The history of Russia, like the history of many other great empires, is a series of dramatic, exciting, sublime and terrible events. What is the 20th century worth? And the golden 19th century of Russian literature! But few people know that in terms of the significance of events, it is not the 19th century or even the times of Catherine II and Peter I that can be put on par with the 20th century, but the 15th century.
This century begins very calmly. At this time, Rus' was still fragmented into many independent principalities. One of the strongest was Muscovy. But the Moscow princes still had to go to the Mongol khan for permission to rule Russia and collect taxes for the khan. Rus' was still under the rule of the Mongol Empire. Shortcut, i.e. a document confirming the primacy of one principality over others was almost always in Moscow at that time.
The Moscow principality at the beginning of the 15th century was ruled by the son of Dmitry Donskoy, Vasily I (1389 - 1425). In general, he continued to strengthen and enrich his principality without any major upheavals. At the end of the 14th century - beginning of the 15th century, Rus' miraculously survived the invasion of Tamerlane, after which the situation in the camp was relatively calm. Serious upheavals began in the second quarter of the 15th century after the death of Vasily I.
The fact is that, according to the will of the long-deceased Dmitry Donskoy, his brother, Yuri Zvenigorodsky, was supposed to come to power after Vasily I. However, Vasily I violated this will and, before his death, transferred the Moscow throne to his son, Vasily II. Yuri Zvenigorodsky did not like this development of events, and he went to war against his nephew Vasily II. The Feudal War began (1431 - 1453).
This war was fought with with varying success, but already in 1434 Yuri died and the fight was continued by his descendants - Vasily Kosoy, and after him Dmitry Shemyaka. The latter even managed to knock Vasily II out of Moscow and seize power for a while. Having been captured by enemies, Vasily II was blinded, for which he later received the nickname Vasily the Dark. The Moscow boyars, accustomed to the power of Vasily II, turned out to be dissatisfied with the policies of Dmitry Shemyaka and expelled him. Vasily II returned to power. As a result, being blinded, Vasily II still managed to defeat his uncle and cousins and in 1453 the war ended, after which Vasily II reigned for another 9 years!
The outstanding Soviet scientist Zimin wrote a book about this war, “The Knight at the Crossroads.” Russia itself appears as the hero in this book. The point is that this was not just a struggle for power. The warring parties represented two lines possible development country, and the victory of one of the parties depended on what will go the way future development of the country. The Zvenigorod princes represented the path of federal development with weak centralization. Vasily II, on the contrary, personified the path of the autocratic centralized development. As a result, by the will of fate, with the victory of Vasily II, the path of autocratic, centralized development under the rule of Moscow was chosen for Russia. And yet, even such a fateful event as the Feudal War was just a prelude to what began with the death of Vasily II in 1462.
The son of Vasily II, Ivan III, became the new ruler of Moscow. Ivan Vasilyevich behaved extremely impudently and uninhibitedly. He didn't ask Mongol Khan label for a great reign and didn’t even pay tribute! Ivan Vasilyevich immediately began to actively expand the Moscow principality, annexing neighboring Russian principalities. In the early 1470s, Ivan III took aim at Novgorod. Since ancient times, Novgorod was the richest, strongest and most independent Russian land. IN best years Novgorod was larger and richer than France. Therefore, the chance to subjugate Novgorod to his power was very great importance for Moscow. The first battles, although they pretty much battered the Novgorodians, still turned out to be unsuccessful for Moscow. For several years, Ivan III competently and cunningly suppressed Novgorod diplomatically, and finally, in 1478, the Moscow prince managed to finally and completely subjugate Novgorod to his power. This was a significant step for Moscow in uniting the fragmented Russian lands under its rule.
The issue of Rus''s dependence on the Mongol-Tatars was acute. Ivan III defiantly did not take into account the power of Khan Akhmat and did not pay tribute. The Mongols no longer had their former power, but still could not come to terms with such impudence. In 1480 the Russians and Mongol troops converged on the Ugra River. For two weeks the troops stood opposite banks rivers. Akhmat Khan hoped for help Polish king, but Ivan III thought several steps ahead: he entered into an alliance with the khan Crimean Tatars Mengli-giray also neutralized the Polish king for Ivan. As a result, realizing that there was no chance of victory, Akhmat Khan turned his troops around and left. This event went down in history as “standing on the Ugra River.” From that moment on, Russia was finally freed from Mongol-Tatar dependence, which lasted no less than 240 years.
The authority of Rus' in the international arena was raised not only due to the victory over the Mongols. Ivan III married the latter's niece Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI Paleologus Sophie Paleologus. IN political sense, thereby dynastic marriage, Rus' became, as it were, the heir of Byzantium, the Third Rome.
The unity of Rus' under Ivan III was determined not only by the force of arms of the Moscow prince, but also by a single set of laws of Ivan III. The Sudebnik of 1497 was the first set of laws of Rus' since the times of Russian truth. This Code of Law introduced uniform procedures legal proceedings, a system of punishment for crimes, St. George's Day was introduced (i.e., a very limited period when peasants had the right to change their owner), which contributed to the beginning of the process of enslavement of peasants.
Moreover, it was under Ivan III that the name “Russia” appeared and National emblem"Double-headed eagle."
Ivan III lived through a significant part of the 15th century (1462 - 1505). Under him were formed state foundations Russia. The country was united under the rule of Moscow, and Mongol-Tatar rule was overthrown.
Thus, the significance of the events that took place in Russia in the 15th century is difficult to overestimate, and this time, in terms of the scale of the changes that occurred, can rightfully be put on a par with the 20th century.

At the end of the 14th century most of Rus' was forced to pay tribute to the Golden Horde, but during the same period the process of uniting the Russian principalities into a single whole began. Vasily 1, who ruled from 1389 to 1425, continued the activities of his predecessors, aimed at capturing the remaining principalities and establishing Moscow's hegemony in Rus'. The wife of this prince was the daughter of the ruler of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Vytautas, but these two states entered into competition for western lands ex Kievan Rus.

The new khan of the Golden Horde, Edigei, decided to strengthen his power after Tamerlane’s ruinous campaign with a campaign against Moscow. Moscow itself was not damaged, but in 1408 the city of Vladimir was devastated, as well as part of other territories. After the death of Vasily I and the coming to power of Vasily II in Rus', its eternal problem began - internecine struggle. Although he was the heir apparent, his authority was not recognized by many of his relatives, and for a quarter of a century there were brutal internecine wars. Vasily managed to retain the throne until 1462, although he was blinded, for which he received the nickname Dark. With the arrival of a new ruler, Ivan 3, who ruled until 1505, the policy of Muscovite Rus' returned to its previous course - it sought to throw off dependence on the Golden Horde, and seized the remaining independent Russian principalities. In 1471, the Muscovites captured Novgorod, and all belonging to Novgorod Rus' territories. Formally, this was enshrined in the treaty, according to which Novgorod had to submit to Moscow in everything and could not come under Lithuanian rule. In 1478, the campaign against Novgorod was repeated, after which it finally came under the full power of Moscow.

Moscow captured and devastated the Vyatka land, Perm the Great and the Komi region, establishing its rule over almost the entire former Kievan Rus. The power of the state grew significantly, and Ivan 3 decided to do what the previous Moscow princes had dreamed of. In 1480, the Mongols tried to stop the development of the rapidly expanding state, which was formally subordinate to them. However, by that time Golden Horde also turned out to be weakened and fragmented, its former power was lost. Therefore, as a result of the autumn battle of 1480, held on the banks of the Ugra River, the army of Khan Akhmat suffered crushing defeat in battle with the troops of Ivan 3.

Thus, Rus' in the 15th century is briefly characterized as a state that strengthened under the rule of Moscow and achieved independence from the Golden Horde. November 12, 1480 was the date that Rus' had been waiting for a long time - the Mongol-Tatar yoke, which had lasted for several centuries, was finally thrown off.

The 15th century became very important milestone in the history of Rus', since it was at this time that the Mongol-Tatar yoke was overthrown. In addition, this period was marked by small princely feuds and the subsequent unification of the Slavic lands.

Main events of Russian history of the 15th century

In 1408, the Horde raided Rus'. Despite the fact that Moscow bought them off, many cities and lands had been devastated before. Northeastern Rus' of the 15th century, especially Vladimir, was significantly weakened by Horde raids. In addition, Prince Vasily the First established very tense relations with Principality of Lithuania. Thus, at the beginning of the 15th century, the situation in Rus' was difficult.

Despite the fact that the ruler of Rus' was married to the daughter of a Lithuanian prince, this very slightly softened the relationship between them.

After the death of Vasily the First, his son ascended the throne, nicknamed the Dark One due to the fact that he was blinded by his own relatives during the struggle for power. However, he still managed to retain the throne, although he did not become a prominent politician.

In 1462, his son Ivan the Third ascended the throne, who continued the work of his grandfather and began to actively unite numerous Slavic lands under your hand. It was he who finally annexed the territory of Novgorod to Rus' at the beginning of 1478 - the city recognized his hand. An agreement was concluded according to which Muscovite Rus' included Velikiy Novgorod into your territory.

Rice. 1. Ivan 3.

Also this Grand Duke annexed Komi, Vyatka lands and Great Perm. Under him, a reform of the organ diagram was carried out central control: The Boyar Duma became the highest state institution.

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But the most important event was marked by the end of the 15th century: the Horde, weakened internal contradiction With Crimean Khanate, fell. In the autumn of 1480, the troops of Rus' and the Horde converged on the banks of the Ugra, the Horde were defeated with little blood. The times of the yoke of rule in Rus' are over.

Rice. 2. Battle of the Ugra.

Culture of Rus' in the 15th century

During this period, interest in geographical sciences, which is due to the annexation of new territories and the expansion of borders. With release from Horde yoke Residents of cities and villages became more educated, many areas of culture developed.

Thus, the number of laws increased, spiritual literature developed significantly - parables, messages and other genres appeared.

Blacksmithing is developing, in particular, the production of weapons, and coins are being minted. Wall painting was developing: during this period, a reliable limestone soil for it was invented. Achievements in applied arts of this period are as amazing as in technology: already at that time Russian masters used a system of gear wheels.

Architecture was also on the rise: many fortresses and temples, as well as palaces, were erected. Masons and architects are beginning to be invited not only from other cities, but also from other countries, such as Italy.

Rice. 3. Assumption Cathedral.

It was in the 15th century that the Assumption and Archangel Cathedrals were built.

What have we learned?

From the article we learned who ruled in Rus' in the 15th century - there were three rulers of the Russian lands, and two of them contributed important contribution into the history of Russia in foreign and domestic policy. Of particular importance was the policy of Ivan the Third, who was not nicknamed the Great for nothing. We talked briefly about Rus' in the 15th century, in particular. political conditions of its development, culture and architecture, economy. We also looked at how many cultural processes were influenced by the liberation from the Horde yoke and learned the main historical dates this period.

The very first human settlements in the territory
Russia were discovered in Kostenki (Voronezh
region), they are about 45 thousand years old. People's homes
were made from mammoth bones, covered
skins.

"Venus" from
Bones. Done
from mammoth ivory.
20-30 thousand years.

Early 13th century Mongol hordes through the Caucasus they invade the Black Sea steppes, defeating the Polovtsy, and advancing to Rus'. A united army of Russian princes and Polovtsy came out against them. The battle took place on May 31, 1223 Kalka River
and ended complete defeat- only a tenth of the army survived.

Batu's invasion of Rus' took place in the winter of 1237. The Ryazan principality was the first to be devastated. Then Batu moved to the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.
In January 1238, Kolomna and Moscow fell, in February Vladimir, Suzdal, Pereslavl, etc. Battle of the Sit River(March 4, 1238) ended in the defeat of the Russian army.
He held the defense for 7 weeks" evil city"(Kozelsk). The Mongols did not reach Novgorod (according to the dominant version, due to the spring thaw).

Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus'. Briefly

History of the Old Russian State 9-12 centuries. Briefly

In 1238, Batu sent troops to conquer southern Rus'. In 1240,
Having captured Kiev, his army moved to Europe.
During the invasion, the Mongols captured all Russian lands except Novgorod.
Every year the Russian principalities paid tribute. Right to reign ( label)
Russian princes received in the Golden Horde.

Diorama of the assault on Vladimir by the Tatars (Exhibition at the Golden Gate). In the foreground is the Golden Gate. The Mongols were unable to enter through them and made a breach in the wall. Author of the photo: Dmitry Bakulin (Photos-Yandex)

Slavic tribes. Baptism of Rus'. Formation of the Old Russian state.

Princes of the ancient Russian state. Feudal fragmentation in Rus'.

Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus' 1237-1240.

Old Russian state. Mongolian
Tata invasion.

1300-1613

1613-1762

1762-1825

9th-13th centuries

1825-1917

1917-1941

1941-1964

1964-2014

Summary history of Russia. Part 1
(9th-13th centuries)

History of the Old Russian state 9-12 centuries.
Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus'.

Brief history of Russia. Brief summary of the history of Russia. History of Russia in pictures. History of the Old Russian State 9-12 centuries. The Mongol-Tatar invasion is brief. History of Russia for children.

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After the death of the prince Mstislava(ruled: 1125 -1132) Kievan Rus disintegrates
into principalities that are comparable in size to Western European ones
kingdoms. In 1136, an uprising in Novgorod leads
to the emergence of an independent state - Novgorod
republics, which occupied the territory from the Baltic
sea ​​to Ural mountains(in the north).

IN 6th century The Great Migration of the Slavs takes place, the first political associations appear Eastern Slavs in the area of ​​the Dnieper and Lake Ilmen. It is known about the existence of 13 tribes: Polyans, Krivichi, Drevlyans, Ulichi, Vyatichi, etc. At that time, the territory of modern Central Russia inhabited by Finno-Ugric tribes, they gradually assimilate with the Slavs.

The development of crafts in the 8th-9th centuries led to the emergence
cities. Most often they were built at the confluence of rivers,
which served as trade routes. The most famous
trade route that time - "from the Varangians to the Greeks" on
Novgorod was located in the north of the route, and Kyiv in the south.

IN 862 residents of Novgorod called Varangian princes rule the city
(according to the Norman theory). Prince Rurik became the founder of the princely,
and subsequently royal dynasty. The Norman theory has been repeatedly refuted by famous historians and scientists (M. Lomonosov, V. Tatishchev, etc.)

After the death of Rurik, Prince of Novgorod becomes
Oleg(Prophetic). He captures Kyiv and moves there
capital of Rus'. Subjugates a number of Slavic tribes.
In 907 he made a successful campaign against Byzantium,
receives tribute and concludes a profitable trade agreement.

Prince Igor subjugated eastern tribes Slavs
In 945 he was killed by the Drevlyans when he tried again
receive tribute from them. Princess Olga(wife) took revenge
to the Drevlyans, but makes the tribute fixed.
In Constantinople she converts to Christianity. In the 16th century her
canonized as saints.

Olga ruled during her childhood Svyatoslav And
continued to rule after her son became prince
in 964 Svyatoslav was in the military almost all the time
hiking. They defeated the Bulgarian and Khazar
kingdoms. Upon returning to Rus', after an unsuccessful
During the campaign against Byzantium (971), he was killed by the Pechenegs.

The death of Svyatoslav led to internecine struggle between
by his sons. After the murder of his brother Yaropolk came to power
the prince comes Vladimir.
In 988, Vladimir was baptized in Chersonesos
(now it is a museum-reserve in Sevastopol). Begins
stage of the formation of Christianity in Rus'.

During internecine war(1015-1019), after the death of Vladimir, they die
from the hands of Svyatopolk, princes Boris and Gleb (became the first Russian saints).
In the fight against Svyatopolk the prince gains the upper hand
Yaroslav the Wise. He strengthens the state, relieves
Rus' from the Pecheneg raids. It began under Yaroslav
creation of the first set of laws in Rus' - “Russian Truth”.

After the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1054), a division took place
Rus' between his sons - " Yaroslavich Triumvirate".
In 1072, “The Truth of the Yaroslavichs”, the second part, was compiled
"Russian Truth".

After death Prince of Kyiv Svyatopolk (reign: 1093 - 1113), according to
comes to power at the insistence of the people of Kiev Vladimir Monomakha. During the years of his reign, Kievan Rus strengthened and princely civil strife stopped.
As a result of the agreement at the Dolob Congress of Russian Princes (1103), it was possible to stop the discord and, in subsequent years, defeat the Polovtsian khans with a joint army.

In 1169 Andrey Bogolyubsky ruins Kyiv. He carries
the capital of Rus' in Vladimir. Policy to centralize power
leads to a conspiracy among the boyars. In 1174 the prince was killed in his
palace in Bogolyubovo (suburb of Vladimir).
His successor becomes Vsevolod's Big Nest.

862

945

988

1019

1113

1136

1169

1223

1237

1242

The Novgorod Republic escaped the Mongol invasion, but experienced
aggression from Western neighbors. July 15, 1240 took place Battle of Neva.
The squad led by Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich (who became Nevsky) defeated the Swedish army.
April 5, 1242 on Lake Peipsi there was a battle between the Russian army, led by Alexander Nevsky, and the knights Livonian Order. During Battle on the Ice German knights were broken. In the 16th century. A. Nevsky was canonized.

Specific Rus' in the XII–XV centuries

Since the 30s. XII century ancient Russian state splits into one and a half dozen principalities-states, the main of which gradually become Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn principalities and Novgorod land . Preserving a common language and culture, but having lost political unity, Rus' entered a period of feudal fragmentation, which lasted until the end of the 15th century. After hiking Batu (1237–1240) Vladimir-Suzdal and a number of other principalities North-Eastern Rus' are part of Golden Horde . The Novgorod land, while paying tribute to the Mongols, still retains its independence. Some of the Russian principalities became part of Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia , and part - in Galicia-Volyn Principality, which in the 14th century. was divided between Lithuania, Poland and Hungary. By the end of the 15th century. lands united around Moscow form an independent centralized state, called Russia.

What were the reasons for the collapse of Kievan Rus? By the 12th century. A large boyar landholding developed. The economy was subsistence in nature, economic ties The principalities were weak. The appanage princes and their patrimonial boyars needed independence to quickly solve local problems, for example, suppressing popular uprisings. The development of productive forces, the establishment of independent trade relations (in the Galician-Volyn principality with its western neighbors - the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary, in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality - with the eastern, in Novgorod - with the Baltic countries) supported the centrifugal trend. It was also facilitated by the decline in the role of the Principality of Kyiv, which was subject to raids by nomads and was a bone of contention between appanage princes who fought for the great reign.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion caused enormous damage to the Russian economy. Of the 74 cities, 49 were destroyed, and 15 were never able to recover. The human losses were also great. For 2.5 centuries, the Russian principalities paid tribute, trade duties, and taxes to the khans to “feed” the khan’s officials. Popular uprisings forced the Horde late XIII V. transfer the collection of tribute to the jurisdiction of the Russian princes, but it did not decrease.

Nevertheless development of productive forces didn't stop. The area of ​​arable land increased, the main type of land use became three-field (spring and winter fields, the third - fallow), although the slash-and-burn system was preserved (grain was sown in the ash from the cut down and burned forest) and fallow (plowing of new areas as old ones were depleted) . They began to cultivate the land with iron tools and fertilize it. The water engine began to be used (in house houses, mills, and mines). If in the XII century. there were about 60 crafts, and in the 13th century. – 90, then by the 16th century. there were more than 200 of them.

Although the main form of land ownership continued to be patrimony, in production relations from the 13th century. appears fundamentally new element– conditional, or local, land tenure . A prince or boyar allocated land to his warrior or servant (often a former slave) for service (usually military). At first, such ownership was not hereditary and was preserved only on condition of conscientious service to the master. A new one appears social layer landowners-nobles (the term “nobleman” has been known since the 12th century and meant “a man of the princely court”).

The vassalage system characteristic of all medieval European countries, including for Russia, is beginning to be replaced by the system citizenship . Relations between the lord and vassals were characterized by a certain democracy and, as a rule, were sealed by agreement. The relative independence of Western European feudal lords from their lords and the central royalty(plus the fairly free status of cities) became one of the prerequisites for the development of democratic institutions in Western Europe(the appearance of the English parliament in the 13th century, etc.). Relationships of citizenship characteristic of eastern despotism, starting with Ancient Egypt, demanded the unquestioning submission of a servant, a slave, to his master. Their development in Rus' was greatly facilitated by physical destruction large number warriors and boyars during Batu’s campaign, princely strife, semi-occupation regime during the period of yoke, partial borrowing by Russian feudal lords of the Golden Horde order.

Process enslavement of peasants , characteristic of feudalism, was reflected in the disappearance of old terms denoting forms of feudal dependence (smerds, purchases, etc.), and the appearance in the 14th century. a new term - “peasants” (“Christians”), which indicated that this category of the population had acquired common features, characteristic of the peasantry as a class of feudal society. Along with the dependent peasantry, there was also a “black-growing” peasantry, who lived on free (“black”) lands and paid taxes to the treasury.

In Western Europe, during a long struggle with the feudal lords (for example, the “communal revolutions” at the turn of the 11th–12th centuries in France), cities managed to achieve independence from their lords. In Rus', cities (and not feudal castles) have long been administrative centers. Their dependence on the princes increased many times under the Mongols, since the prince was the only protector from the khans punitive expeditions. Dependent urban population was divided into “black artisans” who bore in-kind and monetary duties in favor of the state, and artisans who belonged to the boyars, princes or monasteries.

The division of Rus' affected processes of ethnogenesis : living in different states, often at war with each other, climate differences and other factors led to the isolation of three groups of Eastern Slavs. Differences in language, rituals, traditions, lifestyle, cultural and psychological make-up accumulated. As a result, in the XIV–XVI centuries. on the base Old Russian people Three new ones are gradually being formed: Russian (“Great Russians”), Belarusian and Ukrainian.

« White Rus'“meant “free Rus'” - free from tribute to the Horde. Belarus was part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia, the majority of whose population was Russian. “Ukraine” meant both “outskirts” and “one’s own land,” i.e., “one’s own country.” Ukraine was divided between Lithuania, Poland and Hungary. At first, the differences between related nationalities were very insignificant, and the self-name “Rus” among Ukrainians and Belarusians remained for a very long time. Before late XIX V. Ukrainian language was considered the “Poltava dialect” of the Russian language.

Active ethnic processes occur in other territories of the future Russian Empire. So, at the same time, the formation of the Tatar people in the Golden Horde took place from the Mongol conquerors (they were a minority, the name “Tatars” was probably the name of one of the Mongol tribes), Bulgars, Kipchaks (Cumans) and conquered peoples Central Asia and Volga region. This was facilitated by the declaration of Islam as the state religion in 1312.

IN social psychology and social thought In Rus' there were quite contradictory tendencies struggling. On the one hand, there was a separatist tendency (to protect one’s farm, patrimony, princely inheritance at any cost), and on the other hand, a unifying tendency, especially noticeable from the second. half XIV V. On the one hand, there was a desire to preserve personal and group rights and privileges inherited from the times of military democracy (veche, community, vigilantes, etc.), on the other, to consolidate the relationship of citizenship (of the “master-serf” type). The latter, for example, is reflected in such literary monuments the turn of the 12th–13th centuries, like the “Word” and “Prayer” of Daniil Zatochnik, where the author almost deifies princely power. By the end of the 14th century. the idea of ​​liberation from the yoke and restoration of the unity of the Russian lands becomes leading. One of the spiritual leaders of the era made a significant contribution to its formation Sergius of Radonezh , who blessed the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich for the battle with the troops of Mamai in 1380. Frescoes and icons became the artistic embodiment of the idea of ​​​​the revival of Rus' Andrey Rublev .

In the XIII–XV centuries. for Rus' the main domestic and foreign policy objectives steel: to survive and then achieve independence. Mongol Empire, founded by Genghis Khan (1201–1227), subjugated the peoples of Siberia, China, Korea, Central Asia, etc. Genghis Khan’s grandson Batu (1208–1255) undertook a campaign in Europe in 1236. The heroic resistance of the Russian principalities weakened the Mongol troops. Their westward advance was finally stopped in Bohemia and Hungary in 1242.

However main danger Rus' was threatened from the north-west - from the Swedish feudal lords and the German Livonian Order (formed in 1237 after the merger of the Orders of the Swordsmen and the Teutonic Order). Mongol conquest did not lead to the assimilation of Russians. Russian soldiers served in the Horde troops. Operated relatively freely Orthodox Church. The crusaders carried to the conquered lands serfdom, brutal exploitation and forced “Catholicization”. In addition, the order represented one of the best at that time military organization and it was very difficult to defeat him. Victory Alexander Nevsky over the Swedes in 1240 and the order in 1242 (Battle of Lake Peipus, or “ Battle on the Ice"), as well as the victory of the Polish-Russian-Lithuanian troops in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410 stopped Western aggression.

Attempts by the Galician-Volyn princes to organize resistance to the Golden Horde ultimately ended in failure. In the XIV century. Three centers emerged that lay claim to the unification of Russian lands: Moscow, Tver and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia . The latter, having arisen in the 40s of the 13th century. as a federation of Russian and Lithuanian lands under supreme power Lithuanian dynasty, by the 14th century. unites a significant number of Russian principalities under its rule. Talented commander Prince Olgerd inflicts a major defeat on the Tatars at the Blue Waters in 1362, and then makes three campaigns against Moscow. However, he failed to take Moscow, and he had to abandon his claims to unify the lands of the former Kievan Rus.

In 1327, having suppressed the anti-Horde uprising in Tver, the Moscow prince Ivan Kalita receives from the khan a label for a great reign. By 1375, Tver, like other principalities, recognized Moscow's leadership in the unification of North-Eastern Rus'. The rise of Moscow was facilitated not so much by the relatively safe and profitable geographical position or economic forces(trade ties between fiefdoms and principalities were quite weak), as much as the desire to get rid of tribute and - most importantly - achieve national independence, plus a fairly consistent, flexible policy of the Moscow princes.

In 1378, on the Vozha River, Russian troops led by Moscow Prince Dmitry Ivanovich inflicted the first major defeat on the Horde. The triumph of Russian weapons was victory in 1380 on the Kulikovo field the united army of the majority of Russian principalities over the Horde military leader Mamai. For her, the Grand Duke of Moscow began to be called Dmitry Donskoy , and was subsequently canonized.

This victory raised the prestige of Moscow so high that former ally Mom, I Lithuanian prince Jagiello, for some reason late (?) to the Kulikovo Field, is considering a project for an alliance with Dmitry Donskoy. Such an alliance could probably lead to the restoration of the territorial integrity of the Russian state and the overthrow of Mongol yoke already in the 14th century. The Moscow-Lithuanian Union was prevented by the capture of Moscow in 1382 (with the help of betrayal) by Khan Tokhtamysh and the restoration of tribute. In 1385, Lithuania concluded a union (alliance) with Poland and thereby secured territorial division Rus'.

It took the Moscow principality another century to achieve independence. During this time, the cities of Murom were annexed to it, Nizhny Novgorod, Novgorod and other principalities and lands. This was facilitated by the entry of the Golden Horde into a period of feudal fragmentation. In the XIV century. Central Asian possessions were separated from it in the 15th century. – Crimean, Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian Khanate. IN 1480 Moscow refuses to pay tribute to the Horde. Khan Akhmat leads an army to Rus', but does not dare to engage in battle with the regiments of the Moscow Grand Duke Ivan III . After standing for several weeks on the Ugra River, Akhmat returns to the Horde. The yoke was over. Soon after this, as a reflection of the independence of the state, a new name for Muscovite Rus' appeared - Russia . The ancient Russian civilization is being replaced by a new one - Russian civilization .

Thus, in the XII–XV centuries. Rus', having survived feudal fragmentation, the Mongol-Tatar yoke and having lost part of the territory, which went to Lithuania, Poland and Hungary, is again reborn as a centralized state - Russia.