Russian principalities in the 12th century. Old Russian state

Whoever comes to us with a sword will die by the sword.
Alexander Nevskiy

Udelnaya Rus' originates in 1132, when Mstislav the Great dies, which leads the country to a new internecine war, the consequences of which had a huge impact on the entire state. As a result of subsequent events, independent principalities emerged. In Russian literature, this period is also called fragmentation, since all events were based on the disunion of lands, each of which was actually an independent state. Of course, the dominant position of the Grand Duke was preserved, but this was already a nominal figure rather than a truly significant one.

The period of feudal fragmentation in Rus' lasted almost 4 centuries, during which the country underwent strong changes. They affected both the structure, the way of life, and the cultural customs of the peoples of Russia. As a result of the isolated actions of the princes, Rus' for many years found itself branded with a yoke, which was only possible to get rid of after the rulers of the destinies began to unite around a common goal - the overthrow of the power of the Golden Horde. In this material we will consider the main distinctive features of appanage Rus' as an independent state, as well as the main features of the lands included in it.

The main reasons for feudal fragmentation in Rus' stem from the historical, economic and political processes that were taking place in the country at that point in time. The following main reasons for the formation of Appanage Rus' and fragmentation can be identified:

This whole set of measures led to the fact that the causes of feudal fragmentation in Rus' turned out to be very significant and led to irreversible consequences that almost put the very existence of the state at stake.

Fragmentation at a certain historical stage is a normal phenomenon that almost any state has encountered, but in Rus' there were certain distinctive features in this process. First of all, it should be noted that literally all the princes who ruled the estates were from the same ruling dynasty. There was nothing like this anywhere else in the world. There have always been rulers who held power by force, but had no historical claims to it. In Russia, almost any prince could be chosen as chief. Secondly, the loss of the capital should be noted. No, formally Kyiv retained a leading role, but this was only formal. At the beginning of this era, the Kiev prince was still dominant over everyone, other fiefs paid him taxes (whoever could). But literally within a few decades this changed, since first the Russian princes took the previously impregnable Kyiv by storm, and after that the Mongol-Tatars literally destroyed the city. By this time, the Grand Duke was the representative of the city of Vladimir.

Appanage Rus' - consequences of existence

Any historical event has its causes and consequences, which leave one or another imprint on the processes occurring within the state during such achievements, as well as after them. The collapse of the Russian lands in this regard was no exception and revealed a number of consequences that were formed as a result of the emergence of individual appanages:

Uniform population of the country. This is one of the positive aspects that was achieved due to the fact that the southern lands became the object of constant wars. As a result, the main population was forced to leave for the northern regions to find safety. If by the time the state of Udelnaya Rus was formed, the northern regions were practically deserted, then by the end of the 15th century the situation had already changed radically.
Development of cities and their arrangement. This point also includes economic, spiritual, and craft innovations that appeared in the principalities. This is due to a rather simple thing - the princes were full-fledged rulers in their lands, to maintain which it was necessary to develop a natural economy so as not to depend on their neighbors.
The appearance of vassals. Since there was no single system providing security to all principalities, weak lands were forced to accept the status of vassals. Of course, there was no talk of any oppression, but such lands did not have independence, since in many issues they were forced to adhere to the point of view of a stronger ally.
Decrease in the country's defense capability. The individual squads of the princes were quite strong, but still not numerous. In battles with equal opponents, they could win, but strong enemies alone could easily cope with each of the armies. Batu’s campaign clearly demonstrated this when the princes, in an attempt to defend their lands alone, did not dare to join forces. The result is widely known - 2 centuries of yoke and the murder of a huge number of Russians.
Impoverishment of the country's population. Such consequences were caused not only by external enemies, but also by internal ones. Against the backdrop of the yoke and constant attempts by Livonia and Poland to seize Russian possessions, internecine wars do not stop. They are still large-scale and destructive. In such a situation, as always, the common population suffered. This was one of the reasons for the migration of peasants to the north of the country. This is how one of the first mass migrations of people took place, which gave birth to appanage Rus'.

We see that the consequences of the feudal fragmentation of Russia are far from clear-cut. They have both negative and positive sides. Moreover, it should be remembered that this process is characteristic not only of Rus'. All countries have gone through it in one form or another. Ultimately, the destinies united anyway and created a strong state capable of ensuring its own security.

The collapse of Kievan Rus led to the emergence of 14 independent principalities, each of which had its own capital, its own prince and army. The largest of them were the Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galician-Volyn principalities. It should be noted that in Novgorod a political system that was unique at that time was formed - a republic. Appanage Rus' became a unique state of its time.

Features of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

This lot was located in the northeastern part of the country. Its inhabitants were mainly engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding, which was facilitated by favorable natural conditions. The largest cities in the principality were Rostov, Suzdal and Vladimir. As for the latter, it became the main city of the country after Batu captured Kyiv.

The peculiarity of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality is that for many years it maintained its dominant position, and the Grand Duke ruled from these lands. As for the Mongols, they also recognized the power of this center, allowing its ruler to personally collect tribute for them from all destinies. There are a lot of guesses on this matter, but we can still say with confidence that Vladimir was the capital of the country for a long time.

Features of the Galicia-Volyn principality

It was located in the southwest of Kyiv, the peculiarities of which were that it was one of the largest in its time. The largest cities of this inheritance were Vladimir Volynsky and Galich. Their significance was quite high, both for the region and for the state as a whole. Local residents for the most part were engaged in crafts, which allowed them to actively trade with other principalities and states. At the same time, these cities could not become important shopping centers due to their geographical location.

Unlike most appanages, in Galicia-Volyn, as a result of fragmentation, wealthy landowners very quickly emerged, who had a huge influence on the actions of the local prince. This land was subject to frequent raids, primarily from Poland.

Principality of Novgorod

Novgorod is a unique city and a unique destiny. The special status of this city dates back to the formation of the Russian state. It was here that it originated, and its inhabitants have always been freedom-loving and wayward. As a result, they often changed princes, keeping only the most worthy ones. During the Tatar-Mongol yoke, it was this city that became the stronghold of Rus', a city that the enemy was never able to take. The Principality of Novgorod once again became a symbol of Russia and a land that contributed to their unification.

The largest city of this principality was Novgorod, which was guarded by the Torzhok fortress. The special position of the principality led to the rapid development of trade. As a result, it was one of the richest cities in the country. In terms of its size, it also occupied a leading place, second only to Kyiv, but unlike the ancient capital, the Novgorod principality did not lose its independence.

Significant dates

History is, first of all, dates that can tell better than any words what happened in each specific segment of human development. Speaking about feudal fragmentation, we can highlight the following key dates:

1185 - Prince Igor made a campaign against the Polovtsians, immortalized in the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign”
1223 – Battle of the Kalka River
1237 - the first Mongol invasion, which led to the conquest of Appanage Rus'
July 15, 1240 – Battle of the Neva
April 5, 1242 – Battle of the Ice
1358 – 1389 – The Grand Duke of Russia was Dmitry Donskoy
July 15, 1410 – Battle of Grunwald
1480 - great stand on the Ugra River
1485 – annexation of the Tver principality to the Moscow one
1505-1534 - the reign of Vasily 3, which was marked by the liquidation of the last inheritances
1534 - the reign of Ivan 4, the Terrible, begins.

LECTURE 6. Reasons for the collapse of the Old Russian state.

Since the 30s. gg. In the 12th century, a period of political (feudal) fragmentation or appanage period began in the Russian lands (appanage principality; the share of a member of a princely family in the ancestral domain).

Political fragmentation is a historical period in the history of Rus', which is characterized by the fact that, formally being part of Kievan Rus, the appanage principalities gradually separated from Kyiv. The Russian lands entered a period of political fragmentation in the second third of the 12th century (from the 1130s, although its early manifestations were felt at the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th century, but Vladimir Monomakh and Mstislav the Great suspended this process). This period continued until the second half of the 15th century. Fragmentation was an inevitable stage in the history of Rus' - almost all European states went through it.

Reasons for feudal fragmentation:

constant princely divisions of lands between the Rurikovichs, their endless

internecine wars, which were facilitated by the ladder system of succession to the princely throne(“Legal right” is the order of succession to the throne, according to which power should be transferred to the eldest in the family); this order excluded for many heirs the possibility of occupying the Kiev throne; often an older relative was bypassed by a younger one, and a large number of princely children could not take the throne in any city; this circumstance led to strife and the desire to solve problems with the sword.

dominance of subsistence farming(an economy in which everything necessary for life is produced and consumed locally) did not contribute to the establishment of strong economic ties between regions and led to isolation

the growth of cities as centers of appanage lands;

independence of patrimonial boyars in their lands and their desire for independence from Kyiv(local feudal lords - boyars were interested in strong princely power locally, because this made it possible to quickly resolve various issues, first of all, to keep the peasants in obedience; local feudal lords increasingly sought independence from Kyiv and supported the military power of their prince. One can say that the main force of separation was the boyars, and the local princes relied on them);

weakening of the Principality of Kyiv due to constant raids by nomads and the outflow of population to the northeast;

decline in trade along the Dnieper due to the Polovtsian danger and the loss of Byzantium

dominant role in international trade.

By the middle of the 12th century, Rus' split into 15 principalities, which were only in formal

depending on Kyiv. The largest and most powerful principalities were the Kiev principalities with the center in Kyiv, the Novgorod principalities with the center in Novgorod, the Vladimir-Suzdal principalities with the center in Vladimir, the Polotsk principalities with the center in Polotsk, the Smolensk principalities with the center in Smolensk... At the beginning of the 13th century there were already fifty of them. From the middle of the 12th century to the middle of the 13th century, the throne of Kiev with the title of Grand Duke of Kyiv changed hands 46 times. The same princes occupied this throne several times. Some of them reigned in Kyiv for less than a year. It happened that the Grand Duke stayed in Kyiv for only a few days. It is important to understand that feudal fragmentation is an inevitable stage in the evolution of feudalism. It is not entirely correct to consider this period a time of decline and regression.

The flourishing of cities in appanage lands - constant princely strife

Development of culture in appanage lands - fragmentation of principalities between heirs

Development of new arable land - weakening of the country's defense capability

Formation of new trade routes

common features remained, which later became prerequisites for unification:

Single religion and church organization;

Single language;

Community of culture;

Unified legal norms;

Awareness of a common historical destiny.

The forms of government of the principalities were varied - from strong princely power to a republic. Ultimately, out of 250 principalities in the Russian lands, three political centers emerged during the period of feudal fragmentation:

1) Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

2) Galicia-Volyn principality

3) Novgorod land

VLADIMIRO-SUZDAL PRINCIPALITY

Political structure

prince

veche boyars

Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157)

The principality separated from Kyiv under Prince Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157), the son of Vladimir Monomakh.

—Considered the founder of Moscow (1147). In one of the documents there is a phrase from Yuri Dolgorukov when he addresses his ally: “Come to me, brother, in Moscow.”

-he actively influenced the politics of Novgorod the Great. For his active aggressive policy and desire to expand his territory, he received the nickname Dolgoruky.

—repeatedly tried to seize the Kiev throne and eventually became the Prince of Kyiv. The boyars of Kyiv could not forgive the prince for seizing the throne by force and distributing all major positions to non-local boyars (in 1157, the prince, who was distinguished by excellent health, suddenly fell ill after one of the feasts and died; most likely the prince was poisoned).

Andrey Bogolyubsky (1157-1174)-son of Yuri Dolgoruky;

—made Vladimir the capital of the principality(settled in Vladimir; the choice of the capital is associated with the legend about the icon of the Mother of God, which he took with him when going to North-Eastern Rus'; the horses stood up not far from Vladimir; Bogolyubovo was founded on this place, which became the prince’s country residence (hence his nickname ) Since then the icon has been called the Mother of God of Vladimir);

—waged successful wars, captured and ravaged Kyiv, and temporarily subjugated Novgorod.

—strengthened and elevated the principality(under Prince Andrei, powerful stone construction was carried out, which emphasized the sovereignty of the principality - Golden Gate, Assumption Cathedral)

—sought to strengthen the princely power and waged a fierce struggle against the boyars. As a result, a conspiracy matured against him, and he was killed by his inner circle.

- proclaimed himself the Grand Duke of all Rus'.

Vsevolod the Big Nest (1174-1212)-brother of Andrei Bogolyubsky;

During the reign of brother Andrei-Prince Vsevolod the Big Nest, the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality reached its peak.(he has 12 children; hence the nickname).

-continued his brother’s policy aimed at strengthening power and authority in Rus';

-subordinated Kyiv to his power and placed his protege on the Kiev throne

—gave himself the titleGrand Duke of Vladimir, which is gradually gaining recognition in all Russian principalities;

— builds the Dmitrievsky Cathedral in Vladimir and rebuilds the Assumption Cathedral.

GALICY-VOLYNIAN priNCIPALY

In the extreme southwest were the Galician and Volyn lands. Fertile soils contributed to the early the emergence of feudal land ownership here. Typical for Southwestern Rus' strong position of the boyars, who often opposed the princely power. This is an ancient center of arable farming. The remoteness from the nomads attracted the population of the southeastern lands here.

Roman Mstislavich (1170-1205)- united the Galician land and most of the Volyn land as part of one principality(created the Galicia-Volyn principality);

Daniil Galitsky(1205-1264) – son of Roman Mstislavich

- withstood the struggle for the throne with both Hungarian, Polish and Russian princes;

-in the fight against the boyars, he defended strong princely power, but was never able to finally defeat the boyars

-occupied Kyiv and united southwestern Rus' and the Kyiv land.

Political structure

veche prince boyars

NOVGOROD ARISTOCRATIC (BOYAR) REPUBLIC

The Novgorod land was one of the first to begin the struggle for separation from the power of Kyiv.

Features of development during the specific period:

The leading sectors of the economy are trade and crafts

Poor development of agriculture due to low soil fertility and natural conditions

Wide development of trades: salt making, fishing, hunting.

Special state structure of Novgorod.

The prince did not play a leading role here; a princely dynasty never developed. Even the prince's residence was located outside the city. It was typical for Novgorod to invite the prince to the throne. First of all, the prince was the head of the squad that he brought with him, but it was always a smaller part of the Novgorod army. Its main function was to protect Novgorod from external enemies. The veche concluded an agreement with the prince. The prince had no right to interfere in the affairs of city government. He was not allowed to have land holdings in Novgorod land. The Novgorodians could expel the prince. In an effort to prevent the strengthening of princely power, the Novgorodians often changed their princes. The absence of its own princely dynasty allowed the Novgorod land, unlike the Russian principalities, to avoid fragmentation and maintain unity

The highest body in Novgorod was the veche - a people's assembly that decided issues of war and peace, elected senior officials, and invited the prince. The symbol of the veche was the veche bell, the sounds of which announced its convening. Not all residents of the city gathered at the meeting, but only the owners of city estates (400-500) people. The highest Novgorod class was the boyars and they were the actual “masters” of the veche. Therefore, the Novgorod Republic can be called an aristocratic republic.

They were elected at the meeting mayor(head of the city administration), thousand(head of the city militia), lord(archbishop; head of the church).

The presence of elected power gives the right to call Novgorod a feudal (aristocratic) republic. It was a state where power belonged to the boyars and merchants. Most of the population was excluded from political life.

Political structure

veche boyars

G A device similar to the Novgorod one,

prince existed in the Pskov Republic.

Novgorod played an important role in international economic relations. Trade was mainly conducted with Western Europe. Novgorod was one of the largest cities not only in Rus', but also in Europe. It had good fortifications, and wooden pavements were constantly updated. The degree of literacy was high (this is evidenced by the birch bark letters found).

4At the beginning of the 13th century, the discussion was about which of the strong Russian principalities would take over the unification of Russian lands. However, the Mongol invasion that began soon radically disrupted these historical processes and slowed down the further development of Rus'.

SEE MORE:

Large principalities of Ancient Rus'

Among the dozens of principalities, the largest were Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn and Novgorod land.

Vladimir-Suzdal Principality.

This principality occupied a special place in the history of the Russian Middle Ages. He was destined to become a link between the pre-Mongol period of Russian history and the period of Muscovite Rus', the core of the future unified state.

Located in distant Zalesye, it was well protected from external threats. Thick black soils, created by nature in the center of the non-chernozem zone, attracted settlers here. Convenient river routes opened the way to eastern and European markets.

In the 11th century this remote region becomes the “fatherland” of the Monomakhovichs. At first, they do not attach importance to this pearl of their possessions and do not even place princes here. At the beginning of the 12th century. Vladimir Monomakh founded the future capital of Vladimir-on-Klyazma and in 1120 sent his son Yuri to reign here. The foundations of the power of the Suzdal land were laid during the reign of three outstanding statesmen: Yuri Dolgoruky /1120-1157/, Andrei Bogolyubsky /1157-1174/, Vsevolod the Big Nest /1176-1212/.

They were able to prevail over the boyars, for which they were nicknamed “autocrats.” Some historians see in this a tendency to overcome fragmentation, interrupted by the Tatar invasion.

Yuri, with his irrepressible thirst for power and desire for primacy, turned his possession into an independent principality that pursued an active policy. His possessions expanded to include the colonized eastern regions. The new cities of Yuryev Polsky, Pereyaslavl Zalessky, and Dmitrov grew. Churches and monasteries were built and decorated. The first chronicle mention of Moscow dates back to the time of his reign /1147/.

Yuri more than once fought with Volga Bulgaria, a trade competitor of Rus'. He waged a confrontation with Novgorod, and in the 40s. got involved in a grueling and useless struggle for Kyiv. Having achieved his desired goal in 1155, Yuri left Suzdal land forever. Two years later he died in Kyiv /according to one version, he was poisoned/.

The master of North-Eastern Rus' - tough, power-hungry and energetic - was Dolgoruky's son Andrei, nicknamed Bogolyubsky for the construction of a palace in the village of Bogolyubovo near Vladimir. While his father was still alive, Andrei, Yuri’s “beloved child”, to whom he intended to transfer Kyiv after his death, leaves for the Suzdal land without his father’s consent. In 1157, the local boyars elected him as their prince.

Andrei combined several qualities that were important for a statesman of that time. A courageous warrior, he was a calculating, unusually astute diplomat at the negotiating table. Possessing an extraordinary mind and willpower, he became an authoritative and formidable commander, an “autocrat” whose orders even the formidable Polovtsians obeyed. The prince decisively placed himself not next to the boyars, but above them, relying on the cities and his military service court. Unlike his father, who aspired to Kyiv, he was a local Suzdal patriot, and he considered the fight for Kyiv only a means of elevating his principality. Having captured the city of Kyiv in 1169, he gave it to the army for plunder and put his brother there to rule. In addition to everything, Andrei was a well-educated person and was not devoid of original literary talent.

However, in an effort to strengthen princely power and rise above the boyars, Bogolyubsky was ahead of his time. The boyars grumbled silently. When, by order of the prince, one of the Kuchkovich boyars was executed, his relatives organized a conspiracy, in which the prince’s closest servants also participated.

On the night of April 29, 1174, the conspirators broke into the prince's bedroom and killed Andrei. The news of his death became a signal for a popular uprising. The prince's castle and the courtyards of the townspeople were plundered, the most hated mayors, tiuns, and tax collectors were killed. Only a few days later the riot subsided.

Andrey's brother Vsevolod the Big Nest continued the traditions of his predecessors. Powerful, like Andrei, he was more prudent and careful. Vsevolod was the first among the princes of the Northeast to receive the title of “Grand Duke”, dictated his will to Ryazan, Novgorod, Galich, and led an attack on the lands of Novgorod and Volga Bulgaria.

Vsevolod had 8 sons and 8 grandchildren, not counting female descendants, for which he received the nickname “Big Nest”.

Having fallen ill in 1212, he bequeathed the throne to his second son Yuri, bypassing the elder Constantine. A new strife followed, lasting 6 years. Yuri ruled in Vladimir until the Mongol invasion and died in a battle with the Tatars on the river. City.

Novgorod land.

The vast expanses of Novgorod land, inhabited by Slavs and Finno-Ugric tribes, could successfully accommodate several European states. From 882 to 1136, Novgorod, the “northern guard of Rus',” was ruled from Kyiv and accepted the eldest sons of the Kyiv prince as governors. In 1136, the Novgorodians expelled Vsevolod /the grandson of Monomakh/ from the city and from then on they began to invite the prince from wherever they wanted, and expelled the unwanted one / the famous Novgorod principle of “liberty in princes”/. Novgorod became independent.

A special form of government developed here, which historians call a boyar republic. This order had long traditions. Even in the Kiev period, distant Novgorod had special political rights. In the X1st century. a mayor had already been chosen here, and Yaroslav the Wise, in exchange for the support of the Novgorodians in the fight for Kyiv, agreed that the boyars would not have jurisdiction over the prince.

The Novgorod boyars descended from the local tribal nobility. It became rich through the division of state revenues, trade and usury, and from the end of the 11th century. began to acquire fiefdoms. Boyar land ownership in Novgorod was much stronger than princely land ownership. Although the Novgorodians tried more than once to “feed” a prince for themselves, their own princely dynasty never developed there. The eldest sons of the great princes, who sat here as governors, after the death of their father, aspired to the Kiev throne.

Situated on infertile lands along the famous route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” Novgorod developed primarily as a craft and trade center. Metalworking, woodworking, pottery, weaving, tanning, jewelry, and fur trading reached a particularly high level. Lively trade took place not only with Russian lands, but also with foreign countries of the West and East, from where cloth, wine, ornamental stone, non-ferrous and precious metals were brought.

In exchange they sent furs, honey, wax, and leather. In Novgorod there were trading yards founded by Dutch and Hanseatic merchants. The most important trading partner was the largest among the cities of the Hanseatic League, Lübeck.

The highest authority in Novgorod was a meeting of free owners of courtyards and estates - the veche. It made decisions on issues of domestic and foreign policy, invited and expelled the prince, elected the mayor, the thousand, and the archbishop. The presence without the right to vote of the masses of the urban population made veche meetings stormy and loud events.

The elected mayor actually headed the executive branch, administered court, and controlled the prince. Tysyatsky commanded the militia, judged trade matters, and collected taxes. The archbishop /"lord"/, who was appointed by the Kiev metropolitan until 1156, was also later elected. He was in charge of the treasury and foreign relations. The prince was not only a military commander. He was also an arbitrator, participated in negotiations, and was responsible for internal order. Finally, he was simply one of the attributes of antiquity, and in accordance with the traditionalism of medieval thinking, even the temporary absence of a prince was considered an abnormal phenomenon.

The veche system was a form of feudal "democracy". The illusion of democracy was created around the actual power of the boyars and the so-called “300 golden belts”.

Galicia-Volyn land.

Southwestern Rus', with its highly fertile soils and mild climate, located at the intersection of numerous trade routes, had excellent opportunities for economic development. In the XIII century. Almost a third of the cities of all Rus' were concentrated here, and the urban population played an important role in political life. But the princely-boyar feuds, acute as nowhere else in Rus', turned internecine conflicts into a constant phenomenon. The long border with the strong states of the West - Poland, Hungary, the Order - made the Galician-Volyn lands the object of the greedy claims of their neighbors. Internal turmoil was complicated by foreign interference that threatened independence.

At first, the fate of Galicia and Volyn was different. The Galician principality, the westernmost in Rus', until the middle of the 12th century. was divided into small holdings.

Prince Vladimir Volodarevich of Przemysl united them, moving the capital to Galich. The principality reached its highest power under Yaroslav Osmomysl /1151-1187/, so named for his high education and knowledge of eight foreign languages. The last years of his reign were marred by clashes with the powerful boyars. The reason for them was the prince’s family affairs. Having married Dolgoruky’s daughter Olga, he took a mistress, Nastasya, and wanted to transfer the throne to his illegitimate son Oleg “Nastasich”, bypassing the legitimate Vladimir. Nastasya was burned at the stake, and after the death of his father, Vladimir expelled Oleg and established himself on the throne /1187-1199/.

After the death of Yaroslav the Wise, Volyn passed from hand to hand more than once until it fell to the Monomakhovichs. Under Monomakh's grandson Izyaslav Mstislavich, she separated from Kyiv. The rise of the Volyn land occurs at the end of the 12th century. under the cool and energetic Roman Mstislavich, the most prominent figure among the Volyn princes. He fought for 10 years for the neighboring Galician table, and in 1199 he united both principalities under his rule.

The short reign of Roman /1199-1205/ left a bright mark on the history of southern Rus'. The Ipatiev Chronicle calls him “the autocrat of all Rus',” and the French chronicler calls him “the Russian king.”

In 1202 he captured Kyiv and established control over the entire south. Having initially begun a successful fight against the Polovtsians, Roman then switched to Western European affairs. He intervened in the struggle between the Welfs and the Hohenstaufens on the side of the latter. In 1205, during a campaign against the king of Lesser Poland, Roman's army was defeated, and he himself was killed while hunting.

Roman's sons Daniil and Vasilko were too young to continue the broad plans to which their father fell victim. The principality collapsed, and the Galician boyars began a long and ruinous feudal war that lasted about 30 years. Princess Anna fled to Krakow. The Hungarians and Poles captured Galicia and part of Volhynia. Roman's children became toys in a major political game that the warring parties sought to gain. The national liberation struggle against foreign invaders became the basis for the consolidation of forces in Southwestern Rus'. Prince Daniil Romanovich grew up. Having established himself in Volyn and then in Galich, in 1238 he again united both principalities, and in 1240, like his father, he took Kyiv. The Mongol-Tatar invasion interrupted the economic and cultural rise of Galician-Volyn Rus, which began during the reign of this outstanding prince.

Kievan Rus and Russian principalities

Principalities of southern Rus'

I. Principality of Kiev (1132 - 1471)

Zap. Kievskaya, North-West Cherkasskaya, East. Zhytomyr region Ukraine. Table. Kyiv

II. Principality of Chernigov (1024 - 1330)

North of Chernigov region. Ukraine, east of Gomel region. Belarus, Kaluga, Bryansk, Lipetsk, Orel regions. Russia. Capital of Chernihiv

1) Bryansk Principality (ca. 1240 - 1430). The capital is Bryansk (Debryansk).

2) Principality of Vshchizh (1156 - 1240)

3) Starodub Principality(Lithuanian inheritance ca. 1406 - 1503). The capital is Starodub Chernigovsky.

4) Glukhov Principality (c. 1246 - 1407). Capital of Glukhov

5) Novosilsk Principality (c. 1376 - 1425). Capital Novosil

6) Odoev Principality (1376 - 1547). Capital of Odoev

7) Belevsky Principality (ca. 1376 - 1558). Capital Belev

8) Karachev Principality (ca. 1246 - 1360). Capital Karachev

9) Mosal Principality (c. 1350 - 1494). Capital Mosalsk (Masalsk)

10) Principality of Kozel (c. 1235 - 1445). Capital Kozelsk

11) Vorotyn Principality (c. 1455 - 1573). Capital Vorotynsk (Vorotynesk)

12) Yeletsk Principality (c. 1370 - 1480). Capital Yelets

13) Zvenigorod Principality (c. 1340 - 1504). Capital Zvenigorod

14) Tarusa Principality (1246 - 1392). Capital of Tarusa

15) Principality of Myshegd (c. 1270 - 1488). Capital Myshegda

16) Obolensk Principality (c. 1270 - 1494). Capital Obolensk

17) Principality of Mezets (c. 1360 - 1504). Capital Mezetsk (n. Meshchevsk)

18) Baryatinsky principality (c. 1450 - 1504/9). Capital Baryatin (n. station Baryatinskaya in Kaluga region)

19) Volkon Principality (c. 1270 - 1470). Capital of Volkon (Volkhona)

20) Trosten Principality (c. 1460 - 90). Capital in Trostena parish

21) Principality of Konin (? - ?)

22) Principality of Spazh (? - ?)

III. Novgorod-Seversky Principality (ca. 1096 - 1494)

Sumy region Ukraine, Kursk and southern Bryansk regions. Russia. Table. Novgorod Seversky

1) Principality of Kursk (ca. 1132 - 1240). Capital Kursk (Kuresk)

2) Trubchevsky Principality (ca. 1392 - 1500). Capital Trubchevsk (Trubets)

3) Rila Principality (ca. 1132 - 1500). Capital Rylsk

4) Principality of Putivl (ca. 1150 - 1500). Capital Putivl

IV. Pereyaslav Principality (1054 - 1239)

The south of Chernihiv, the north of Donetsk, the east of Kyiv, the east of Cherkassy, the east of Dnepropetrovsk, Poltava and Kharkov regions of Ukraine. The capital is Pereyaslavl South (Russian) (n. Pereyaslav-Khmelnitsky).

V. Principality of Tmutarakan (ca. 988 - 1100).

Taman and Vost. Crimea. The capital is Tmutarakan (Temi-Tarkan, Tamatarkha).

Principalities of Western Rus'

I. Principality of Polotsk (ca. 960 - 1399).

Vitebsk, Minsk, Grodno regions. Belarus. The capital is Polotsk (Polotesk).

1) Principality of Vitebsk (1101 - 1392). The capital is Vitebsk (Vidbesk).

2) Principality of Minsk (ca. 1101 - 1407). The capital is Minsk (Minesk).

3) Principality of Grodno (1127 - 1365). The capital is Grodno (Goroden).

4) Principality of Drutsk (ca. 1150 - 1508). The capital is Drutsk (Dryutesk).

5) Drutsko - Podberezsky principality (ca. 1320 - 1460). The capital is unknown.

6) Principality of Borisov (c. 1101 - 1245). Capital Borisov.

7) Logozhsky Principality (ca. 1150 - 1245). The capital is Logozhsk (Logoisk).

8) Izyaslav Principality (ca. 1101 - 1245). The capital is Izyaslavl.

II. Turovo - Pinsk Principality (ca. 998 - 1168)

West of Gomel, east of Brest region. Belarus, northern Zhitomir and Rivne regions of Ukraine. Capital of Turov

1) Principality of Turov (ca. 1168 - 1540). Capital of Turov

2) Principality of Pinsk (ca. 1168 - 1521). Capital Pinsk (Pinesk)

3) Principality of Kletsk (ca. 1250 - 1521). Capital Kletsk (Klechesk)

4) Slutsk Principality (ca. 1240 - 1587). Capital Slutsk (Sluchesk)

5) Novogrudok Principality (c. 1245 - 1431). Capital Novogrudok (Novogorodok)

6) Mstislav Principality (c. 1370 - 1529). Capital Mstislavl

7) Principality of Brest (c. 1087 - 1444). Beresteyska land (Podlasie). Capital Brest (Berestye)

8) Kobrin Principality (1366 - 1529). Capital Kobrin. Lithuanian inheritance in 1366 - 1490, Polish inheritance in 1490 - 1529

9) Vyshgorod Principality(1077 - 1210). Capital Vyshgorod

III. Galicia - Volyn Principality

Volyn, Ternopil, Khmelnitsky, Vinnitsa regions of Ukraine and the Przemysl region in Poland (Volyn land). Chernivtsi, Lviv, Ivano-Frankivsk regions of Ukraine (Galician land). Capitals - Vladimir Volynsky and Galich Yuzhny (Russian)

1) Principality of Vladimir-Volyn (ca. 990 - 1452) Capital Vladimir Volynsky

2) Principality of Galicia(1084 - 1352). Capital Galich South, from 1290 Lviv

3) Principality of Lutsk(1099, 1125 - 1320). Capital Lutsk (Luchesk)

4) Principality of Belz(1170 - 1269). Red Rus' (Galicia). Capital Belz (Belz)

5) Terebovl Principality(c. 1085 - 1141). Capital Terebovl (n. village Zelenche, Ternopil region)

6) Principality of Przemysl(1085 - 1269). Capital Przemysl (now Przemysl in Poland)

7) Kholm Principality(1263 - 1366). Capital Holm (now Chelm in Poland)

8) Principality of Peresopnytsia(1146 - 1238). Capital Peresopnytsia

9) Dorogobuzh Principality(c. 1085 - 1227). Capital Dorogobuzh

10) Principality of Tripoli(1162 - 1180). Capital Tripoli

11) Cherven Principality (? - ?)

IV. Principality of Smolensk (ca. 990 - 1404).

Smolenskaya, west of Tver, south of Pskov region. Russia, eastern Mogilev region. Belarus. Capital Smolensk

1) Vyazma Principality (1190 - 1494). Capital Vyazma

2) Dorogobuzh Principality (c. 1343 - 1505). Capital Dorogobuzh

3) Porkhov Principality (1386 - 1442). Capital Porkhov

4) Toropetsk Principality (1167 - 1320). Capital Toropets (Toropech)

5) Fominsko-Berezuisky principality (ca. 1206 - 1404). Capital unknown

6) Yaroslavl Principality (? — ?)

Feudal Republic of Northern Rus'

I. Novgorod feudal republic (X century - 1478)

Novgorod, Leningrad, Arkhangelsk, northern Tver region, Komi and Karelia republics. Capital Novgorod (Mr. Veliky Novgorod)

II. Pskov feudal republic (XI century - 1510)

Pskov region Capital Pskov (Pleskov)

Principalities of Eastern Rus'

I. Principality of Murom (989 - 1390)

South of Vladimir, north of Ryazan, southwest of Nizhny Novgorod region. Capital Murom

II. Principality of Pron (1129 - 1465). South of the Ryazan region

Capital Pronsk. From the middle of the 14th century. led principality

III. Ryazan Principality (1129 - 1510)

Center of the Ryazan region. Capital Ryazan, since 1237 Pereyaslavl-Ryazan (New Ryazan). From the end of the 13th century. grand duchy

1) Belgorod Principality (c. 1149 - 1205). Capital Belgorod Ryazansky

2) Kolomna Principality (ca. 1165 - 1301). Capital Kolomna

IV. Vladimir-Suzdal Principality (1125 - 1362).

Vologda, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Vladimir, Ivanovo, Moscow and northern Nizhny Novgorod regions. Capitals Rostov, Suzdal, from 1157 Vladimir on Klyazma. From 1169 grand duchy

1) Poros (Tor) principality (? - ?)

V. Pereyaslavl - Zalessk Principality (1175 - 1302)

Capital Pereyaslavl (n. Pereyaslavl - Zalessky)

VI. Rostov Principality (c. 989 - 1474).

Capital Rostov the Great.

In 1328 it fell into parts:

1) Senior line (Sretenskaya (Usretinskaya) side of Rostov).

2) Junior line (Borisoglebskaya side of Rostov).

1) Ustyug Principality (1364 - 1474). Capital Veliky Ustyug

2) Bokhtyuzh Principality (1364 - 1434)

VII. Yaroslavl Principality (1218 - 1463). Capital Yaroslavl

1) Principality of Molozhskaya (ca. 1325 - 1450). Capital of Mologa

2) Principality of Sitsa (c. 1408 - 60). Capital unknown

3) Prozorovsky principality (ca. 1408 - 60). The capital of Prozorov (now the village of Prozorovo)

4) Shumorovsky principality (ca. 1365 - 1420). Capital village Shumorovo

5) Principality of Novlensk (ca. 1400 - 70). Capital village Novleno

6) Zaozersko - Kubensky principality (c. 1420 - 52). Capital unknown

7) Sheksninsky principality (ca. 1350 - 1480). Capital unknown

8) Shekhon (Poshekhon) principality (c. 1410 - 60). Capital Knyazhich Gorodok

9) Principality of Kurb (c. 1425 - 55). Capital village Kurby

10) Ukhorsk (Ugric) principality (c. 1420 - 70). Capital unknown

11) Romanov Principality (? - ?)

VIII. Uglitsky Principality (1216 - 1591). Capital Uglich

IX. Belozersk Principality(1238 - 1486). The capital is Beloozero (now Belozersk), from 1432 Vereya.

1) Principality of Sugorsk (ca. 1345 - 75)

2) Shelespan Principality (ca. 1375 - 1410)

3) Kem Principality (ca. 1375 - 1430). Capital village Kem

4) Kargolom Principality (c. 1375 - 1430). Capital unknown

5) Ukhtom Principality (approx.

1410 - 50). Capital unknown

6) Principality of Andozh (ca. 1385 - 1430). Capital unknown

7) Vadbol Principality (c. 1410 - 50). Capital unknown

8) Beloselskoye Principality (c. 1385 - 1470). Capital unknown

X. Starodub principality (1238 - 1460). Capital Starodub

1) Pozharsky principality (ca. 1390 - 1470)

2) Ryapolovsky principality (ca. 1390 - 1440)

3) Palitsa Principality (ca. 1390 - 1470)

4) Krivoborsk Principality (ca. 1440 - 70). Capital unknown

5) Lyala Principality (ca. 1440 - 60)

6) Golibesovsky principality (ca. 1410 - 1510). Capital village Troitskoye

7) Romodanovsky principality (ca. 1410 - 40)

XI. Principality of Galicia (1246 - 1453). Capital Galich Mersky

XII. Yuriev Principality (c. 1212 - 1345). Capital Yuryev Polsky

XIII. Principality of Kostroma (1246 - 1303). Capital Kostroma

XIV. Principality of Dmitrov (1238 - 1569). Capital Dmitrov

XV. Grand Duchy of Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod(1238 - 1424). Capital Suzdal, from approx. 1350 Nizhny Novgorod.

Principality of Suzdal.

Principality of Nizhny Novgorod

1) Principality of Gorodets (1264 - 1403). Capital Gorodets

2) Shuya Principality (1387 - 1420). Capital Shuya

XVI. Grand Duchy of Tver (1242 - 1490). Capital Tver

1) Principality of Kashin (1318 - 1426). Capital Kashin

2) Kholm Principality (1319 - 1508). Capital Hill

3) Dorogobuzh Principality (1318 - 1486). Capital Dorogobuzh

4) Mikulin Principality (1339 - 1485). Capital Mikulin

5) Principality of Goroden (1425 - 35).

6) Zubtsovsky principality (1318 - 1460).

7) Telyatevsky inheritance (1397 - 1437).

8) Chernyatinsky inheritance (1406 - 90). Capital Chernyatin (now the village of Chernyatino)

XVII. Moscow Grand Duchy (1276 - 1547). Moscow the capital

1) Serpukhov Principality (1341 — 1472)

2) Zvenigorod Principality (1331 - 1492). Capital Zvenigorod

3) Vologda Principality (1433 - 81). Capital Vologda

4) Mozhaisk Principality (1279 - 1303) (1389 - 1492).

5) Principality of Verei (1432 - 86).

6) Principality of Volotsk (1408 - 10) (1462 - 1513). Capital Volok Lamsky (now Volokolamsk)

7) Ruza Principality(1494 - 1503). Capital Ruza

8) Staritsa Principality(1519 - 63). Capital Staritsa

9) Rzhev Principality (1408 - 10) (1462 - 1526). Capital Rzhev

10) Kaluga Principality (1505 - 18). Capital Kaluga

The largest lands and principalities of Kievan Rus and their features

All feudal principalities formed in Rus' during feudal fragmentation had their own characteristics. With the exception of Novgorod and Pskov, all principalities had strict political power. The princes suppressed any uprisings, relying on the entire squad.

Principality of Kiev

Kyiv retained its status as the “mother of Russian cities.” However, in the middle of the 12th century, the Principality of Kiev was experiencing a crisis. Vladimir - Suzdal Prince Yuri Dolgoruky twice seized power in Kyiv, but the people of Kiev expelled him. In 1057 he died and the people of Kiev destroyed the prince’s court and killed his squad. Yuri's son Andrei Bogolyubsky laid claim to the Kiev throne and sat down to reign in this city, avenging the death of his father. Since then, Kyiv has finally lost its dominant position.

Galicia - Volyn Principality

It was located on the border, the principality bordered on Bulgaria and Hungary, therefore it could successfully trade and exchange goods with European countries. At the head of the Galicia-Volyn principality was Prince Roman Mstislavovich, the ceiling of Vladimir Monomakh (grandson). He was a very far-sighted prince and he was invited to reign in Kyiv. But the inhabitants of Galitsa and Volyn did not let him go, so he took three principalities into his own hands: Galicia, Volyn and Kiev. After his death, the Galician, Volyn and Kiev principalities were divided.

Novgorod land

The Novgorod land occupied a vast territory from the Arctic Ocean to the upper reaches of the Volga, from the coast of the Baltic Sea to the Ural Mountains. Its location was characterized by a significant distance from the Steppe, which saved the Novgorodians from the attacks of cruel nomads. Despite the presence of huge land resources, Novgorod did not have enough of its own bread. At the same time, industries such as hunting, fishing, iron production, beekeeping, and handicraft production received significant development. Novgorod the Great was on the way “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which contributed to the development of trade. It was a crossroads of land and river trade routes. In 1136, the Novgorodians expelled the prince from the city. This is how the Novgorod Boyar Republic was established. Its highest body, the veche, consisted of male householders. The veche (people's assembly) elected a mayor - the head of the city. The prince and his retinue were invited by the evening to lead the military force of the city. Thus, the Novgorodians invited Alexander Yaroslavich, the grandson of Vsevolod the Big Nest, to fight the aggression of the crusaders. The Novgorod boyar republic managed to withstand the onslaught of aggression from Western European chivalry in the 40s of the 13th century. The Mongol-Tatars were also unable to capture the city, but heavy tribute and dependence on the Golden Horde affected the further development of this region. The republic in Veliky Novgorod lasted until 1478 and was destroyed by Ivan III.

Principality of Pskov

The capital of the Pskov Principality is Pskov (Pleskov). The city was first mentioned in the "Tale of Bygone Years" in 903. The Pskov land ran as a narrow and long strip, covering the basin of the Velikaya River and Lake Peipsi. The most fertile lands lay in the south of the Pskov land. The region was famous for its flax, which was exported to the neighboring Baltic states and Western Europe. At first, Pskov, like Izborsk, was like a “Novgorod suburb” and was ruled by Novgorod “princely men.” Gradually, the Pskovites, often left without the support of their powerful neighbor and themselves fighting off the attacks of the Germans and Lithuanians, began to strive to free themselves from Novgorod tutelage. Over time, Pskov began to independently accept princes; Thus, in the second half of the 13th century, the Lithuanian prince Dovmont appeared in the city, and did a lot to strengthen the region. In 1137, Vsevolod, the son of Mstislav Vladimirovich the Great, founded the Pskov principality, independent of Novgorod. The son of Trabus, the grandson of Germund, the prince of Lithuania in the Nyalshanai land, participated in a conspiracy against the Lithuanian prince Mindaugas (1263), fleeing from the revenge of his son Voishelk, he fled to Pskov.

In the first half of the 14th century, when the Pskovites began to invite Lithuanians to reign, without asking the consent of Novgorod, the latter was forced to make concessions and in 1348, according to the Bolotov Treaty, renounced all power over Pskov, appointing its mayors here, etc. calling Pskov the “younger brother” of Novgorod. Thus, the city actually separated from Novgorod, forming the independent Pskov feudal aristocratic republic.

Vladimiro - Suzdal Principality

The rise of North-Eastern Rus' occurs under Vladimir Monomakh. The Vladimir-Suzdal land became more and more settled, new cities emerged along the banks of the rivers - centers of crafts and trade. The Principality gradually became prosperous, and the Grand Duke of Vladimir became the most powerful of the Russian princes.

The principality acquired political significance in the 12th century, after Vladimir Monomakh, who became prince in Kyiv, sent his son, Yuri Dolgoruky, to rule this region. After Yuri, his son, Andrei Yuryevich (1157 - 1574), took the throne, receiving the nickname Bogolyubsky. He sought to become autocracy in northeastern Rus', which the boyars were dissatisfied with. Relatives of one of the boyars executed by Andrei organized a conspiracy and in 1174 Bogolyubsky was killed. Andrei’s brother Mikhail ascended the throne, but in 1177 he died and the third son of Yuri Dolgoruky, Vsevolod “Big Nest” (1177 - 1212), sat on the throne, who relied in his policy on service people, the future nobility. He interfered in the affairs of Novgorod, took possession of lands in the Kiev region, and subjugated the Ryazan principality.

In 1212, after the death of Vsevolod, civil strife broke out in the principality, which ended in 1218 with the accession of Vsevolod’s youngest son, Yuri. However, the Vladimir-Suzdal land was already quite weakened and could not give a worthy rebuff to the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

The feudal fragmentation of Rus' existed until the end of the 15th century, when most of the territory of the former Kyiv state became part of the Moscow state.

Rostov Principality

An appanage principality with its center in Rostov the Great. It emerged in 1207 from the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. In addition to Rostov, it included Yaroslavl, Uglich, Mologa, Beloozero and Ustyug. He divided the Rostov principality.

The Yaroslavl and Uglich principalities stood out, and after 1262, the residents of Rostov, together with other cities of North-Eastern Rus', took part in the uprising against the Mongol-Tatar yoke. In 1277, Gleb Vasilyevich briefly united the Rostov principality and his Belozersk principality.

Topic: Fight against foreign conquerors

1. Power of Genghis Khan. Batu's campaign against Rus'.

2. The struggle of the peoples of the Baltic states and Rus' against the crusaders.

3. The defeat of the Swedes on the Neva. Battle on the Ice.

From the book “The World of History” by academician B.A. Rybakova.

⇐ Previous12

“Perhaps, not one of the figures of Kievan Rus has preserved as many vivid memories as Vladimir Monomakh. He was remembered both in palaces and in peasant huts many centuries later. The people composed epics about him as the conqueror of the formidable Polovtsian khan Tugorkan - “Tugarin Zmeevich”, and because of the similarity of the names of the two Vladimirs, they poured these epics into the old cycle of the Kyiv epic of Vladimir I...

It is not surprising that at the end of the 15th century, Moscow historians most noticeably in their native past was the figure of Monomakh, with whose name they associated the legend of the royal regalia, allegedly received by Vladimir from the Emperor of Byzantium...

It is not surprising that in the dark years of strife the Russian people sought solace in their magnificent past; their views turned to the era of Vladimir Monomakh. “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land,” written on the eve of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, idealizes Kievan Rus, glorifies Vladimir Monomakh and his era...

Vladimir received a good education, which allowed him to use not only the sword of a knight, but also the pen of a writer in his political struggle.”

C1. Indicate the chronological framework of the great reign of Vladimir Monomakh. What royal regalia, supposedly received by him, did the historian have in mind?

C2. How do you understand the statement that the Grand Duke used “not only the sword of a knight, but also the pen of a writer” in the political struggle? Give at least two provisions.

C3. Why does “The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land” glorify Vladimir Monomakh? Name at least three merits of the Grand Duke.

C4.

C5.

1. The policy of Prince Svyatoslav, the greatest commander of Ancient Rus', was aimed at solving large and important state problems.

2. Prince Svyatoslav cared more about military glory, and not about the good of the state. His trips were adventurous.

Give at least two facts and provisions that can serve as arguments confirming the first point of view and at least two facts and provisions that can serve as arguments confirming the second point of view.

C6. Choose ONE historical figure of a certain era from the proposed options and write his historical portrait.

1) Yaroslav the Wise; 2) Vladimir Red Sun.

Answers

C1. Answer:

It may be stated that

1) chronological framework of the reign - 1113-1125;

2) “Monomakh’s Cap”, with which all Russian tsars were crowned.

C2. Answer:

The following provisions may be specified:

1) Vladimir Monomakh went down in history with his literary works;

2) “Instructions for Children” is not only an example of ancient Russian literature, but also a monument to philosophical, political and pedagogical thought;

3) the “Chronicle” compiled by Vladimir Monomakh, containing a description of the military and hunting exploits of the Grand Duke, is of significant interest.

C3. Answer:

The following merits can be given:

1) under the prince, Rus' pacified the Polovtsy (they temporarily ceased to be a constant threat);

2) the power of the Kyiv prince extended to all lands inhabited by the ancient Russian people;

3) strife between petty princes was decisively suppressed by Vladimir Monomakh;

4) Kyiv was the capital of a huge, largest state in Europe.

C4. Name the main tasks in domestic and foreign policy that faced Prince Vladimir. Specify at least three tasks. Give at least three examples of the actions of the prince,

Old Russian state. Old Russian principalities. Novgorod Republic

In the last quarter of the 9th century. two centers of the Eastern Slavs Novgorod and Kyiv were

united by the princes of the Rurik dynasty, which marked the beginning of the formation

Old Russian state. Arab, Iranian and Central Asian geographers were

3 political formations of Rus' are known (9-10 centuries): Kuyavia, Slavia, Artania. By

according to the Tale of Bygone Years, in the 9th-10th centuries. there were reigns in the lands of the Drevlyans,

Polotsk, etc. The territorial core of the emerging statehood in the Middle

The Dnieper region was a political and then state formation of the Russian Land (Rus).

Archaeological excavations have established that in the middle of the 9th century. on the so-called Rurik settlement

(in the area of modern Novgorod) a princely residence arose in which they lived

Scandinavians. According to scientists, the emergence of this center is associated with the chronicle

a message about the calling of the prince “from overseas” by the top of the Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes.

The local nobility entered into an agreement with the invited prince, according to which the collection of income from

subject tribes was carried out by representatives of the local elite, and not the princely

squad. This agreement formed the basis of the traditional relationship between the Novgorodians and

princes. Polyana, Northerners, Radimichi, Vyatichi were in the 9th century. depending on Khazar

Khaganate

According to the Tale of Bygone Years, the princes Askold and Dir who ruled in Kyiv

liberated the glades from Khazar dependence. In the 2nd half of the 9th century. rivalry between

"North" and "South" for dominance among the Eastern Slavs intensified. In 882, according to

"The Tale of Bygone Years", Prince Oleg with Rurik's young son Igor captured Kyiv and

made it the capital of the state, and then liberated the lands of the northerners and Radimichi from the Khazar

tribute The Old Russian state at that time was a kind of federation of principalities,

which was headed by the Grand Duke of Kiev, who accepted the title of Khakan, equating him with

rulers of Khazaria. The central government in Kyiv gradually eliminated local

East Slavic reigns. Constantinople campaigns of the 9th-10th centuries. strengthened the Russian-Byzantine

relations and, in general, the international position of the state. Princess Olga, who had

contacts with the Roman Church, however, around 957 she accepted Christianity from Constantinople.

Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich defeated in the 60s. 10th century Khazar Khaganate, but could not

gain a foothold on the Danube. In the Old Russian state there coexisted 3 social

economic structure: primitive communal, slaveholding and emerging

feudal. Princes and representatives of the senior squad (boyars) became

landowners. Slaves served in private households and performed various functions in

princely domain, were used as artisans and became involved in agriculture. At

the presence of communal ownership of land laid the foundations of state ownership,

church and private hereditary (princely, boyar, peasant, etc.)

land tenure, which had some regional and temporary characteristics. A special

type of feudal land tenure - fiefdom. Cities became major centers of crafts and

trade.

Having established himself in Kyiv in 980, Vladimir I Svyatoslavich tried to establish an all-Russian

pagan pantheon, which included Perun, who was considered the patron saint of the prince and his

squads, Khors, Simargl and other deities. Continuing the policy of the state

consolidation, Vladimir came to the conclusion about the need for approval in Rus'

monotheism. Baptism of Rus' in 988-89 through the adoption of Christianity from Byzantium

predetermined the spiritual development of Russia for many centuries. Russian Orthodox Church

device and annexed the southwestern and western lands to his state. From the composition

senior warriors formed a circle of permanent advisers to the prince, the prototype of the so-called.

Boyar Duma. During his lifetime, Vladimir distributed control of individual lands to his

sons. During the civil strife that arose after the death of Vladimir (1015), by order

Svyatopolk I the Accursed, his half-brothers Boris and Gleb were killed. Expelled Svyatopolk

Yaroslav the Wise reigned in Kyiv in 1019. After the death of his brother Mstislav Vladimirovich

(1036), who ruled the lands along the left bank of the Dnieper, Yaroslav became the sole head

state, which occupied a vast territory from the Taman Peninsula to

Northern Dvina and from the Dniester and the upper reaches of the Vistula to the upper reaches of the Volga and Don.

The foreign policy ties of the princely house were sealed by marriage alliances with

rulers of Poland, France, Hungary, and Scandinavian countries. Rus' successfully fought with

Byzantium's claims to dominance in the Northern Black Sea region and the Dnieper region, as well as

expansion of nomads: Pechenegs, Torks, Polovtsians. Yaroslav installed metropolitan

Russian priest Hilarion. The Grand Duke of Kyiv promoted the development of books,

invited builders, architects and painters. Spiritual and cultural centers

monasteries became.

The tendency towards disunity of Russian lands emerged after the death of Yaroslav (1054).

This was facilitated by the growth of economic independence of cities - centers of land

(Novgorod, Chernigov, Polotsk, etc.). In 1073, Yaroslav's sons Svyatoslav and Vsevolod were expelled

from Kyiv his older brother Izyaslav. In the 2nd half of the 11th century. princely feuds

covered Volyn, Galicia, Rostov, Suzdal, Ryazan, Tmutarakan

land. The external danger from the Polovtsians, Polish, Hungarians and others increased.

rulers. In 1097, the congress of Russian princes in the city of Lyubech decided to inherit the lands

their fathers and about the independence of their domains. Kyiv princes Vladimir II Monomakh (ruled in

1113-25) and his son Mstislav (ruled 1125-32) tried to strengthen the state, but in the 2nd

quarter of the 12th century it has entered the final phase of its development. At the end of the 10th-12th centuries. high

Old Russian culture reached the level. Original and translated ones were created

written monuments that became a model for the subsequent development of Russian literature

and bookishness ("The Tale of Bygone Years" and other chronicles, the lives of Saints Boris and Gleb,

Theodosius of Pechersk and others, works of Metropolitan Hilarion, Abbot Daniel, Vladimir

II Monomakh; Russian Truth). In the era of the Old Russian state, based on

East Slavic and some other tribes formed the Old Russian people.

Novgorod occupied a special place in the history of Ancient and Medieval Rus'. In the 9th-11th centuries.

the power of the Novgorod boyars was based on a large state corporate

land ownership. The institutions of the veche system were formed. Relationships with princes

were regulated by tradition, dating back to the agreement with the princes invited in the middle of 9

V. At the same time, a hereditary reign did not develop in Novgorod. During the 11th century. will of the evening

was repeatedly decisive in leaving one or another prince on the Novgorod table. At

Vladimir II Monomakh made the last attempt to keep him in obedience

Novgorod boyars. In 1118, the boyars were summoned to Kyiv, sworn an oath of allegiance,

Some of them were accused of abuse and imprisoned. In 1136, the boyars and merchant elite,

Taking advantage of popular discontent, they expelled Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich from Novgorod.

The supreme power in the Novgorod Republic belonged to the veche, which elected the mayor,

thousand (previously appointed by princes), archbishop (from 1156). Princes were invited to

performing mainly military functions. Later, the boyars created their own government body -

"Council of Gentlemen", the true government of the Novgorod Republic. In the 11th-15th centuries. Novgorod

expanded its territory to the East and North-East. Obonezhye and swimming pool were explored

Northern Dvina, the shores of the White Sea and other lands. Until the middle of the 13th century, legally until 1348,

Pskov land was part of the Novgorod Republic. Novgorodskie

landowners supplied furs, walrus tusk, hemp, wax and others to Western Europe

goods. Cloths, metals, weapons, wines, and jewelry were imported. Novgorod was not only

commercial, but also a highly developed craft center. It was distinguished by its striking originality

Novgorod culture. There are 900 known birch bark documents, which indicate a high

the degree of literacy spread among Novgorodians.

In the 10th century on a branch of the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” in the basin of the Western Dvina, Berezina,

Neman, the Principality of Polotsk arose. At the end of the 10th century. Vladimir Svyatoslavich killed the prince

Polotsk Rogvolod. Around 1021, under Vladimir’s grandson Bryachislav Izyaslavich, it began

separation of Polotsk from Kyiv. Prince Vseslav Bryachislavich (reigned 1044-1101) during

internecine war with Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod Yaroslavich was a deception

captured and imprisoned in Kyiv. Liberated by the rebels of Kiev, in

1068-69 ruled in Kyiv. In the 12th century in the Polotsk land, along with Polotsk, Minsk arose,

Vitebsk and other principalities.

Principality of Kiev in the 12th century. included about 80 urban centers and was the most important

an outpost that protected Southern Rus' from nomads. Despite the weakening influence

Kyiv princes to other principalities, Kyiv was still considered by the princes as

the main center of Rus'. The most important feature of the struggle for the Kyiv table was the fierce

rivalry between two princely dynasties of the Monomakhovichs - descendants of Vladimir II Monomakh

and the Olgovichi - descendants of Oleg, son of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich. In the 1st half of the 13th century. in connection with

strengthening of the Galicia-Volyn principality, as well as the devastation of the Kyiv land by troops

Khan Batu's influence of Kyiv on Southern Rus' was lost.

In North-Eastern Rus' in the 11th-12th centuries. The Rostov-Suzdal principality dominated.

Prince Yuri Dolgoruky (reigned 1125-57) led a stubborn struggle with the South Russian princes for

Kyiv table. In 1157, in connection with the transfer of the capital from Suzdal to Vladimir on Klyazma

The Grand Duchy of Vladimir was formed. Grand Dukes Andrei Bogolyubsky and

Vsevolod the Big Nest had a significant influence on the politics of Muromsky,

Ryazan, Chernigov’E9, Smolensk, Kyiv principalities and the Novgorod Republic. IN

60-80s 12th century A number of campaigns were made against Volga-Kama Bulgaria. Grand Duke

Vladimirsky became the eldest in North-Eastern Rus'. At the end of the 12th century. to replace the squad

organizations in the Grand Duchy of Vladimir and other principalities of North-Eastern Rus'

the so-called courtyard (later Sovereign's courtyard) with a staff of military servants, which marked the beginning

education of the nobility.

The Principality of Chernigov and the entire Left Bank of the Dnieper separated from Kyiv under the prince

Mstislav Vladimirovich in 1024, but after his death (1036) it was returned by Yaroslav

Wise into the Old Russian state. In 1054, according to Yaroslav's will, it was allocated

son Svyatoslav. In the 12th-13th centuries. descendants of Svyatoslav and his sons Davyd and Oleg (Olgovichi)

— Vsevolod Olgovich, Izyaslav Davydovich, Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, Vsevolod Svyatoslavich

Chermny, Mikhail Vsevolodovich reigned in Kyiv. Since 1097 as part of the Principality of Chernigov

princely possessions arose with centers in the cities of Novgorod-Seversky, Putivl, Rylsk,

Kursk and others. The principality ceased to exist during the Mongol conquests in 1239.

The largest state in Southwestern Rus' was the Principality of Galicia-Volyn,

formed in 1199 under Prince Roman Mstislavich as a result of the unification of Galician and

Vladimir-Volyn principalities. Roman and his son Daniil fought against the Galician

boyars, who had great economic and political power. In the 12th-13th centuries. grew

trade and political significance of the cities of Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Terebovlya,

Lvov, Kholm and others. The Galicia-Volyn principality defended its independence from

claims of Polish, Hungarian, Lithuanian and other rulers, it repelled attacks

nomads. The political influence of the principality was undermined by the Mongol invasions

khans and their military leaders in the 40s. 13th century

Economic and cultural upsurge in the 12th-13th centuries. characteristic of all Russian principalities

(including for Smolensk, Ryazan, etc.). In ancient Russian cities there were

original schools of church and secular architecture, local chronicles were kept. At

In this case, princely strife and foreign invasions caused serious damage to Russian lands.

The call for unity with high emotional and artistic power was heard in the “Tale of

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Russian principalities- a period in the history of Russia (from the 12th to the 16th centuries), when the territory was divided into fiefs led by the princes of the house of Rurikovich. Within the framework of Marxist theory, it is described as a period of feudal fragmentation.

Review

From its very beginning, Kievan Rus was not a unitary state. The first division was made between the sons of Svyatoslav Igorevich in 972, the second - between the sons of Vladimir Svyatoslavich in 1015 and 1023, and the descendants of Izyaslav of Polotsk, having become outcasts for Kyiv, became a separate dynasty already at the beginning of the 11th century, as a result of which the Principality of Polotsk earlier others separated from Kievan Rus. However, the division of Rus' by Yaroslav the Wise in 1054 is considered to be the beginning of the division into principalities proper. The next important stage was the decision of the Lyubech Congress of Princes “let each one keep his fatherland” in 1097, but Vladimir Monomakh and his eldest son and heir Mstislav the Great, through seizures and dynastic marriages, were able to again put all the principalities under the control of Kyiv.

The death of Mstislav in 1132 is considered to be the beginning of the period of feudal fragmentation, but Kyiv remained not only a formal center, but also a powerful principality for several more decades; its influence on the periphery did not disappear, but only weakened in comparison with the first third of the 12th century. The Kiev prince continued to control the Turov, Pereyaslav and Vladimir-Volyn principalities and have both opponents and supporters in every region of Rus' until the middle of the century. The Chernigovo-Seversk, Smolensk, Rostov-Suzdal, Murom-Ryazan, Peremyshl and Terebovl principalities and the Novgorod land became separated from Kyiv. Chroniclers began to use the name for the principalities land, which previously designated only Rus' as a whole (“Russian land”) or other countries (“Greek land”). The lands acted as independent subjects of international relations and were ruled by their own Rurik dynasties, with some exceptions: the Principality of Kiev and the Novgorod land did not have their own dynasty and were objects of struggle between princes from other lands (while in Novgorod the rights of the prince were greatly limited in favor of the local boyar aristocracy) , and for the Galicia-Volyn principality after the death of Roman Mstislavich, for about 40 years there was a war between all the southern Russian princes, ending in the victory of Daniil Romanovich Volynsky. At the same time, the unity of the princely family and church unity were preserved, as well as the idea of Kyiv as formally the most important Russian table and the Kyiv land as the common property of all princes. By the beginning of the Mongol invasion (1237), the total number of principalities, including appanages, reached 50. The process of formation of new fiefs continued everywhere (in the XIV century the total number of principalities is estimated at 250), but in the XIV-XV centuries the reverse process began to gain strength, the result of which was the unification of Russian lands around two great principalities: Moscow and Lithuania.

In historiography, when considering the period of the XII-XVI centuries, special attention is usually paid to several principalities.

Novgorod Republic

In 1136, Novgorod left the control of the Kyiv princes. Unlike other Russian lands, the Novgorod land became a feudal republic, its head was not a prince, but a mayor. The mayor and tysyatsky were elected by the veche, while in the rest of the Russian lands the tysyatsky was appointed by the prince. The Novgorodians entered into an alliance with some Russian principalities to protect their independence from others, and from the beginning of the 13th century, to fight external enemies: Lithuania and the Catholic orders that settled in the Baltic states.

Releasing his eldest son Constantine to the Novgorod throne in 1206, the Grand Duke of Vladimir Vsevolod the Big Nest made a speech: “ my son, Konstantin, God has placed upon you the eldership of all your brothers, and Novgorod the Great to have the eldership of the princess in the entire Russian land».

Since 1333, Novgorod for the first time invited a representative of the Lithuanian princely house to reign. In 1449, under an agreement with Moscow, the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV renounced claims to Novgorod, in 1456 Vasily II the Dark concluded the unequal Yazhelbitsky peace treaty with Novgorod, and in 1478 Ivan III completely annexed Novgorod to his possessions, abolishing the veche . In 1494, the Hanseatic trading court in Novgorod was closed.

Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, Grand Duchy of Vladimir

In chronicles until the 13th century it was usually called "Suzdal land", with con. XIII century - "the great reign of Vladimir". In historiography it is designated by the term "North-Eastern Rus'".

Soon after the Rostov-Suzdal prince Yuri Dolgoruky, as a result of many years of struggle, established himself in the reign of Kiev, his son Andrei left for the north, taking with him the icon of the Mother of God from Vyshgorod (1155). Andrei moved the capital of the Rostov-Suzdal principality to Vladimir and became the first Grand Duke of Vladimir. In 1169, he organized the capture of Kyiv, and, in the words of V.O. Klyuchevsky, “separated seniority from place,” placing his younger brother in the reign of Kiev, while he himself remained reigning in Vladimir. The seniority of Andrei Bogolyubsky was recognized by all Russian princes, except those of Galicia and Chernigov. The winner in the struggle for power after the death of Andrei was his younger brother Vsevolod the Big Nest, supported by the residents of the new cities in the southwestern part of the principality (“slaves-masons”) against the proteges of the old Rostov-Suzdal boyars. By the end of the 1190s, he achieved recognition of his seniority by all the princes, except those of Chernigov and Polotsk. Shortly before his death, Vsevolod convened a congress of representatives of various social strata on the issue of succession to the throne (1211): The Great Prince Vsevolod summoned all his boyars from the cities and volosts and Bishop John, and the abbots, and the priests, and the merchants, and the nobles, and all the people.

The Pereyaslavl principality was under the control of the Vladimir princes since 1154 (with the exception of a short period 1206-1213). They also used the dependence of the Novgorod Republic on the supply of food from agricultural Opolye through Torzhok in order to extend their influence over it. Also, the Vladimir princes used their military capabilities to protect Novgorod from invasions from the west, and from 1231 to 1333 they invariably reigned in Novgorod.

In 1237-1238, the principality was devastated by the Mongols. In 1243, the Vladimir prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich was summoned to Batu and recognized as the oldest prince in Rus'. At the end of the 1250s, a census was carried out and the systematic exploitation of the principality by the Mongols began. After the death of Alexander Nevsky (1263), Vladimir ceased to be the residence of the grand dukes. During the 13th century, appanage principalities with their own dynasties were formed: Belozerskoye, Galitsko-Dmitrovskoye, Gorodetskoye, Kostroma, Moscow, Pereyaslavskoye, Rostovskoye, Starodubskoye, Suzdal, Tverskoye, Uglitsky, Yuryevskoye, Yaroslavskoye (up to 13 principalities in total), and in the 14th century the Tver principalities , Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal princes began to be titled “great”. The Vladimir great reign itself, which included the city of Vladimir with a vast territory in the zone of the Suzdal Opolye and the right to collect tribute for the Horde from all the principalities of North-Eastern Rus', except the great ones, was received by one of the princes by label from the Horde khan.

In 1299, the Metropolitan of All Rus' moved from Kyiv to Vladimir, and in 1327 to Moscow. Since 1331, the Vladimir reign was assigned to the Moscow princely house, and since 1389 it appeared in the wills of the Moscow princes along with the Moscow domain. In 1428, the final merger of the Vladimir principality with the Moscow principality took place.

Galicia-Volyn Principality

After the suppression of the first Galician dynasty, Roman Mstislavich Volynsky took possession of the Galician throne, thereby uniting the two principalities in his hands. In 1201, he was invited to reign by the Kyiv boyars, but left a younger relative to reign in Kyiv, turning Kyiv into an outpost of his possessions in the east.

Roman hosted the Byzantine Emperor Alexios III Angelos, who was expelled by the crusaders during the Fourth Crusade. Received an offer of the royal crown from Pope Innocent III. According to the version of the “first Russian historian” Tatishchev V.N., Roman was the author of a project for the political structure of all Russian lands, in which the Kiev prince would be elected by six princes, and their principalities would be inherited by the eldest son. In the chronicle, Roman is called “the autocrat of all Rus'.”

After the death of Roman in 1205, there was a long struggle for power, from which Roman's eldest son and heir Daniel emerged victorious, having restored his control over all of his father's possessions by 1240 - the year of the beginning of the last phase of the western campaign of the Mongols - the campaign against Kyiv, the Galician-Volyn principality and to Central Europe. In the 1250s, Daniil fought against the Mongol-Tatars, but he still had to admit his dependence on them. The Galician-Volyn princes paid tribute and participated as forced allies in the Horde campaigns against Lithuania, Poland and Hungary, but maintained the order of transfer of the throne.

The Galician princes also extended their influence to the Turovo-Pinsk principality. Since 1254, Daniil and his descendants bore the title of “Kings of Rus'”. After the transfer of the residence of the Metropolitan of All Rus' from Kyiv to Vladimir in 1299, Yuri Lvovich Galitsky founded a separate Galician metropolis, which existed (with interruptions) until the capture of Galicia by Poland in 1349. The Galician-Volynian lands were finally divided between Lithuania and Poland in 1392 following the War of the Galician-Volynian Succession.

Principality of Smolensk

It became isolated under the grandson of Vladimir Monomoh - Rostislav Mstislavich. The Smolensk princes were distinguished by their desire to occupy tables outside their principality, thanks to which it was almost not subject to fragmentation into appanages and had interests in all regions of Rus'. The Rostislavichs were constant contenders for Kyiv and firmly established themselves in a number of its suburban tables. From 1181 to 1194, a duumvirate was established in the Kyiv land, when the city was owned by Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich of Chernigov, and the rest of the principality was owned by Rurik Rostislavich. After the death of Svyatoslav, Rurik gained and lost Kyiv several times and in 1203 repeated the act of Andrei Bogolyubsky, subjecting the capital of Rus' to defeat for the second time in the history of civil strife.

The pinnacle of Smolensk power was the reign of Mstislav Romanovich, who occupied the Kiev throne from 1214 to 1223. During this period, Novgorod, Pskov, Polotsk, Vitebsk and Galich were under the control of the Rostislavichs. It was under the auspices of Mstislav Romanovich as the prince of Kyiv that an essentially all-Russian campaign against the Mongols was organized, which ended in defeat on the river. Kalke.

The Mongol invasion affected only the eastern outskirts of the principality and did not affect Smolensk itself. The Smolensk princes recognized their dependence on the Horde, and in 1275 a Mongol census was carried out in the principality. The position of Smolensk was more favorable compared to other lands. It was almost never subjected to Tatar raids; the appanages that arose within it were not assigned to individual princely branches and remained under the control of the Smolensk prince. In the 90s In the 13th century, the territory of the principality expanded due to the annexation of the Bryansk principality from the Chernigov land, at the same time, the Smolensk princes established themselves in the Yaroslavl principality through a dynastic marriage. In the 1st half. In the 14th century, under Prince Ivan Alexandrovich, the Smolensk princes began to be called great. However, by this time the principality found itself in the role of a buffer zone between Lithuania and the Moscow principality, whose rulers sought to make the Smolensk princes dependent on themselves and gradually seized their volosts. In 1395, Smolensk was conquered by Vytautas. In 1401, the Smolensk prince Yuri Svyatoslavich, with the support of Ryazan, regained his throne, but in 1404 Vytautas again captured the city and finally included it in Lithuania.

Principality of Chernigov

It became isolated in 1097 under the rule of the descendants of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, their rights to the principality were recognized by other Russian princes at the Lyubech Congress. After the youngest of the Svyatoslavichs was deprived of his reign in 1127 and, under the rule of his descendants, the lands on the lower Oka separated from Chernigov, and in 1167 the line of descendants of Davyd Svyatoslavich was cut off, the Olgovich dynasty established itself on all princely tables of the Chernigov land: the northern and upper Oka lands the descendants of Vsevolod Olgovich owned (they were also permanent claimants to Kyiv), the Novgorod-Seversky principality was owned by the descendants of Svyatoslav Olgovich. Representatives of both branches reigned in Chernigov (until 1226).

In addition to Kyiv and Vyshgorod, at the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries, the Olgovichs managed to briefly extend their influence to Galich and Volyn, Pereyaslavl and Novgorod.

In 1223, the Chernigov princes took part in the first campaign against the Mongols. In the spring of 1238, during the Mongol invasion, the northeastern lands of the principality were devastated, and in the autumn of 1239, the southwestern ones. After the death of the Chernigov prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich in the Horde in 1246, the lands of the principality were divided between his sons, and the eldest of them, Roman, became a prince in Bryansk. In 1263, he liberated Chernigov from the Lithuanians and annexed it to his possessions. Starting from Roman, the Bryansk princes were usually titled as the Grand Dukes of Chernigov.

At the beginning of the 14th century, the Smolensk princes established themselves in Bryansk, presumably through a dynastic marriage. The struggle for Bryansk lasted for several decades, until in 1357 the Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd Gediminovich installed one of the contenders, Roman Mikhailovich, to reign. In the second half of the 14th century, in parallel with him, Olgerd’s sons Dmitry and Dmitry-Koribut also reigned in the Bryansk lands. After the Ostrov agreement, the autonomy of the Bryansk principality was eliminated, Roman Mikhailovich became the Lithuanian governor in Smolensk, where he was killed in 1401.

Grand Duchy of Lithuania

It arose in the 13th century as a result of the unification of Lithuanian tribes by Prince Mindovg. In 1320-1323, the Grand Duke of Lithuania Gediminas conducted successful campaigns against Volyn and Kyiv (the Battle of the Irpen River). After Olgerd Gediminovich established control over Southern Russia in 1362, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania became a state in which, despite the presence of a foreign ethnic core, the majority of the population was Russian, and the predominant religion was Orthodoxy. The principality acted as a rival to another rising center of Russian lands at that time - the Moscow principality, but Olgerd's campaigns against Moscow were unsuccessful.

The Teutonic Order intervened in the struggle for power in Lithuania after the death of Olgerd, and the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiello was forced to abandon the plan of concluding a dynastic union with Moscow and recognize (1384) the condition of baptism into the Catholic faith within the next 4 years. Already in 1385 the first Polish-Lithuanian union was concluded. In 1392, Vitovt became the Lithuanian prince, who finally included Smolensk and Bryansk in the principality, and after the death of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily I (1425), married to his daughter, he extended his influence to Tver, Ryazan and Pronsk for several years.

The Polish-Lithuanian Union of 1413 granted privileges to the Catholic nobility in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, but during the struggle for power after the death of Vytautas, they were abolished (the equality of rights of the Catholic and Orthodox nobility was confirmed by the privilege of 1563).

In 1458, on the Russian lands subject to Lithuania and Poland, the Kiev metropolis was formed, independent of the Moscow metropolis of “All Rus'”.

After the entry of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into the Livonian War and the fall of Polotsk, the principality was united with Poland into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth confederation (1569), while the lands of Kiev, Podolsk and Volyn, previously part of the principality, became part of Poland.

Grand Duchy of Moscow

It emerged from the Grand Duchy of Vladimir at the end of the 13th century as the inheritance of the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniel. In the first years of the 14th century, it annexed a number of adjacent territories and began to compete with the Tver Principality. In 1328, together with the Horde and Suzdal, Tver was defeated, and soon the Moscow Prince Ivan I Kalita became the Grand Duke of Vladimir. Subsequently, the title, with rare exceptions, was retained by his offspring. After the victory on the Kulikovo Field, Moscow became the center of the unification of Russian lands. In 1389, Dmitry Donskoy transferred the great reign in his will to his son Vasily I, which was recognized by all the neighbors of Moscow and the Horde.

In 1439, the Moscow Metropolis of “All Rus'” did not recognize the Florentine Union of the Greek and Roman churches and became virtually autocephalous.

After the reign of Ivan III (1462), the process of unification of the Russian principalities under the rule of Moscow entered a decisive phase. By the end of the reign of Vasily III (1533), Moscow became the center of the Russian centralized state, annexing, in addition to all of North-Eastern Rus' and Novgorod, also the Smolensk and Chernigov lands conquered from Lithuania. In 1547, the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan IV was crowned king. In 1549, the first Zemsky Sobor was convened. In 1589, the Moscow metropolitanate was transformed into a patriarchate. In 1591, the last inheritance in the kingdom was eliminated.

Economy

As a result of the capture of the city of Sarkel and the Tmutarakan principality by the Cumans, as well as the success of the first crusade, the importance of trade routes changed. The route “From the Varangians to the Greeks,” on which Kyiv was located, gave way to the Volga trade route and the route that connected the Black Sea with Western Europe through the Dniester. In particular, the campaign against the Polovtsians in 1168 under the leadership of Mstislav Izyaslavich was aimed at ensuring the passage of goods along the lower Dnieper.

The “Charter of Vladimir Vsevolodovich,” issued by Vladimir Monomakh after the Kyiv uprising of 1113, introduced an upper limit on the amount of interest on debts, which freed the poor from the threat of long and eternal bondage. In the 12th century, although custom work remained predominant, many signs point to the beginning of more progressive work for the market.

Large craft centers became targets of the Mongol invasion of Rus' in 1237-1240. Their ruin, the capture of craftsmen and the subsequent need to pay tribute caused the decline of crafts and trade.

At the end of the 15th century, the distribution of land to nobles under the condition of service (estate) began in the Moscow principality. In 1497, the Code of Law was adopted, one of the provisions of which limited the transfer of peasants from one landowner to another on St. George’s day in the autumn.

Warfare

In the 12th century, instead of a squad, a regiment became the main fighting force. The senior and junior squads are transformed into the militia of the landowner boyars and the prince's court.

In 1185, for the first time in Russian history, the division of the battle formation was noted not only along the front into three tactical units (regiments), but also in depth up to four regiments, the total number of tactical units reached six, including the first mention of a separate rifle regiment, which is also mentioned on Lake Peipus in 1242 (Battle of the Ice).

The blow dealt to the economy by the Mongol invasion also affected the state of military affairs. The process of differentiation of functions between the detachments of heavy cavalry, which dealt a direct blow with melee weapons, and the detachments of riflemen, broke down, reunification occurred, and the warriors again began to use a spear and sword and shoot from a bow. Separate rifle units, and on a semi-regular basis, reappeared only at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries in Novgorod and Moscow (pishchalniki, archers).

Foreign Wars

Cumans

After a series of offensive campaigns at the beginning of the 12th century, the Polovtsians were forced to migrate to the southeast, right up to the foothills of the Caucasus. The resumption of internecine struggle in Rus' in the 1130s allowed the Polovtsians to again ravage Rus', including as allies of one of the warring princely factions. The first offensive movement of the allied forces against the Polovtsians in several decades was organized by Mstislav Izyaslavich in 1168, then Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich in 1183 organized a general campaign of forces of almost all southern Russian principalities and defeated a large Polovtsian association of the southern Russian steppes, led by Khan Kobyak. And although the Polovtsians managed to defeat Igor Svyatoslavich in 1185, in subsequent years the Polovtsians did not undertake large-scale invasions of Rus' outside of princely strife, and the Russian princes undertook a series of powerful offensive campaigns (1198, 1202, 1203). By the beginning of the 13th century, there was a noticeable Christianization of the Polovtsian nobility. Of the four Polovtsian khans mentioned in the chronicle in connection with the first Mongol invasion of Europe, two had Orthodox names, and the third was baptized before the joint Russian-Polovtsian campaign against the Mongols (Battle of the Kalka River). The Polovtsians, like Rus', became victims of the western campaign of the Mongols in 1236-1242.

Catholic orders, Sweden and Denmark

The first appearance of Catholic preachers in the lands of the Livs dependent on the Polotsk princes occurred in 1184. The founding of the city of Riga and the Order of the Swordsmen dates back to 1202. The first campaigns of the Russian princes were undertaken in 1217-1223 in support of the Estonians, but gradually the order not only subjugated the local tribes, but also deprived the Russians of their possessions in Livonia (Kukeinos, Gersik, Viljandi and Yuryev).

In 1234, the crusaders were defeated by Yaroslav Vsevolodovich of Novgorod in the battle of Omovzha, in 1236 by Lithuanians and Semigallians in the Battle of Saul, after which the remnants of the Order of the Swords became part of the Teutonic Order, founded in 1198 in Palestine and seized the lands of the Prussians in 1227, and northern Estonia became part of Denmark. An attempt at a coordinated attack on Russian lands in 1240, immediately after the Mongol invasion of Rus', ended in failure (Battle of the Neva, Battle of the Ice), although the crusaders managed to briefly capture Pskov.

After combining the military efforts of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Teutonic Order suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Grunwald (1410), subsequently became dependent on Poland (1466) and lost its possessions in Prussia as a result of secularization (1525). In 1480, while standing on the Ugra, the Livonian Order launched an attack on Pskov, but to no avail. In 1561, the Livonian Order was liquidated as a result of the successful actions of Russian troops at the initial stage of the Livonian War.

Mongol-Tatars

After the victory at Kalka in 1223 over the combined forces of the Russian principalities and the Polovtsians, the Mongols abandoned the plan to march on Kyiv, which was the final goal of their campaign, turned east, were defeated by the Volga rainfeds at the crossing of the Volga and launched a large-scale invasion of Europe only 13 years later , but at the same time they no longer met organized resistance. Poland and Hungary also became victims of the invasion, and the Smolensk, Turovo-Pinsk, Polotsk principalities and the Novgorod Republic managed to avoid defeat.

The Russian lands became dependent on the Golden Horde, which was expressed in the right of the Horde khans to appoint princes to their tables and the payment of annual tribute. The rulers of the Horde were called “kings” in Rus'.

During the onset of the “great turmoil” in the Horde following the death of Khan Berdibek (1359), Olgerd Gediminovich defeated the Horde at Blue Waters (1362) and established control over Southern Russia, thereby putting an end to the Mongol-Tatar yoke. During the same period, the Grand Duchy of Moscow took a significant step towards liberation from the yoke (Battle of Kulikovo in 1380).

During periods of struggle for power in the Horde, the Moscow princes suspended the payment of tribute, but were forced to resume it after the invasions of Tokhtamysh (1382) and Edigei (1408). In 1399, the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vitovt, who tried to return the Horde throne to Tokhtamysh and thus establish control over the Horde, was defeated by Timur’s henchmen in the Battle of Vorskla, in which the Lithuanian princes who took part in the Battle of Kulikovo also died.

After the collapse of the Golden Horde into several khanates, the Moscow Principality received the opportunity to pursue an independent policy in relation to each khanate. The descendants of Ulu-Muhammad received the Meshchera lands from Vasily II, forming the Kasimov Khanate (1445). Beginning in 1472, in alliance with the Crimean Khanate, Moscow fought against the Great Horde, which entered into an alliance with the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV. The Crimeans repeatedly ravaged the southern Russian possessions of Casimir, primarily Kyiv and Podolia. In 1480, the Mongol-Tatar yoke (standing on the Ugra) was overthrown. After the liquidation of the Great Horde (1502), a common border arose between the Moscow Principality and the Crimean Khanate, immediately after which regular Crimean raids on Moscow lands began. The Kazan Khanate, starting from the middle of the 15th century, increasingly experienced military and political pressure from Moscow, until in 1552 it was annexed to the Muscovite kingdom. In 1556, the Astrakhan Khanate was also annexed to it, and in 1582 the conquest of the Siberian Khanate began.

After the death of the Kyiv prince Yaroslav the Wise in 1054, the process of disintegration of the previously unified state began in Rus'. Similar events occurred in Western Europe. This was the general trend of the feudal Middle Ages. Gradually, Rus' divided into several de facto independent principalities with common traditions, culture and the Rurik dynasty. The most important year for the country was 1132, when Mstislav the Great died. It is this date that historians consider the beginning of the finally established political fragmentation. In this state, Rus' existed until the middle of the 13th century, when it survived the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar troops.

Kyiv land

Over the course of many years, the principalities of ancient Rus' were divided, united, the ruling branches of the Rurik dynasty changed, etc. However, despite the complexity of these events, several key destinies can be identified that played the most important role in the life of the country. Even after the actual collapse of the de jure, it was the Kiev prince who was considered senior.

A variety of appanage rulers tried to establish control over the “mother of Russian cities.” Therefore, if the appanage principalities of ancient Rus' had their own hereditary dynasties, then Kyiv most often passed from hand to hand. After the death of Mstislav Vladimirovich in 1132, the city briefly became the property of the Chernigov Rurikovichs. This did not suit other representatives of the dynasty. Due to the subsequent wars, Kyiv first ceased to control the Pereyaslavl, Turov and Vladimir-Volyn principalities, and then (in 1169) it was completely plundered by the army of Andrei Bogolyubsky and finally lost its political significance.

Chernigov

Ancient Rus' on Chernigov land belonged to the descendants of Svyatoslav Yaroslavovich. They have been in conflict with Kyiv for a long time. For several decades, the Chernigov dynasty was divided into two branches: the Olgovichi and the Davydovichi. With each generation, more and more new appanage principalities arose, breaking away from Chernigov (Novgorod-Severskoye, Bryansk, Kursk, etc.).

Historians consider Svyatoslav Olgovich the most prominent ruler of this region. He was an ally It was with their allied feast in Moscow in 1147 that the history of the Russian capital, confirmed by chronicles, begins. When the principalities of ancient Rus' united in the fight against the Mongols who appeared in the east, the appanage rulers of the Chernigov land acted together with the rest of the Rurikovichs and were defeated. The invasion of the steppe inhabitants did not affect the entire principality, but only its eastern part. Nevertheless, it recognized itself as a vassal of the Golden Horde (after the painful death of Mikhail Vsevolodovich). In the 14th century, Chernigov, along with many neighboring cities, was annexed to Lithuania.

Polotsk region

Polotsk was ruled by the Izyaslavichs (descendants of Izyaslav Vladimirovich). This branch of the Rurikovichs stood out earlier than others. In addition, Polotsk was the first to begin an armed struggle for independence from Kyiv. The earliest such war happened at the beginning of the 11th century.

Like other principalities of ancient Rus' during the period of fragmentation, Polotsk eventually split into several small fiefs (Vitebsk, Minsk, Drutsk, etc.). As a result of wars and dynastic marriages, some of these cities passed to the Smolensk Rurikovichs. But the most dangerous opponents of Polotsk, without a doubt, were the Lithuanians. At first, these Baltic tribes staged predatory raids on Russian lands. Then they moved on to conquest. In 1307, Polotsk finally became part of the growing Lithuanian state.

Volyn

In Volyn (the southwest of modern Ukraine), two large political centers emerged - Vladimir-Volynsky and Galich. Having become independent from Kyiv, these principalities began to compete with each other for leadership in the region. At the end of the 12th century, Roman Mstislavovich united the two cities. His principality was named Galicia-Volyn. The influence of the monarch was so great that he sheltered the Byzantine Emperor Alexius III, expelled from Constantinople by the crusaders.

Roman's son Daniel eclipsed his father's successes with his fame. He successfully fought against the Poles, Hungarians and Mongols, periodically concluding alliances with one of his neighbors. In 1254, Daniel even accepted the title of King of Rus' from the Pope, hoping for help from Western Europe in the fight against the steppe inhabitants. After his death, the Galicia-Volyn principality fell into decline. At first it split into several fiefs, and then was captured by Poland. The fragmentation of Ancient Rus', whose principalities were constantly at enmity with each other, prevented it from fighting against external threats.

Smolensk region

The Smolensk principality was located in the geographical center of Rus'. It became independent under the son of Mstislav the Great, Rostislav. At the end of the 12th century, the principalities of Ancient Rus' again began a fierce struggle for Kyiv. The main contenders for power in the ancient capital were the Smolensk and Chernigov rulers.

The descendants of Rostislav reached the pinnacle of power under Mstislav Romanovich. In 1214-1223 he ruled not only Smolensk, but also Kiev. It was this prince who initiated the first anti-Mongol coalition, which was defeated at Kalka. Subsequently, Smolensk suffered less than others during the invasion. Nevertheless, its rulers paid tribute to the Golden Horde. Gradually, the principality found itself sandwiched between Lithuania and Moscow, which were gaining influence. Independence under such conditions could not last long. As a result, in 1404, the Lithuanian prince Vitovt naturally annexed Smolensk to his possessions.

Outpost on the Oka

The Ryazan principality occupied lands on the Middle Oka. It emerged from the possessions of the Chernigov rulers. In the 1160s, Murom broke away from Ryazan. The Mongol invasion hit this region hard. The inhabitants, princes, and principalities of ancient Rus' did not understand the threat posed by the eastern conquerors. In 1237, Ryazan was the first Russian city to be destroyed by the steppe inhabitants. Subsequently, the principality fought with Moscow, which was gaining strength. For example, the Ryazan ruler Oleg Ivanovich was an opponent of Dmitry Donskoy for a long time. Gradually Ryazan lost ground. It was annexed to Moscow in 1521.

Novgorod Republic

The historical characteristics of the principalities of Ancient Rus' cannot be complete without mentioning the Novgorod Republic. This state lived according to its own special political and social structure. An aristocratic republic with a strong influence of the national council was established here. The princes were elected military leaders (they were invited from other Russian lands).

A similar political system developed in Pskov, which was called “the younger brother of Novgorod.” These two cities were centers of international trade. Compared to other Russian political centers, they had the most contacts with Western Europe. After the Baltic states were captured by the Catholic military, serious friction began between the knights and Novgorod. This struggle reached its climax in the 1240s. It was then that the Swedes and Germans were defeated in turn by Prince Alexander Nevsky. When the historical path from Ancient Rus' to Great Russia was almost completed, the republic was left alone with Ivan III. He conquered Novgorod in 1478.

North-Eastern Rus'

The first political centers of North-Eastern Rus' in the 11th-12th centuries. there were Rostov, Suzdal and Vladimir. The descendants of Monomakh and his youngest son Yuri Dolgoruky ruled here. Their father's successors, Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest, strengthened the authority of the Vladimir principality, making it the largest and strongest in fragmented Rus'.

Under the children of Vsevolod the Big Nest, a major development began. The first appanage principalities began to appear. However, real disasters came to North-Eastern Rus' with the Mongols. The nomads ravaged this region and burned many of its cities. During the Horde rule, the khans were recognized as elders throughout Rus'. Those who received a special label were put in charge there.

In the struggle for Vladimir, two new opponents emerged: Tver and Moscow. The peak of their confrontation occurred at the beginning of the 14th century. Moscow turned out to be the winner in this rivalry. Gradually, its princes united North-Eastern Rus', overthrew the Mongol-Tatar yoke and ultimately created a single Russian state (Ivan the Terrible became its first king in 1547).

Already in the middle of the 12th century. the power of the Kyiv princes began to have real significance only within the boundaries of the Kyiv principality itself, which included lands along the banks of the tributaries of the Dnieper - Teterev, Irpen and semi-autonomous Porosye, populated by the Black Hoods, vassals from Kyiv. The attempt of Yaropolk, who became the prince of Kyiv after the death of Mstislav I, to autocratically dispose of the “fatherland” of other princes was decisively stopped.
Despite the loss of Kiev's all-Russian significance, the struggle for its possession continued until the Mongol invasion. There was no order in the inheritance of the Kyiv throne, and it passed from hand to hand depending on the balance of power of the fighting princely groups and, to a large extent, on the attitude towards them on the part of the powerful Kyiv boyars and the “Black Klobuks”. In the conditions of the all-Russian struggle for Kyiv, the local boyars sought to end the strife and to political stabilization in their principality. The invitation by the boyars in 1113 of Vladimir Monomakh to Kyiv (bypassing the then accepted order of succession) was a precedent that was later used by the boyars to justify their “right” to choose a strong and pleasing prince and to conclude a “row” with him that protected them territorially. corporate interests. The boyars who violated this series of princes were eliminated by going over to the side of his rivals or through a conspiracy (as, perhaps, Yuri Dolgoruky was poisoned, overthrown, and then killed in 1147 during a popular uprising, Igor Olgovich Chernigovsky, unpopular among the people of Kiev). As more and more princes were drawn into the struggle for Kyiv, the Kyiv boyars resorted to a kind of system of princely duumvirate, inviting representatives from two of several rival princely groups to Kyiv as co-rulers, which for some time achieved the relative political balance much needed by the Kyiv land.
As Kiev loses its all-Russian significance, individual rulers of the strongest principalities, who have become “great” in their lands, begin to be satisfied by the installation of their proteges in Kyiv - “henchmen”.
Princely strife over Kyiv turned the Kyiv land into an arena of frequent military operations, during which cities and villages were ruined, and the population was taken prisoner. Kyiv itself was subjected to brutal pogroms, both from the princes who entered it as victors and those who left it as defeated and returned to their “fatherland.” All this predetermined the development that emerged from the beginning of the 13th century. the gradual decline of the Kyiv land, the flow of its population to the northern and northwestern regions of the country, which suffered less from princely strife and were virtually inaccessible to the Polovtsians. Periods of temporary strengthening of Kyiv during the reign of such outstanding political figures and organizers of the fight against the Polovtsians as Svyatoslav Vsevolodich of Chernigov (1180-1194) and Roman Mstislavich of Volyn (1202 - 1205) alternated with the reign of colorless, kaleidoscopically successive princes. Daniil Romanovich Galitsky, into whose hands Kyiv passed shortly before Batu’s capture of it, had already limited himself to appointing his mayor from the boyars.

Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

Until the middle of the 11th century. The Rostov-Suzdal land was governed by mayors sent from Kyiv. Its real “princeship” began after it went to the younger “Yaroslavich” - Vsevolod of Pereyaslavl - and was assigned to his descendants as their ancestral “volost” in the XII-XIII centuries. The Rostov-Suzdal land experienced an economic and political upsurge, which put it among the strongest principalities in Rus'. The fertile lands of the Suzdal “Opolye”, vast forests cut through by a dense network of rivers and lakes along which ancient and important trade routes to the south and east ran, the presence of iron ores accessible for mining - all this favored the development of agriculture, cattle breeding, rural and forestry industries , crafts and trade. In the acceleration of the economic development and political rise of this forest region, the rapid growth of its population due to the inhabitants of the southern Russian lands, which were subjected to Polovtsian raids in the 11th-12th centuries, formed and strengthened a large princely and boyar (and then ecclesiastical) kingdom. land ownership, absorbing communal lands and involving peasants in personal feudal dependence In the 12th - 13th centuries, almost all the main cities of this land arose (Vladimir, Pereyaslavl-Zalesskiy, Dmitrov, Starodub, Gorodets, Galich, Kostroma, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, etc.) , built by the Suzdal princes on the borders and inside the principality as strongholds and administrative points and equipped with trade and craft settlements, the population of which was actively involved in political life. In 1147, the chronicle first mentioned Moscow, a small border town built by Yuri Dolgoruky on the site of the estate of the boyar Kuchka, which he had confiscated.
In the early 30s of the 12th century, during the reign of Monomakh’s son Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky (1125-1157), the Rostov-Suzdal land gained independence. The military-political activity of Yuri, who intervened in all the princely strife, stretched out his “long hands” to cities and lands far from his principality, made him one of the central figures in the political life of Rus' in the second third of the 11th century. The struggle with Novgorod and the war with Volga Bulgaria, begun by Yuri and continued by his successors, marked the beginning of the expansion of the borders of the principality towards the Podvina region and the Volga-Kama lands. Ryazan and Murom, which had previously been “pulling” towards Chernigov, fell under the influence of the Suzdal princes.
The last ten years of Dolgoruky’s life were spent in a grueling and alien to the interests of his principality struggle with the southern Russian princes for Kyiv, the reign of which, in the eyes of Yuri and the princes of his generation, was combined with “eldership” in Rus'. But already the son of Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky, having captured Kyiv in 1169 and brutally robbed it, handed it over to the management of one of his vassal princes, “helpers”, which indicated a change on the part of the most far-sighted princes in their attitude towards Kyiv, which had lost its significance all-Russian political center.
The reign of Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky (1157 - 1174) was marked by the beginning of the struggle of the Suzdal princes for the political hegemony of their principality over the rest of the Russian lands. The ambitious attempts of Bogolyubsky, who claimed the title of Grand Duke of all Rus', to completely subjugate Novgorod and force other princes to recognize his supremacy in Rus' failed. However, it was precisely these attempts that reflected the tendency to restore the state-political unity of the country based on the subordination of appanage princes to the autocratic ruler of one of the strongest principalities in Rus'.
The reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky is associated with the revival of the traditions of the power politics of Vladimir Monomakh. Relying on the support of the townspeople and noble warriors, Andrei dealt harshly with the rebellious boyars, expelled them from the principality, and confiscated their estates. To be even more independent from the boyars, he moved the capital of the principality from a relatively new city - Vladimir-on-Klyazma, which had a significant trade and craft settlement. It was not possible to completely suppress the boyar opposition to the “autocratic” prince, as Andrei was called by his contemporaries. In June 1174 he was killed by conspiratorial boyars.
The two-year strife, unleashed after the murder of Bogolyubsky by the boyars, ended with the reign of his brother Vsevolod Yuryevich the Big Nest (1176-1212), who, relying on the townspeople and the squads of feudal lords, dealt harshly with the rebellious nobility and became the sovereign ruler in his land. During his reign, the Vladimir-Suzdal land reached its greatest prosperity and power, playing a decisive role in the political life of Rus' at the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries. Extending his influence to other Russian lands, Vsevolod skillfully combined the force of arms (as, for example, in relation to the Ryazan princes) with skillful politics (in relations with the southern Russian princes and Novgorod). The name and power of Vsevolod were well known far beyond the borders of Rus'. The author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” proudly wrote about him as the most powerful prince in Rus', whose numerous regiments could sprinkle the Volga with oars, and with their helmets draw water from the Don, from whose very name “all countries trembled” and with rumors about which “the world was full of the whole earth."
After the death of Vsevolod, an intensive process of feudal fragmentation began in the Vladimir-Suzdal land. The quarrels of Vsevolod's numerous sons over the grand-ducal table and the distribution of principalities led to a gradual weakening of the grand-ducal power and its political influence on other Russian lands. Nevertheless, until the invasion of the Mongols, the Vladimir-Suzdal land remained the strongest and most influential principality in Rus', maintaining political unity under the leadership of the Vladimir Grand Duke. When planning a campaign of conquest against Rus', the Mongol-Tatars linked the result of the surprise and power of their first strike with the success of the entire campaign as a whole. And it is no coincidence that North-Eastern Rus' was chosen as the target of the first strike.

Chernigov and Smolensk principalities

These two large Dnieper principalities had much in common in their economics and political system with other South Russian principalities, which were ancient centers of culture for the Eastern Slavs. Here already in the 9th -11th centuries. Large princely and boyar land ownership developed, cities grew rapidly, becoming centers of handicraft production, serving not only the nearby rural districts, but also having developed external connections. The Smolensk Principality had extensive trade relations, especially with the West, where the upper reaches of the Volga, Dnieper and Western Dvina converged - the most important trade routes of Eastern Europe.
The separation of Chernigov land into an independent principality occurred in the second half of the 11th century. in connection with its transfer (together with the Murom-Ryazan land) to the son of Yaroslav the Wise Svyatoslav, to whose descendants it was assigned. Back at the end of the 11th century. The ancient ties between Chernigov and Tmutarakan, which was cut off by the Polovtsians from the rest of the Russian lands and fell under the sovereignty of Byzantium, were interrupted. At the end of the 40s of the 11th century. The Chernigov principality was divided into two principalities: Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversky. At the same time, the Murom-Ryazan land became isolated, falling under the influence of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes. The Smolensk land separated from Kyiv at the end of the 20s of the 12th century, when it went to the son of Mstislav I Rostislav. Under him and his descendants (“Rostislavichs”), the Smolensk principality expanded territorially and strengthened.
The central, connecting position of the Chernigov and Smolensk principalities among other Russian lands involved their princes in all the political events that took place in Rus' in the 12th-13th centuries, and above all in the struggle for their neighboring Kyiv. The Chernigov and Seversk princes showed particular political activity, indispensable participants (and often initiators) of all princely strife, unscrupulous in the means of fighting their opponents and more often than other princes resorted to an alliance with the Polovtsians, with whom they devastated the lands of their rivals. It is no coincidence that the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” called the founder of the dynasty of Chernigov princes Oleg Svyatoslavich “Gorislavich,” who was the first to “forge sedition with the sword” and “sow” the Russian land with strife.
The grand ducal power in the Chernigov and Smolensk lands was unable to overcome the forces of feudal decentralization (the zemstvo nobility and the rulers of small principalities), and as a result, these lands at the end of the 12th - first half of the 13th centuries. were fragmented into many small principalities, which only nominally recognized the sovereignty of the great princes.

Polotsk-Minsk land

The Polotsk-Minsk land showed early trends towards separation from Kyiv. Despite the unfavorable soil conditions for agriculture, the socio-economic development of the Polotsk land occurred at a high pace due to its favorable location at the crossroads of the most important trade routes along the Western Dvina, Neman and Berezina. Lively trade relations with the West and the Baltic neighboring tribes (Livs, Lats, Curonians, etc.), which were under the sovereignty of the Polotsk princes, contributed to the growth of cities with a significant and influential trade and craft stratum. A large feudal economy with developed agricultural industries, the products of which were exported abroad, also developed here early.
At the beginning of the 11th century. The Polotsk land went to the brother of Yaroslav the Wise, Izyaslav, whose descendants, relying on the support of the local nobility and townspeople, fought for the independence of their “fatherland” from Kyiv for more than a hundred years with varying success. The Polotsk land reached its greatest power in the second half of the 11th century. during the reign of Vseslav Bryachislavich (1044-1103), but in the 12th century. an intensive process of feudal fragmentation began in it. In the first half of the 13th century. it was already a conglomerate of small principalities that only nominally recognized the power of the Grand Duke of Polotsk. These principalities, weakened by internal strife, faced a difficult struggle (in alliance with neighboring and dependent Baltic tribes) with the German crusaders who invaded the Eastern Baltic. From the middle of the 12th century. The Polotsk land became the target of an offensive by the Lithuanian feudal lords.

Galicia-Volyn land

The Galician-Volyn land extended from the Carpathians and the Dniester-Danube Black Sea region in the south and southwest to the lands of the Lithuanian Yatvingian tribe and the Polotsk land in the north. In the west it bordered with Hungary and Poland, and in the east with the Kyiv land and the Polovtsian steppe. The Galicia-Volyn land was one of the most ancient centers of the arable farming culture of the Eastern Slavs. Fertile soils, mild climate, numerous rivers and forests, interspersed with steppe spaces, created favorable conditions for the development of agriculture, cattle breeding and various crafts, and at the same time the early development of feudal relations, large feudal princely and boyar land ownership. Craft production reached a high level, the separation of which from agriculture contributed to the growth of cities, which were more numerous here than in other Russian lands. The largest of them were Vladimir-Volynsky, Przemysl, Terebovl, Galich, Berestye, Kholm, Drogichin, etc. A significant part of the inhabitants of these cities were artisans and merchants. The second trade route from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea (Vistula-Western Bug-Dniester) and overland trade routes from Rus' to the countries of South-Eastern and Central Europe passed through the Galicia-Volyn land. The dependence of the Dniester-Danube lower land on Galich made it possible to control the European shipping trade route along the Danube with the East.
Galician land until the middle of the 12th century. was divided into several small principalities, which in 1141 were united by the Przemysl prince Vladimir Volodarevich, who moved his capital to Galich. The Principality of Galicia reached its greatest prosperity and power under his son Yaroslav Osmomysl (1153-1187) - a major statesman of that time, who highly raised the international prestige of his principality and successfully defended in his policies all-Russian interests in relations with Byzantium and the European states neighboring Russia. . The author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” dedicated the most pathetic lines to the military power and international authority of Yaroslav Osmomysl. After the death of Osmomysl, the Principality of Galicia became the arena of a long struggle between the princes and the oligarchic aspirations of the local boyars. Boyar land ownership in the Galician land was ahead of the princely land in its development and significantly exceeded the latter in size. The Galician “great boyars”, who owned huge estates with their own fortified castle cities and had numerous military servants-vassals, in the fight against the princes they disliked, resorted to conspiracies and rebellions, and entered into an alliance with the Hungarian and Polish feudal lords.
The Volyn land separated from Kyiv in the middle of the 12th century, securing itself as a ancestral “fatherland” for the descendants of the Kyiv Grand Duke Izyaslav Mstislavich. Unlike the neighboring Galician land, a large princely domain was formed early in Volyn. Boyar land ownership grew mainly due to princely grants to serving boyars, whose support allowed the Volyn princes to begin an active struggle to expand their “fatherland.” In 1199, the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich managed to unite the Galician and Volyn lands for the first time, and with his occupation in 1203, Kyiv brought all of Southern and Southwestern Rus' under his rule - a territory equal to the large European states of that time. The reign of Roman Mstislavich was marked by the strengthening of the all-Russian and international position of the Galicia-Volyn region
lands, successes in the fight against the Polovtsians, the fight against the rebellious boyars, the rise of Western Russian cities, crafts and trade. Thus, the conditions were prepared for the flourishing of Southwestern Rus' during the reign of his son Daniil Romanovich.
The death of Roman Mstislavich in Poland in 1205 led to the temporary loss of the achieved political unity of Southwestern Rus' and to the weakening of princely power in it. All groups of the Galician boyars united in the struggle against the princely power, unleashing a devastating feudal war that lasted over 30 years.
The boyars entered into an agreement with the Hungarian and
Polish feudal lords who managed to take possession of the Galician land and part of Volyn. During these same years, an unprecedented case in Rus' occurred in the reign of boyar Vodrdislav Kormilich in Galich. The national liberation struggle against the Hungarian and Polish invaders, which ended in their defeat and expulsion, served as the basis for the restoration and strengthening of the positions of princely power. Relying on the support of cities, the service boyars and the nobility, Daniil Romanovich established himself in Volyn, and then, having occupied Galich in 1238, and Kyiv in 1240, he again united all of South-Western Rus' and the Kyiv land.

Novgorod feudal republic

A special political system, different from princely monarchies, developed in the 12th century. in Novgorod land, one of the most developed Russian lands. The ancient core of the Novgorod-Pskov land consisted of the lands between Ilmen and Lake Peipsi and along the banks of the Volkhov, Lovat, Velikaya, Mologa and Msta rivers, which were divided territorially and geographically into “pyatitins”, and
in administrative terms - “hundreds” and “cemeteries”. The Novgorod “suburbs” (Pskov, Ladoga, Staraya Russa, Velikiye Luki, Bezhichi, Yuryev, Torzhok) served as important trading posts on trade routes and military strongholds on the borders of the land. The largest suburb, which occupied a special, autonomous position in the system of the Novgorod Republic (the “younger brother” of Novgorod), was Pskov, distinguished by its developed crafts and its own trade with the Baltic states, German cities and even with Novgorod itself. In the second half of the 13th century. Pskov actually became an independent feudal republic.
From the 11th century active Novgorod colonization of Karelia, the Podvina region, the Onega region and the vast northern Pomerania began, which became Novgorod colonies. Following the peasant colonization (from the Novgorod and Rostov-Suzdal lands) and the Novgorod trade and fishing people, the Novgorod feudal lords also moved there. In the XII - XIII centuries. there already were the largest patrimonial estates of the Novgorod nobility, who jealously did not allow feudal lords from other principalities to enter these areas and create princely land ownership there.
In the 12th century Novgorod was one of the largest and most developed cities in Rus'. The rise of Novgorod was facilitated by its exceptionally advantageous location at the beginning of trade routes important for Eastern Europe, connecting the Baltic Sea with the Black and Caspian Seas. This predetermined a significant share of intermediary trade in Novgorod’s trade relations with other Russian lands, with Volga Bulgaria, the Caspian and Black Sea regions, the Baltic states, Scandinavia and North German cities. Trade in Novgorod was based on crafts and various trades developed in the Novgorod land. Novgorod artisans, distinguished by their wide specialization and professional skills, worked mainly to order, but some of their products came to the city market, and through merchant buyers to foreign markets. Craftsmen and merchants had their own territorial (“Ulichansky”) and professional associations (“hundreds”, “brotherhood”), which played a significant role in the political life of Novgorod. The most influential, uniting the top of the Novgorod merchants, was the association of merchants-women (“Ivanskoye Sto”), who were mainly engaged in foreign trade. The Novgorod boyars also actively participated in foreign trade, virtually monopolizing the most profitable fur trade, which they received from their possessions in the Podvina and Pomerania and from the trade and fishing expeditions they specially equipped to the Pechersk and Ugra lands.
Despite the predominance of the trade and craft population in Novgorod, the basis of the economy of the Novgorod land was agriculture and related crafts. Due to unfavorable natural conditions, grain farming was unproductive and bread constituted a significant part of Novgorod imports. Grain reserves in the estates were created at the expense of food rent collected from smerds and were used by feudal lords for speculation in frequent lean years of famine, to entangle the working people in usurious bondage. In a number of areas, peasants, in addition to ordinary rural crafts, were engaged in the extraction of iron ore and salt.
In the Novgorod land, large boyar and then church land ownership arose early and became dominant. The specificity of the position of the princes in Novgorod, sent from Kyiv as prince-deputies, which excluded the possibility of Novgorod turning into a principality, did not contribute to the formation of a large princely domain, thereby weakening the position of the princely authorities in the fight against the oligarchic aspirations of the local boyars. Already the end! V. the Novgorod nobility largely predetermined the candidacies of the princes sent from Kyiv. Thus, in 1102, the boyars refused to accept the son of the Kyiv Grand Duke Svyatopolk into Novgorod, declaring with a threat to the latter: “if your son had two heads, then they ate him.”
In 1136, the rebels of Novgorod, supported by the Pskovians and Ladoga residents, expelled Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich, accusing him of “neglecting” the interests of Novgorod. In the Novgorod land, freed from the rule of Kyiv, a unique political system was established, in which republican governing bodies stood next to and above the princely power. However, the Novgorod feudal lords needed the prince and his squad to fight the anti-feudal protests of the masses and to protect Novgorod from external danger. In the first time after the uprising of 1136, the scope of the rights and activities of the princely power did not change, but they acquired a service-executive character, were subject to regulation and were placed under the control of the mayor (primarily in the field of court, which the prince began to administer together with the mayor). As the political system in Novgorod acquired an increasingly pronounced boyar-oligarchic character, the rights and sphere of activity of the princely power were steadily reduced.
The lowest level of organization and management in Novgorod was the unification of neighbors - “ulichans” with elected elders at their head. Five urban “ends” formed self-governing territorial-administrative and political units, which also had special Konchan lands in collective feudal ownership. At the ends, their own veche gathered and elected Konchan elders.
The highest authority, representing all ends, was considered the city veche meeting of free citizens, owners of city yards and estates. The bulk of the urban plebs, who lived on the lands and estates of feudal lords as tenants or enslaved and feudal-dependent people, were not authorized to participate in the passing of veche sentences, but thanks to the publicity of the veche, which gathered on Sophia Square or Yaroslav's Courtyard, they could follow the progress of veche debates and with its violent reaction often exerted a certain amount of pressure on the eternalists. The veche considered the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy, invited the prince and entered into a series with him, elected the mayor, who was in charge of administration and court and controlled the activities of the prince, and the thousand, who headed the militia and the court for trade matters, which was of particular importance in Novgorod.
Throughout the history of the Novgorod Republic, the positions of posadnik, Konchan elders and tysyatsky were occupied only by representatives of 30 - 40 boyar families - the elite of the Novgorod nobility (“300 golden belts”).
In order to further strengthen the independence of Novgorod from Kyiv and transform the Novgorod bishopric from an ally of the princely power into one of the instruments of its political domination, the Novgorod nobility managed to achieve the election (since 1156) of the Novgorod bishop, who, as the head of the powerful church feudal hierarchy, became soon one of the first dignitaries of the republic.
The veche system in Novgorod and Pskov was a kind of Feudal “democracy”, one of the forms of the feudal state, in which the democratic principles of representation and election of officials at the veche created the illusion of “democracy”, the participation of “the whole of Novgovgorod in governance, but where in reality all the power was concentrated in the hands of the boyars and the privileged elite of the merchant class. Taking into account the political activity of the urban plebs, the boyars skillfully used the democratic traditions of Konchan self-government as a symbol of Novgorod freedom, which covered their political dominance and provided them with the support of the urban plebs in the fight against the princely power.
Political history of Novgorod in the XII - XIII centuries. was distinguished by the complex interweaving of the struggle for independence with anti-feudal protests of the masses and the struggle for power between boyar groups (representing the boyar families of the Sofia and Trade sides of the city, its ends and streets). The boyars often used anti-feudal protests of the urban poor to eliminate their rivals from power, dulling the anti-feudal nature of these protests to the point of reprisals against individual boyars or officials. The largest anti-feudal movement was the uprising in 1207 against the mayor Dmitry Miroshkinich and his relatives, who burdened the urban people and peasants with arbitrary exactions and usurious bondage. The rebels destroyed the city estates and villages of the Miroshkinichs and seized their debt bonds. The boyars, hostile to the Miroshkinichs, took advantage of the uprising to remove them from power.
Novgorod had to wage a stubborn struggle for its independence with neighboring princes who sought to subjugate the rich “free” city. The Novgorod boyars skillfully used the rivalry between the princes to choose strong allies among them. At the same time, rival boyar groups drew the rulers of neighboring principalities into their struggle. The most difficult thing for Novgorod was the struggle with the Suzdal princes, who enjoyed the support of an influential group of Novgorod boyars and merchants connected by trade interests with North-Eastern Russia. An important weapon of political pressure on Novgorod in the hands of the Suzdal princes was the cessation of the supply of grain from North-Eastern Rus'. The positions of the Suzdal princes in Novgorod were significantly strengthened when their military assistance to the Novgorodians and Pskovians became decisive in repelling the aggression of the German Crusaders and Swedish feudal lords who sought to seize the western and northern Novgorod territories.

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