, in fact, turned into independent state in the Baltic states.
Principality of Lithuania
Where did it come from? The consolidation of the tribes of the Southern Baltic refers to
to the XI-XIII centuries. The core of the new state was the Lithuanian tribe, which united around itself the tribes of the Aukštaitians, Samogitians (in the Russian tradition - Zhmud) and partly the Yatvingians and Semigallians. Mindovg (ruled in the mid-13th century) is considered the founder of the Principality of Lithuania. The emergence of the state was a response to the expansion of the Order of the Sword, the Teutonic Order, the Kingdom of Sweden and the Russian principalities into the Baltics. Unlike its northern neighbors - the Livs, Latgalians and Estonians, who quickly fell under the rule of the Livonian knights, Lithuania managed for quite a long time not only to maintain its independence and pagan faith, but also to turn into powerful force in Eastern Europe.
Prince Mindovg. Illustration for the chronicle of Alessandro Guanini. 16th century Wikimedia Commons Relations with Russia. In the Tale of Bygone Years (12th century), Lithuania is mentioned among the peoples who paid tribute to Rus'. Vladimir also made military campaigns in the Baltic states, imposing tribute on the Yatvingians. With the beginning of strife in Rus', the tribes of the Southern Baltic, apparently, first paid tribute to the Prince of Polotsk, but already in the 1130s their dependence on Rus' ceased. Moreover, taking advantage of the weakening of the Russian lands, Lithuania switched to active expansion. At the end of the 12th century, it came under her power Principality of Polotsk. Thus, from the very moment of its inception, the Lithuanian state had a Slavic component. Subsequently, the inhabitants of Polotsk, Vitebsk and a number of other smaller principalities became the core of the formation Belarusian people, in the ethnogenesis of which Lithuanian domination played a significant role. In the XII-XIII centuries, Lithuanians made numerous campaigns against Smolensk, Pskov, Novgorod and the Galicia-Volyn principality.
In 1237. The Mongol invasion and the subsequent decline of Russian lands played into the hands of the ambitious plans of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. It was at this time that Prince Mindovg managed to finally unite the state and begin the Lithuanian expansion into Russian lands. In the 14th century it came under Lithuanian rule most of modern Belarus, and in 1362 after the victory of Prince Olgerd over the Tatars in the Battle of Blue Waters - most of modern Ukraine (including Volyn, Kyiv and Seversky lands). Now up to 90 percent of the inhabitants of the Grand Duchy were Slavs. The Tatar yoke was eliminated in the conquered lands, and the pagan Lithuanians were tolerant of Orthodoxy. Thus, Lithuania became one of the possible centers of the unification of Rus'. However, in the war with Moscow (1368-1372), Prince of Lithuania Olgerd was defeated and recognized the right of Dmitry Donskoy to the great reign. Already new Lithuanian ruler, the son of Olgerd Jagiello, converted to Catholicism and began to oppress the interests of the Russian boyars and the Orthodox clergy. In 1385, under the terms of the Union of Krevo, having married Queen Jadwiga, Jagiello also became Polish king, actually uniting these two states under his rule. Over time, the Baltic tribes for the most part converted to Catholicism, and the predominantly Orthodox Slavic population of the country found itself in a difficult and unequal situation.
Volga Bulgaria
Bulgarian silver dish with the image of two lions. 11th century Where did it come from? During the Great Migration of Peoples (IV-VI centuries), many others ended up in Europe along with the Huns. Turkic peoples, in particular the Bulgars. After the collapse of Great Bulgaria (the state that briefly united the Bulgar tribes ceased to exist around 671), one of the hordes led by Khan Kotrag moved from the Black Sea steppes to the north and settled in the region of the Middle Volga and Kama. There the Turks managed to take a leading position in multi-ethnic government entities VIII-IX centuries, the most active of which were Bulgar and Bilyar. At the same time, another Bulgar horde under the command of Khan Asparukh subjugated the Slavs in the east of the Balkan Peninsula. As a result of the merger of these two ethnic components, the Bulgarian state emerged. The section of the Volga, which was controlled by the Bulgars, was part of the Volga trade route, connecting Northern Europe with the Arab Caliphate and other countries of the East. This ensured their well-being, but dependence on the Khazar Kaganate hampered the process of formation of Bulgar statehood until the beginning of the 10th century. As evidenced by eyewitness, traveler and writer of the early 10th century Ibn Fadlan, the formation of an independent political tradition in Bulgaria was associated with the adoption of Islam around 922.
Bulgarian shield to protect the hand from the bowstring. XII-XIV centuries From the catalog album “Svetozarnaya Kazan”, St. Petersburg, 2005 Relations with Russia. Prince Svyatoslav “helped” the Bulgars to free themselves from the power of the Khazar Kaganate, who defeated the Khazar capital Sarkel in 965. During the 10th century, Kievan Rus repeatedly organized campaigns against Volga Bulgaria (in 977, 985, 994 and 997) - one of these campaigns (probably in 985) ended with the signing of a peace treaty in Kyiv. According to Russian chronicles, in 986, the Bulgar embassy came to the capital of Ancient Rus' not only to strengthen friendly relations, but also to offer their religion - Islam. For Volga Bulgaria, Rus' was both the main trading partner and the main competitor in Western markets; Islamization opened up leverage for manipulation of the neighbor's economy. The refusal of Prince Vladimir was received calmly by the Bulgars, since trade relations were a priority in relations between Bulgar and Kiev. In 1006, the “partnership agreement” was renegotiated on new terms: Prince Vladimir gave the Bulgars the right to free trade in the cities along the Volga and Oka, Russian merchants received the same opportunities on the territory of Volga Bulgaria.
The aggravation of the Bulgaro-Russian conflict occurred during the reign of Yuri Dolgoruky and Andrei Bogolyubsky. The final point in the border confrontation was set by Vsevolod the Big Nest: in 1183 he ravaged the new Bulgarian capital, the city of Bilyar. This campaign showed the clear superiority of Rus', which continued the colonization of the Volga-Oka basin. Rivalry of princes North-Eastern Rus' and Volga Bulgaria for Mordovian lands continued later. The last armed conflict dates back to 1228-1232.
Even the presence of a common formidable enemy did not lead to the reconciliation of former trading partners, and now foreign policy rivals.
In 1237. The troops of Khan Batu swept away Volga Bulgaria - by 1240 it was finally conquered and became part of the Golden Horde. By the 15th century, the Bulgars had actually restored their state, which was called the Kazan Khanate.
Cumans
Where did you come from. Polovtsy - that’s what their Russian contemporaries called them
in the XI-XIII centuries, in Europe and Byzantium they were known as Cumans, and in Persia and Arab countries as Kipchaks. They were a people of Turkic origin who initially occupied the territory from the South-Eastern Urals to the Irtysh River. Since the Cumans were an unliterate people, science draws information about their early history mainly from the works of Arab travelers. From the beginning of the 11th century, they moved to the West, participating in the next “migration” of the Turks to the rich western pastures, and ousted the Pechenegs and Torks Torquay- one of the Turkic tribes that roamed the Black Sea steppes
in the X-XIII centuries., with whom the Russian princes had already managed to establish relatively peaceful neighborly relations by this time.
The story of Prince Igor's campaign against the Polovtsians: the first battle. Radziwill Chronicle. 15th century
Relations with Russia. The first major clash occurred in 1068 on the Alta River, during which the united army of the sons of Yaroslav the Wise was defeated. After this, Polovtsian raids became regular. The Russian princes were forced to adapt to such a neighborhood, and some were especially “successful” in this. In particular, Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich, in an attempt to return the Chernigov throne that rightfully belonged to him, hired the Polovtsians to fight his uncles Vsevolod and Izyaslav - in the end, Oleg got his way and allowed the Polovtsians to plunder the city. The peak of the confrontation occurred in the 1090s and was associated with the name of Oleg’s cousin Vladimir Monomakh. In 1094, the Polovtsians inflicted the first and last defeat on Vladimir Monomakh, forcing the prince to leave Chernigov to Oleg Svyatoslavich, but already in 1096 Monomakh struck back, defeating the Polovtsian army at the walls of Pereyaslavl. During the battle, Khan Tugorkan died, whose image, the worst enemy of Rus', was reflected in folklore: he is believed to be mentioned in epics under the name of the Snake Tugarin, or Tugarin Zmeevich. As a result of numerous campaigns, Monomakh forced the Polovtsians deep into the steppe beyond the Don and Volga, and also twice destroyed (in 1111 and 1116) the main city of the nomads Sharukan. After the death of Vladimir Monomakh in 1125, the Cumans again became active participants in the internecine struggle of the Russian princes: as a rule, they supported the Suzdal and Novgorod-Seversk princes in military campaigns. In 1169, the Polovtsy, in the ranks of the troops of Andrei Bogolyubsky, took part in the sack of Kyiv.
The Russian princes, for their part, also participated in the Polovtsian feuds. So in 1185, Prince Igor Svyatoslavich, the main character of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” set out on a campaign in the steppe against the horde of Khan Gzak (Gza), supporting the claims of his matchmaker Khan Konchak. The last joint military enterprise of the Russian princes and Polovtsian khans against the Mongol army of Jebe and Subedei ended in failure on the Kalka River on May 31, 1223.
In 1237. The Polovtsians were defeated by Batu's troops in 1236-1243. Many Polovtsians were driven into slavery, most of them disappeared into the Turkic population of the Golden Horde, subsequently contributing to the formation of such ethnic groups as Tatars, Bashkirs, Kazakhs, Uzbeks, Balkars, Karachais, Crimean Tatars. The other part, led by Khan Kotyan, was first accepted on favorable terms by the Hungarian king Bela IV, and after the death of its leader in 1241, it migrated to Bulgaria.
Mongols
Where did you come from. The Mongol state arose at the beginning of the 13th century in the steppes Southern Siberia, south of the lake Baikal, on the border with China. The Mongolian tribes were united by Temujin, who was named Genghis Khan, the Great Khan, at the kurultai (meeting of the Mongolian nobility) in 1206. He created an army of thousands, based on severe discipline, and gave the Mongols laws - Yasu. During his first campaigns, Genghis Khan subjugated the surrounding tribes of the Great Steppe, including the Tatars, who were almost completely destroyed. This ethnonym was preserved primarily thanks to the Chinese, who called all the nomadic tribes to the north-west Tatars, as in their time the Romans called all those who lived outside the empire barbarians.
During his campaigns, Genghis Khan conquered the Qin Empire (Northwestern China), the Central Asian Karakitayan kingdom, as well as the state of Khorezm in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya. In 1220-1224, several detachments of Mongols led by commanders Jebe and Subedei, pursuing the Shah of Khorezm Muhammad, invaded Transcaucasia, defeated the Alan tribes and inflicted several defeats on the Cumans.
Relations with Russia. In 1223, the Polovtsian Khan Kotyan requested help from his son-in-law, the Galician prince Mstislav the Udal. At the congress of princes in Kyiv, it was decided to provide assistance to the Polovtsians: this was required by allied and family ties, and besides, the Mongols directly threatened the Black Sea interests of the Russian lands. Regiments headed by Mstislav of Kyiv, Mstislav of Chernigov, Mstislav the Udaly and Daniil Romanovich of Galitsky went to the steppe. However, the main military leader was not elected at the congress. The Russian-Polovtsian army was disunited, each prince fought on his own, and Mstislav of Kiev did not take to the battlefield at all, taking refuge with his army in the camp. The Battle of the Kalka River, which took place on May 31, 1223, ended in complete defeat for the Russian-Polovtsian coalition. Six princes died, and of the ordinary soldiers, according to the chronicler, only every tenth returned. However, the defeat did not force the Russian principalities, carried away by internecine struggle, to take any measures in case of a repeat invasion.
Capture of Suzdal by Batu. Miniature from Litsevoye chronicle code. 16th century Russian National Library In 1237 A huge Mongol army stood on the borders of Russian lands, awaiting the order of their new ruler, Khan Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, to attack Ryazan and Vladimir. Volga Bulgaria had just been erased from political map peace, the Mordovian and Burtas lands were devastated. In the winter of 1237-1238, Mongol hordes moved to Rus'. The princes did not even attempt to convene a congress to gather an all-Russian army. Behind a short time Ryazan and Vladimir, Tver and Torzhok, Kyiv and Chernigov, Galich and Vladimir-Volynsky were destroyed and plundered.
In 1243, the Russian princes were summoned to the Horde, where they recognized vassal dependence on Mongolian state, until 1266 part of Mongol Empire, and later separated. The “yoke” consisted of paying tribute, the need to receive special permits from the khans - labels confirming the rights of princes to manage their lands, and occasionally the participation of Russian troops in Mongol campaigns.
Batu's invasion and long-term tributary relations with the horde weakened Rus', undermined its economic potential, and complicated contacts with Western countries and indirectly led to the fact that a significant part of the southwestern and northwestern principalities was captured by Poland, Lithuania and Hungary. At the same time, a number of historians point to important role“yoke” in the development of Russian statehood, overcoming fragmentation and unifying the lands around Moscow.
Byzantine Empire
Where did it come from? Byzantium, a colony of the Greek city of Megara, was founded in the 7th century BC on the shores of the Golden Horn Bay at the confluence of the Bosporus Strait with the Sea of Marmara. The city was located at the intersection of trade routes: in particular, through the city, to which Emperor Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire in 330 AD, there passed the shortest land route connecting Europe and the Middle East - via militaris. Along this road, Roman emperors traveled to the eastern provinces of the country, along it in the Middle Ages the crusaders set out to conquer Jerusalem; the Great Silk Road and the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” passed through Byzantium. In 395, after the division of the Roman Empire, Constantinople became the capital of its eastern part. Feeling themselves to be the civilizational successors of Rome, the Byzantines called themselves Romans and their country the Roman Empire. IN neighboring countries they were called Greeks, and their country - Greek kingdom: Romans spoke Greek and belonged to Greek culture. Byzantium reached its peak in the middle of the 6th century under Emperor Justinian. At that time the empire included Egypt and North Africa, Middle East, Asia Minor, Balkans, Mediterranean islands, Apennine Peninsula and South part Pyrenees. Later war with the Persians, Lombards, Avars and Slavs weakened Byzantium. Significant territories were conquered from the Romans by the Arabs in the 7th century. From this time on, for the Byzantines great importance acquired lands located north of the Black Sea coast.
The Byzantine fleet repels the Russian attack in 941. Miniature from the Chronicle of John Skylitzes. XIII century Wikimedia Commons Relations with Russia. Constantinople (as Constantinople was called in Russian chronicles) was, perhaps, the most important of the neighbors of the Russian lands at the early stage of state development. The famous route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” led there, around which the ancient Russian proto-state arose at the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th centuries. Traded, fought, concluded agreements with Byzantium peace treaties And dynastic marriages. During the formation of the ancient Russian state, it is clearly visible that the main direction of expansion was the south. Its reason was the desire to establish control over trade routes, and the main goal of the raids was Constantinople. Byzantine sources record raids in the 830s and in 860 (in the Russian chronicle tradition this campaign is associated with Kyiv princes Askold and Dir). They were continued by the first Russian princes, who at the end of the 9th century managed to unite Novgorod and Kyiv under their rule and establish control over the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” Some historians deny the fact of Prince Oleg’s campaigns against Constantinople, since they were not reflected in Byzantine sources, but it is certainly impossible to dispute the signing of Russian-Byzantine treaties: in 907 - on the right of duty-free trade in Constantinople and in 911 - on peace, friendship and free hiring Russian squads for the Byzantine service. Prince Igor achieved less success in relations with the Romans; violating his alliance obligations, he undertook two not very successful campaigns against Constantinople - as a result, in 944, a new Russian-Byzantine treaty was concluded on less favorable terms.
Skillful Greek diplomacy more than once used the Russian princes for its own purposes: in the late 960s, Prince Svyatoslav intervened on the side of the Romans in the Bulgarian-Byzantine conflict, and in 988, Prince Vladimir assisted the co-emperor emperors Vasily II and Constantine VII in suppressing the commander’s rebellion Varda Phokas. Connected with these events is the most important civilizational choice made by Prince Vladimir - Orthodoxy. So in Russian-Byzantine relations another one appeared most important aspect— strong and long-term cultural and religious ties have been established. The Kiev Metropolitan was appointed by the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, and he was often Greek. Byzantine church art became a model for Russian artists for a long time: Russian frescoes and icons imitated Byzantine ones (and many were even created by Constantinople icon painters), and in Kyiv and Novgorod the churches of Hagia Sophia were erected - reflections of the Constantinople shrine.
The 12th century became a time of weakening of Byzantium. She survived heavy defeats from the Seljuk Turks and Pechenegs, in the Mediterranean the Greeks were pressed by the Italian trading republics - Venice and Genoa, the Normans conquered Southern Italy, and the crusading allies - Byzantine Syria. In such conditions, connections with Russia were acquired for Constantinople crucial. Thus, in “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land,” Vladimir Monomakh is portrayed as a strong ally, to whom Byzantium curried favor. After the beginning of the appanage period in Rus', relations between the Greeks and different lands developed differently. For example, the Vladimir-Suzdal principality remained an ally of Byzantium for a long time,
and Galicia-Volyn, on the contrary, often conflicted with it.
Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople. Painting by Eugene Delacroix. 1840 Wikimedia Commons In 1237. The result of the prolonged crisis in Byzantium was the fall of Constantinople, which was captured and plundered by the Venetians in 1204 during the Fourth crusade. For 60 years the empire disappeared from the political map of the world. Only in 1261 was it restored by the Nicaean emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos. The last 200 years of its history were spent fighting the Serbs in the Balkans and the Ottoman Turks in Asia Minor. In 1453, Constantinople was taken by storm by the Turks, after which the empire finally ceased to exist.
The table “Main events in the history of Ancient Rus' in the 9th – early 13th centuries” compiled by students based on materials from the textbook will probably look like this.
Main events in the history of Ancient Rus' in IX – beginning XIII century
Year | Internal political events | Foreign policy events |
Beginning of Rurik's reign in Novgorod | ||
Prince Oleg's campaign against Kyiv. Unification of the north (Novgorod) and south (Kyiv). Formation of the Old Russian State | ||
Campaigns of Prince Oleg to Constantinople (Constantinople). Signing a trade agreement beneficial for Rus' |
||
Unsuccessful campaigns of Prince Igor against Constantinople |
||
Prince Igor is killed by the rebel Drevlyans | ||
The campaign of Prince Svyatoslav against the Khazar Kaganate. The defeat and death of the Khazar Kaganate. Russian control over the Volga trade route |
||
Embassy of Rus' in Constantinople. Baptism of Princess Olga. Political union of Rus' and Byzantium |
||
Russian-Byzantine war. Death of Prince Svyatoslav |
||
Adoption of Christianity in Rus' under Prince Vladimir | ||
Lyubech Congress of Princes. Legal registration political fragmentation | ||
The defeat of the Polovtsians by Prince Vladimir Monomakh |
||
The assault and defeat of Kyiv by the united troops of the Russian princes and Polovtsian khans. Weakening of the all-Russian significance of Kyiv |
Lessons No. 14-15. Rus' between East and West.
During the lessons:
reveal the education process Mongol power, noting the features in comparison with the Old Russian state;
determine the reasons for the military successes of the Mongols during the formation of the Mongol Empire;
note the role of the struggle of Rus' against the Mongol invasion for the medieval European civilization;
characterize the significance of Rus'’s struggle against the German and Swedish invaders;
draw conclusions about the significance of the choice of the princes of North-Eastern Rus' in favor of an alliance with the Horde against the Catholic West.
Lesson Plan:
The formation of the Mongol state and its conquests.
Mongol invasion of Eastern and Central Europe.
Mongol power in the 13th century.
Rus' under the rule of the Golden Horde.
Rus' between the West and the Horde.
Means of education: textbook §12-13, historical map No. 7 “Russian lands in the 12th – early 13th centuries.”
Recommended methods and techniques for conducting lessons: independent work students with textbook text, historical map with elements of a general characteristics, solving cognitive tasks, work on compiling a table “Rus’ fight against the Mongol invasion and repelling Western aggression.”
Personalities: Genghis Khan, Batu, Alexander Nevsky.
Key dates: 1223 – battle on the Kalka River.
1237-1242 - Batya’s invasion of Rus'.
1240 – Battle of the Neva.
Questions for review:
Reveal the reasons for political fragmentation in Rus'.
Prove that the period of political fragmentation was accompanied by the economic and cultural rise of the Russian lands.
Compare development Novgorod land and the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, from the point of view of natural, economic, social and political features.
Describe the activities of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky. Why did his contemporaries call him “autocratic”?
Two lessons are allocated to study the topic. It is advisable to focus on the first three points of the lesson plan in the first lesson. The second lesson will be devoted to characterizing the most difficult issue - Rus' under the rule of the Golden Horde and the problem of choosing the princes of North-Eastern Rus' for civilizational development.
Option #1 . Since a significant part of the material in the paragraph is event-based and is largely familiar to students, the first lesson organizes independent work for students with the text of the textbook and map No. 7 to prepare answers to questions. In order to save time during the lesson, work in groups is possible.
Comparative characteristics of state formation among the Mongols and Eastern Slavs.
Causes successful conquests Mongols.
Batya's invasion of Rus' and its consequences.
Rus' between East and West.
Work on the first issue will make it possible to repeat the process of formation of the Old Russian state and, on this basis, note main feature states of the Mongols - “nomadic feudalism”, in which main value was cattle. It is better to entrust this question to the most prepared group of students, since comparative analysis quite complicated. The last question of the assignment is completed by students and discussed in the second lesson.
Reference point! About historical development nomadic societies in national science many different points of view have been expressed. There was a discussion among historians about “ nomadic feudalism" Some scientists believed that nomads developed according to the same laws as agricultural peoples, and the basis of their feudal relations was land ownership(pastures). Their opponents argued that the pastures of the nomads were collectively owned, and the basis of feudalism was livestock ownership.
Option #2. After a conversation with the class about the formation of the Mongolian state and the reasons for the successful conquests of the Mongols led by Genghis Khan, students conduct independent work with the text of the textbook, map No. 7 (task No. 1, p. 93). During the work, the table “Rus’ Struggle against the Mongol Invasion and Reflecting Western Aggression” is filled in, followed by a discussion of the results. In the process of this work, it is necessary to use document analysis of task No. 2 of the textbook.
date | Who did you fight with? | Events | Result |
Mongol power | The Polovtsians turned to the Russian princes for help. The united Russian-Polovtsian army and the Mongols met in a decisive battle near the Kalka River. | The military superiority of the Mongols, disagreements among the Russian princes, and the unexpected flight of the Polovtsians led to a terrible defeat for the Russian squads. |
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December 1237 | Invasion of the Mongol army led by Khan Batu. | Defeat of the troops Ryazan prince at the borders of the principality. Capture of the city of Ryazan. | Other principalities did not provide assistance to the Ryazan residents. The defeat of the Ryazan principality. |
January 1238 | The battle of the Vladimir-Suzdal troops with the Mongols near Kolomna. | Defeat of the Vladimir-Suzdal troops. Siege of Vladimir by the Mongols. |
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February 1238 | The assault and capture of Vladimir by the Mongols. | Another 14 cities of North-Eastern Rus' were taken by the Mongols. |
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March 1238 | Defeat of Vladimir troops on the City River. | Most of the Russian soldiers died and Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich. Before reaching Novgorod, the Mongols turned to the steppe. |
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April 1238 | The siege of the city of Kozelsk lasted 7 weeks. "Evil City" | Only by the beginning of summer did the Mongols manage to escape into the southern steppes. |
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Autumn 1239 | Devastation of the lands and principalities of Southern Rus'. | Invasion of Poland and Hungary. |
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The Swedish fleet along the Neva invaded the Novgorod possessions. Defeat on the Neva of the Swedes from Prince of Novgorod Alexander Yaroslavich (Nevsky). | The Swedes failed to block the Novgorodians trade route in the Baltic. |
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Livonian Order | "Battle on the Ice". | The regiments of Alexander Nevsky inflicted a crushing defeat on the knights on the ice Lake Peipsi. |
Question. Prove that the soldiers and residents of Rus' offered fierce resistance to the invaders.
As homework You can invite tenth graders to add historical facts and examples of textbook material. For the purpose of preliminary familiarization, students at home become familiar with the textbook material on the issues of “Rus under the rule of the Golden Horde” and “Rus between the Mongols and the West.”
In the second lesson, during the conversation, conclusions are analyzed and conclusions are drawn about the consequences of the Mongol invasion of Rus' and the significance of the choice of the princes of North-Eastern Rus' in favor of an alliance with the Horde against the Catholic West.
What consequences did the Mongol invasion have for Rus'?
Economic, social and cultural lag of Rus' from the countries of Western Europe.
Heavy material damage mass death population, destruction of cities. Decline of crafts, trade, cities.
Students should pay attention to the fact that this is the third factor holding back the development of the country. Remember, what other factors hampered the development of Rus' and determined its lag behind the countries of Western Europe? Schoolchildren answering this question should name the natural-geographical factor (see §6, pp. 44 and 46) and the absence during the formation of the Old Russian state, in contrast to the countries of Western Europe, on the territory of a highly developed civilization in ancient times, the inability to directly use the achievements ancient civilization(see §8, p. 59).
The military defeat delayed political unification northeastern lands.
Relations between Russian lands and Orthodox countries and European countries ceased.
Contributed to the development of despotic forms of power in Rus'.
A different point of view! Which positive sides the dependence of the northeastern principalities on the Golden Horde was noted by the historian V.O. Klyuchevsky? “In the devastated public consciousness (of the North-Eastern princes) there was only room left for the instincts of self-preservation and conquest. Only the image of Alexander Nevsky somewhat covered up the horror of savagery and fraternal bitterness that too often erupted among Russian rulers, relatives or cousins, uncles and nephews. If they had been left completely to their own devices, they would have torn their Rus' apart into incoherent, eternally warring patches of appanages. But the principalities of the then Northern Rus' were not independent possessions, but tributary “uluses” of the Tatars; their princes were called the slaves of the “free king,” as we called the Horde Khan. The power of this khan gave at least a ghost of unity to the smaller and mutually alienated patrimonial corners of the Russian princes. True, it was in vain to look for rights in the Volga Sarai. The Grand Duke's Vladimir table was the subject of bargaining and rebidding there; the Khan's purchased label covered all untruths. But the offended one did not always immediately grab his weapon, but went to seek protection from the khan, and not always unsuccessfully. The thunderstorm of the khan's wrath restrained the bullies; By mercy, that is, by arbitrariness, devastating strife was more than once prevented or stopped. The power of the khan was a rough Tatar knife, cutting the knots with which the descendants of Vsevolod III knew how to entangle the affairs of their land. It was not in vain that the Russian chroniclers called the filthy Hagarians the batog of God, admonishing sinners in order to lead them to the path of repentance.”
How was Rus''s dependence on the Golden Horde manifested?
The Khan of the Golden Horde appointed great princes. All princes had to receive from the khan shortcuts to own their lands. Contributed to the development of despotic forms of power in Rus'.
Dependence on the Golden Horde preserved political fragmentation.
Payment of tribute - "Tatar" exit" Population census, tribute collection standards established. Made it difficult to restore and develop the economy of the northeastern lands.
Administration of the Horde in the Russian principalities (until the middle of the 14th century) – Baskaki.
Punitive raids of the Golden Horde, during which the Horde took artisans and young people into slavery. Decline of crafts, trade, cities.
Was North-Eastern Rus' part of the Golden Horde?
From the point of view of the text of the textbook, North-Eastern Rus' became dependent on the Golden Horde, that is, it had “autonomy” - “the conquerors retained the system of government that had developed here, the army and religion.” However, in the “let’s summarize” section it is said that North-Eastern Rus' found itself “within the framework of the emerging Mongol Empire.” The complete personal dependence of the princes on the Mongol Khan, who gave them the right to govern their own territories, confirmation of this dependence by regular “outputs”, the supply of troops for joint military operations, the presence of the Horde administration (Baskaki), can hardly serve as a valid basis for the recognition of “autonomy” » Russian lands within the Golden Horde (ulus of Jochi).
Solutiondilemmas (see page 91)(i.e., a difficult choice between two equally unpleasant possibilities) princes. The solution to the dilemma by Prince Alexander Nevsky.
1 point of view. The prudent policy of Alexander Nevsky, who understood the futility of resistance to the Mongols, based on the alliance and subordination of Odra, relying on the help of the Mongol khans against the Catholic West, allowed him to maintain his own statehood.
2 point of view. Relying on the help of the Mongol khans, Alexander Nevsky consolidated the despotic traditions of governing North-Eastern Rus'. At the same time, he actually put an end to the effective resistance of the Russian princes to the Golden Horde for many years to come.
Lesson #16. Final repetition and generalization historical material in Chapter 2 is carried out using questions and tasks proposed in the textbook (pp. 93-94). Volume of oral and written work, the forms of conducting the final repetitive and generalizing lesson are determined by the teacher, based on the level of training and other characteristics of a particular class. The organization of work in this lesson can be built using various techniques and forms - a seminar, a test lesson, writing a micro-essay (see Thematic planning).
Questions for final repetition and generalization:
The influence of natural and geographical conditions on the formation and development of Ancient Rus'.
Highlight and justify the features of the emergence and development of the state among the Eastern Slavs.
Reveal the main periods of political development of Ancient Rus' in the 10th – 13th centuries.
Describe Old Russian society, its main groups.
Determine the features of the development of the culture of Ancient Rus' of this period.
Why this period What do scientists call the development of Ancient Rus' the pre-Mongol period? What changed in Rus' as a result of the invasion of the Mongols led by Batu Khan?
Tests:
1). The Eastern Slavs were characterized by an economic and cultural type
Nomadic pastoralists;
Farmers and settled pastoralists;
Nomadic pastoralists.
2). On the eve of the formation of the state, the worldview of the Eastern Slavs was
Pagan;
Not religious;
3). Read an excerpt from the work “Strategikon” and determine social order Eastern Slavs.
“They do not keep those they have captives in slavery, like other tribes, for an unlimited time, but, limiting (the period of slavery) certain time, offer them a choice: do they want to return home for a certain ransom or remain there as free people?”
Slaveholding;
Feudal;
Tribal.
4). Most Russian epics are associated with the name:
Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich;
Prince Svyatopolk the Accursed;
Prince Igor Svyatoslavich.
5). What event in Russian history happened in 882?
Calling to the reign of Rurik;
The death of Prince Igor from the Drevlyans;
Prince Oleg's campaign against Kyiv.
6). Which of the named events occurred later than all the others?
Baptism of Rus';
Prince Oleg's campaign against Constantinople;
The death of Prince Igor as a result of the Drevlyan uprising.
7). The consequence of the adoption of Christianity by Russia was
Acquaintance with the heritage of antiquity;
The split of Russian society along religious lines.
8). Who owns the words mentioned in the chronicle? “If anyone does not come to the river tomorrow - be it rich, or poor, or beggar, or slave - he will be my enemy.”
Prince Yaroslav the Wise;
Prince Alexander Nevsky;
Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich.
9). The event to which the phrase “let each one keep his homeland” refers occurred in
1. 1097; 2. 1113; 3. 1237.
10). Hereditary land ownership in medieval Rus' called:
1. Patrimony; Rope; Pogost.
eleven). The code of laws of Ancient Rus' was called:
"Salic truth";
"Russian Truth";
"Ladder".
12). Servants, procurement, serf in Ancient Rus' belonged to
Dependent population;
To the free population;
Noble population.
13). Which of the main groups of the population of the Old Russian state belongs to the article in “Russian Truth”?
"If __________ hits free man and he will run away into the mansions, ... and after that, if somewhere he finds ________ a person beaten by him, let him kill him like a dog.”
14). Match genres ancient Russian literature and titles of works.
A). “The Word” 1. “The Tale of Boris and Gleb”
B). Life 2. “The Tale of Bygone Years”
B) Chronicle 3. “Teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh.
15). Read an excerpt from the chronicle and determine which event the information contained in it relates to.
“Why are we destroying the Russian land, creating hostility against ourselves, while the Polovtsians are tearing our land apart and rejoicing that there are wars between us to this day. From now on, we will unite into one heart and protect the Russian lands. Let everyone keep his homeland..." and on that they kissed the cross... and having taken an oath, they went home..."
16). Establish a correspondence between concepts and their definitions.
A). Expansion 1. Tour of the lands subject to Kyiv by the prince and his squad from
for the purpose of collecting tribute.
B). Heresy 2. Expansion, capture of new territories.
IN). Patrimony 3. A creed different from the religious system
ideas recognized by the church.
G). Polyudye 4. Hereditary land ownership in medieval Rus'.
17). Read an excerpt from the historian’s work and determine which of the 12th-century princes it was dedicated to.
"Having not only kind heart, but also an excellent mind, he clearly saw the cause of state disasters and wanted to save at least his region from them: that is, he abolished the unfortunate system of appanages, reigned autocratically and did not give cities to either his brothers or sons ... "
Key to test tasks:
Lyubech Congress | Andrey Bogolyubsky |
Topic 3. Western Europe in the XI-XV centuries
The material on this topic gives an idea of the formation of the foundations of European civilization. The historical material of the textbook chapter examines important problems of economic (urban development, small-scale craft production), political (formation of centralized states) and social (bourgeois and the formation of new bourgeois values) processes in countries medieval Europe. The historical material of the chapter, which is insignificant in volume, is important from the point of view of studying similar processes in Russia and for determining the features and differences that are similar, but only at first glance, in the directions of historical development of medieval Russia and Western countries.
Lesson #17. Economic and political development.
During the lesson:
note important changes in economic life medieval society of Western Europe and their consequences for the rapid development of cities;
analyze the cause-and-effect relationship between the processes of economic recovery, the transformation of townspeople into an influential political force in medieval society and the formation of centralized states in Western Europe;
give comparative characteristics strengthening royal power and creating centralized states using the example of France and England;
characterize the weakening of the power of popes over secular monarchs, the growth of heretical movements in Europe.
Means of education: textbook §14.
The culture of our country is so interesting and diverse that I want to study it more and more deeply. Let's plunge into the history of our country in the 13th century.
A Russian person is a great person; he must know the history of his Motherland.
Without knowing the history of their country, not a single civilized society will develop, but, on the contrary, will begin to lag behind in its development, and perhaps stop altogether.
The period of culture of the 13th century is usually called the pre-Mongol period, that is, before the arrival of the Mongols in our state. During this period of time, Byzantium had a great influence on the development of culture. Thanks to Byzantium, Orthodoxy appeared in Rus'.
The culture of Ancient Rus' of the 13th century is a great creation of the past. Each period of time in history is so unrepeatable that each period separately is worthy of in-depth study. Looking at historical monuments, we can say that culture has entered modern spiritual life. Despite the fact that many works of art have not survived to our times, the beauty of that time continues to delight and surprise us with its scale.
Features of the culture of the 13th century:
- the religious worldview prevailed;
- during this period, many signs were invented, there were no explanations for them by science, and to this day they cannot be explained;
- great attention was paid to traditions, grandfathers were revered;
-slow pace of development;
The tasks facing the masters of that time:
- unity - the unity of the entire Russian people, at that time in the fight against enemies;
- glorification of great princes and boyars;
- assessed all previous historical events. The culture of the 13th century is closely connected with the past.
During this time, literature continued to develop. The work “Prayer” was written by Daniil Zatochnik. The book was dedicated to Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, son of Vsevolod the Big Nest. The book used colloquial speech combined with satire. In it, the author condemns the dominance of the boyars, the tyranny that they committed. He created a prince who protected orphans and widows, thereby trying to show that good and good-natured people were not extinct in Rus'.
The centers for storing books were still monasteries and churches. Books were copied and chronicles were kept on their territory.
The genre - Life, the main idea - has become widespread. These works were a description of the lives of saints. Particular attention was paid to the lives of monks and ordinary people.
They began to write parables.
An important place in the development of literature was occupied by chronicles, where everything that happened in people's lives was written, everything was described year by year.Epics glorified the exploits of soldiers who defended their homeland. The epics were based on events that actually happened.
Architecture.
During this period, construction began to develop. As already mentioned, the entire culture of this period was imbued with the trends of Byzantium, which could not have a positive effect on the culture of Rus'. The transition from wooden construction to stone begins.In addition, Byzantine culture always put the church and icon painting in first place, cutting off everything that contradicted Christian principles.
The arriving principles of art were faced with the fact that East Slavs worship the sun and wind. Carried cultural heritage Byzantium left its mark on the culture of Ancient Rus'.
The main symbol of the construction of this period of time was the St. Sophia Cathedral. The walls of the cathedral, for the first time in Rus', were made of red brick. The church had five domes, behind them stood eight more small ones. The ceiling and walls were decorated with frescoes and mosaics. Many of the frescoes were not on a religious theme; there were many everyday drawings dedicated to the family of the Grand Duke.
Wood carving has developed greatly. The houses of the boyars were decorated with cuttings.
In addition to churches at this time, the wealthy segments of the population began to build stone houses made of pink brick.
Painting.
The paintings of the 13th century were marked by the cities where the masters worked. Thus, Novgorod painters sought to simplify the style of their craft. He achieved his greatest expression in the painting of the Church of St. George in Staraya Ladoga.At the same time, they began to paint mosaics directly on the walls of temples. Frescoes became widespread. Fresco is a painting painted with water paints directly on walls covered with plaster.
Folklore.
The history of Rus' is so great that it is impossible not to talk about folklore. Folklore occupies a huge place in the life of the Russian people. By reading epics you can learn about the entire life of the Russian people. They glorified the exploits of heroes, their strength and courage. Bogatyrs have always been glorified as protectors of the Russian population.Life and customs of the people.
The culture of our country is inextricably linked with its people, way of life, and morals. People lived in cities and villages. The main type of housing was the estate; houses were built from log frames. Kyiv in the 13th century was a very rich city. It had palaces, estates, mansions of boyars and rich merchants. The favorite pastime of the rich population was hunting hawks and falcons. The common population staged fist fights and horse races.The clothes were made of cloth. The main costume was a long shirt and trousers for men.
Women wore long skirts made of cloth. Married women wore a headscarf. Unmarried girls had long beautiful braids; they could only be cut off when they got married.
Weddings were played on a large scale in the villages; the entire village gathered for them. Huge, long tables were set right in the courtyard of the house.
Since the church played a large role in the life of the population in the 13th century, church fasts and holidays were sacredly observed by the residents.
The 13th century in the history of Rus' began without any special external shocks, but in the midst of endless internal strife. The princes divided the lands and fought for power. But soon the internal troubles of Rus' were joined by danger from outside. Cruel conquerors from the depths of Asia under the leadership of Temujin (Genghis Khan - that is, the Great Khan) began their actions. The armies of the nomadic Mongols mercilessly destroyed people and conquered lands. Soon, the Polovsk khans asked for help from the Russian princes. And they agreed to oppose the approaching enemy. So, in 1223 a battle took place on the river. Kalke. But due to the fragmented actions of the princes and the lack of a unified command, the Russian warriors suffered heavy losses and left the battlefield. The Mongol troops pursued them to the very outskirts of Rus'. Having plundered and devastated them, they moved no further. In 1237, the troops of Temuchin’s grandson, Batu, entered the Ryazan principality. Ryazan fell. The conquests continued. In 1238 on the river. The city army of Yuri Vsevolodovich entered into battle with the invader’s army, but turned out in favor of the Tatar-Mongols. At the same time, the South Russian princes and Novgorod remained on the sidelines and did not come to the rescue. In 1239 – 1240 Having replenished the army, Batu undertook new trip to Russian lands. At this time, unaffected northwestern regions Rus' (Novgorod and Pskov lands) were in danger from the crusading knights who settled in the Baltics. They wanted to force people to accept the Catholic faith on the territory of Rus'. United by a common idea, the Swedes and German knights were about to unite, but the Swedes were the first to act. In 1240 (July 15) - Battle of the Neva - the Swedish fleet entered the mouth of the river. Not you. Novgorodians turned to the great for help Prince of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. His son, the young prince Alexander, immediately set off with his army, counting on the surprise and speed of the onslaught (the army was inferior in number, even with the Novgorodians and commoners who had joined). Alexander's strategy worked. In this battle, Rus' won, and Alexander received the nickname Nevsky. Meanwhile, the German knights gained strength and began military operations against Pskov and Novgorod. Again Alexander came to the rescue. April 5, 1242 - Battle of the Ice - troops converged on the ice of Lake Peipsi. Alexander won again, thanks to a change in the formation order and coordinated actions. And the knights’ uniforms played against them; when they retreated, the ice began to break. In 1243 - Formation of the Golden Horde. Formally, the Russian lands were not part of the newly formed state, but were subject lands. That is, they were obliged to replenish its treasury, and the princes had to receive labels for reigning at the khan’s headquarters. During the second half of the 13th century, the Horde more than once made devastating campaigns against Rus'. Cities and villages were ruined. 1251 - 1263 - reign of Alexander Nevsky. Due to the invasions of conquerors, during which settlements were robbed and destroyed, many cultural monuments of Ancient Rus' from the 10th to 13th centuries also disappeared. Churches, cathedrals, icons, as well as works of literature, religious objects and jewelry remained intact. At the core ancient Russian culture, lies the heritage of the East Slavic tribes. She was influenced nomadic peoples, Varangians. The adoption of Christianity, as well as Byzantium and the countries of Western Europe, significantly influenced. The adoption of Christianity influenced the spread of literacy, the development of writing, education and the introduction of Byzantine customs. This also influenced the clothing of the 13th century in Rus'. The cut of the clothes was simple, and they differed mainly in fabric. The suit itself has become longer and looser, not emphasizing the figure, but giving it a static look. The nobility wore expensive foreign fabrics (velvet, brocade, taffeta, silk) and furs (sable, otter, marten). Ordinary people used canvas fabric, hare fur, squirrels, and sheepskin for clothing.