By the middle of the 12th century in Kievan Rus 15 small and large principalities were formed. By the beginning of the 13th century their number had increased to 50. The collapse of the state had not only a negative result (weakening before the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols), but also a positive result.
Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation
IN individual principalities and the estates began the rapid growth of cities, trade relations with the Baltic states and the Germans began to form and develop. Changes in local culture were also noticeable: chronicles were created, new buildings were erected, etc.
Large regions of the country
The state had several large principalities. These, in particular, can be considered Chernigovskoe, Kyiv, Severskoe. However, the largest were considered to be three in the southwest, and the Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities in the northeast. These were the main political centers of the state at that time. It is worth noting that they all had their own distinctive features. Next, let's talk about what were the features of the Novgorod principality.
General information
The origins from which the development of the Novgorod principality began are still not entirely clear. The oldest mention of the main city of the region dates back to the year 859. However, it is assumed that at that time the chroniclers did not use weather records (they appeared by the 10-11th century), but collected those legends that were most popular among the people. After Rus' adopted the Byzantine tradition of composing tales, authors had to compose stories, independently estimating dates, before weather records began. Of course, such dating is far from accurate, so it should not be completely trusted.
Principality of Novgorod Land
What this region was like means “new called fortified settlements surrounded by walls. Archaeologists found three settlements located on the territory occupied by the Novgorod principality. The geographical location of these areas is indicated in one of the chronicles. According to information, the region was located on the left bank of the Volkhov ( where the Kremlin is now located).
Over time, the settlements merged into one. The inhabitants built a common fortress. It was named Novgorod. Researcher Nosov developed the already existing point of view that the historical predecessor of the new city was Gorodishche. It was located slightly higher, not far from the sources of the Volkhov. Judging by the chronicles, Gorodishche was a fortified settlement. The princes of the Novgorod principality and their governors stayed there. Local historians even made a rather bold assumption that Rurik himself lived in the residence. Taking all this into account, it can be argued that the Principality of Novgorod originated from this settlement. The geographical location of the Settlement can be considered an additional argument. It stood on the Baltic-Volga route and was considered at that time a fairly large trade, craft and military-administrative point.
Characteristics of the Novgorod Principality
In the first centuries of its existence, the settlement was small (by modern standards). Novgorod was completely made of wood. It was located on two sides of the river, which was quite a unique phenomenon, since settlements were usually located on a hill and on one bank. The first inhabitants built their houses near the water, but not close to it, due to fairly frequent floods. The streets of the city were built perpendicular to Volkhov. A little later they were connected by “breakout” lanes that ran parallel to the river. The walls of the Kremlin rose from the left bank. At that time it was much smaller than the one that stands in Novgorod now. On the other bank, in the Slovenian village, there were estates and a princely court.
Russian chronicles
The Principality of Novgorod is mentioned quite little in the records. However, this little information is of particular value. The chronicle, dated 882, talks about something from Novgorod. As a result, two large East Slavic tribes united: the Polyans and the Ilmen Slavs. It is from that time that the story begins Old Russian state. Records from 912 indicate that the Principality of Novgorod paid the Scandinavians 300 hryvnia a year to maintain peace.
Records of other peoples
The Novgorod principality is also mentioned in Byzantine chronicles. For example, Emperor Constantine VII wrote about the Russians in the 10th century. IN Scandinavian sagas The Principality of Novgorod also appears. The earliest legends appeared from the reign of the sons of Svyatoslav. After his death, a power struggle broke out between his two sons Oleg and Yaropolk. In 977, a battle took place. As a result, Yaropolk defeated Oleg’s troops and became the Grand Duke, installing his mayors in Novgorod. There was also a third brother. But fearing being killed, Vladimir fled to Scandinavia. However, his absence was relatively short-lived. In 980, he returned to the Principality of Novgorod with hired Varangians. Then he defeated the mayors and moved towards Kyiv. There Vladimir overthrew Yaropolk from the throne and became the Prince of Kyiv.
Religion
A description of the Novgorod principality will be incomplete without talking about the importance of faith in the life of the people. In 989 baptism took place. First it was in Kyiv, and then in Novgorod. Power increased due to Christian religion and her monotheism. The church organization was built on a hierarchical principle. She became the most powerful tool formation of Russian statehood. In the year of baptism, Joachim Korsunian (Byzantine priest) was sent to Novgorod. But, it must be said that Christianity did not immediately take root. Many residents were in no hurry to part with the faith of their ancestors. According to archaeological excavations, many pagan rituals survived until the 11th-13th centuries. And, for example, Maslenitsa is still celebrated today. Although this holiday is given a somewhat Christian overtone.
Yaroslav's activities
After Vladimir became the prince of Kyiv, he sent his son Vysheslav to Novgorod, and after his death - Yaroslav. The name of the latter is associated with an attempt to get rid of the influence of Kyiv. So, in 1014, Yaroslav refused to pay tribute. Vladimir, having learned about this, began to gather a squad, but during the preparation he suddenly died. Svyatopolk the Accursed ascended the throne. He killed his brothers: Svyatoslav Drevlyansky and Gleb and Boris, who were later canonized. Yaroslav was in a rather difficult position. On the one hand, he was absolutely not against seizing power in Kyiv. But on the other hand, his squad was not strong enough. Then he decided to address the Novgorodians with a speech. Yaroslav called on the people to capture Kyiv, thus returning to themselves everything that had been taken away in the form of tribute. The residents agreed, and after some time, in the battle of Lyubech, Svyatopolk was completely defeated and fled to Poland.
Further developments
In 1018, together with the squad of Boleslav (his father-in-law and the King of Poland), Svyatopolk returned to Rus'. In the battle, they thoroughly defeated Yaroslav (he fled with four warriors from the field). He wanted to go to Novgorod, and then planned to move to Scandinavia. But the residents did not let him do this. They chopped up all the boats, collected money and a new army, giving the prince the opportunity to continue fighting. At this time, confident that he was sitting firmly enough on the throne, Svyatopolk quarreled with Polish king. Deprived of support, he lost the battle on Alta. After the battle, Yaroslav sent the Novgorodians home, giving them special letters - “Truth” and “Charter”. They had to live by them. Over the next decades, the Principality of Novgorod also depended on Kyiv. First, Yaroslav sent his son Ilya as governor. Then he sent Vladimir, who founded the fortress in 1044. The following year, at his behest, construction began on a new stone cathedral instead of the wooden St. Sophia Cathedral (which burned down). Since that time, this temple has symbolized Novgorod spirituality.
Political system
It took shape gradually. There are two periods in history. In the first there was a feudal republic, where the prince ruled. And in the second, control belonged to the oligarchy. During the first period in Novgorod Principality all the main bodies of state power existed. Higher institutions The Boyar Council and the Veche were considered. Executive power was vested in the thousand and princely courts, mayor, elders, volostels and volostel managers. The veche had special meaning. It was considered the supreme power and had greater power here than in other principalities. The veche decided on issues of domestic and foreign policy, expelled or elected the ruler, townsman and other officials. It was also the highest court. Another body was the Council of Boyars. The entire city government system was concentrated in this body. The Council included: eminent boyars, elders, thousand, mayors, archbishop and prince. The power of the ruler himself was significantly limited in functions and scope, but at the same time, of course, occupied a leading place in the governing bodies. At first, the candidacy of the future prince was discussed at the Council of Boyars. After this, he was invited to sign the contract document. It regulated the legal and state status and the duties of the authorities towards the ruler. The prince lived with his court on the outskirts of Novgorod. The ruler did not have the right to make laws or proclaim war or peace. Together with the mayor, the prince commanded the army. The existing restrictions did not allow the rulers to gain a foothold in the city and put them in a controlled position.
The Novgorod principality is one of three largest principalities, along with Galicia-Volyn and Vladimir-Suzdal, which existed during the times of Ancient Rus'. His mention in the chronicles is almost minimal, but his participation in history is incommensurable.
The capital of the principality is Veliky Novgorod, famous for its artisans and merchants. Being one of the main centers of education and the largest shopping center Europe, for many centuries it retained the status of a stronghold of the northern and southern borders.
The main cities of the Novgorod principality: Vologda, Torzhok, Staraya Ladoga, Polotsk, Beloozero, Rostov, Izborsk.
Geographical position
The natural and geographical conditions of the Novgorod principality were determined by its territorial location. Stretching for many kilometers, it occupied vast areas of the northern part European Russia. The bulk of the land was located between Lake Ilmen and Lake Peipsi.
Most of it was covered by dense taiga forests, but along with them there was endless tundra. The territory where the principality was located was full of forests, lakes and swamps, which, coupled with harsh climatic conditions, made the soil poor and infertile. However, this was compensated by large reserves of wood and building stone, and the swamp soil was a real storehouse of iron ores and salts.
The Novgorod principality had access to many large river routes and seas, and lay nearby. All this provided excellent soil for the development of trade.
Political structure of the principality
The Novgorod principality differed from and in its unique political system. The republican form of government arose in the principality at the very beginning of the 12th century and persisted for several centuries, making it one of the most developed principalities. The absence of a ruling princely dynasty made it possible to maintain unity and avoid fragmentation. This historical period is called Republican.
But democracy in the Novgorod principality was elitist. Power was concentrated in the hands of several influential boyar families.
Big role V public role Veliky Novgorod was played by the people's assembly - the veche, formed after the expulsion of Prince Vsevolod. It had very broad powers: it declared war, made peace, and resolved completely different issues.
Novgorod land
Novgorod the Great and its territory. Political system Novgorod the Great, i.e. the oldest city in his land was closely linked to the city's location. It was located on both banks of the Volkhov River, not far from its source from Lake Ilmen. Novgorod was made up of several settlements or settlements, which were independent societies, and then merged into a city community. Traces of this independent existence the constituent parts of Novgorod were retained later in the distribution of the city to its ends. Volkhov divides Novgorod into two halves: the right - along the eastern bank of the river and the left - along west bank; the first one was called Trading, because it housed the main city market, trading; the second was called Sofia Since the end of the 10th century, after the adoption of Christianity by Novgorod, the cathedral church of St. was built on this side. Sofia. Both sides were connected by the large Volkhov Bridge, located not far from the market. Adjacent to the trade was a square called Yaroslav's yard, because Yaroslav’s courtyard was once located here when he reigned in Novgorod during his father’s life. On this square stood degree, the platform from which Novgorod dignitaries made speeches to the people gathered at the assembly. Near the level there was a veche tower, on which a veche bell hung, and at the bottom of it there was a veche office. The commercial side is to the south. Slavensky end got its name from the oldest Novgorod village, which became part of Novgorod, Slavna. The city market and Yaroslav's courtyard were located at the Slavensky end. On the Sofia side, immediately after crossing the Volkhov Bridge, there was child, a walled place where the cathedral church of St. stood. Sofia. The Sofia side was divided into three ends: Nerevsky to North, Zagorodsky to the west and Goncharsky, or Ludin, to the south, closer to the lake. The names of the ends of Goncharsky and Plotnitsky indicate the craft nature of the ancient settlements from which the ends of Novgorod were formed.
Novgorod, with its five ends, was the political center of a vast territory that gravitated towards it. This territory consisted of parts of two categories: from Pyatin And volosts, or lands; the totality of both constituted the region, or land, of St. Sofia. According to Novgorod monuments, before the fall of Novgorod and Pyatina were called lands, and in more ancient times - in rows. Pyatina were as follows: to the northwest of Novgorod, between the Volkhov and Luga rivers, Pyatina extended towards the Gulf of Finland Votskaya, which got its name from the Finnish tribe that lived here Drive or That's; on the NE to the right of Volkhov Pyatina went far to the White Sea on both sides of Lake Onega Obonezhskaya; to the southeast between the rivers Mstoya and Lovat stretched a pyatina Derevskaya; to the southwest between the Lovat and Luga rivers, on both sides of the Sheloni River, went Shelonskaya Pyatina; at the departure beyond Pyatina Obonezhskaya and Derevskaya, Pyatina extended far to the E and SE Bezhetskaya, which received its name from the village of Bezhichi, which was once one of its administrative centers (in the current Tver province). Initially, Pyatina consisted of its oldest and closest possessions to Novgorod. Possessions more distant and acquired later were not included in the five-fold division and formed a number of special volosts, which had a slightly different device from Pyatina. Thus, the cities of Volok-Lamsky and Torzhok with their districts did not belong to any Pyatina. Beyond Pyatina Obonezhskaya and Bezhetskaya the parish extended to the NE Zavolochye, or Dvina land. It was called Zavolochye because it was located behind the portage, behind the vast watershed separating the Onega and Northern Dvina basins from the Volga basin. The flow of the Vychegda River and its tributaries determined the position Perm land. Beyond the Dvina land and Perm further to the northeast there were volosts Pechora along the Pechora River and on the other side of the northern Ural ridge Ugra. On the north shore White Sea there was a parish Ter, or Tersky coast. These were the main Novgorod volosts that were not included in the five-fold division. They were acquired by Novgorod early: for example, already in the 11th century. Novgorodians went to Pechora to collect tribute for the Dvina, and in the 13th century they collected tribute on the Tersky Bank.
The attitude of Novgorod to the princes. At the beginning of our history, the Novgorod land was completely similar in structure to other regions of the Russian land. In the same way, the relations of Novgorod to the princes differed little from those in which the other older cities of the regions stood. Since the first princes left it for Kiev, Novgorod has been subject to tribute in favor of the Grand Duke of Kyiv. After the death of Yaroslav, the Novgorod land was annexed to the Grand Duchy of Kyiv, and the Grand Duke usually sent his son or next of kin, appointing a mayor as his assistant. Until the second quarter of the 12th century. in the life of the Novgorod land there are no noticeable political features that would distinguish it from a number of other regions of the Russian land. But since the death of Vladimir Monomakh, these features have been developing more and more successfully, which later became the basis of Novgorod freedom. The successful development of this political isolation of the Novgorod land was helped partly by its geographical location, partly by its external relations. Novgorod was the political center of the region, which formed the remote northwestern corner of what was then Rus'. Such a remote position of Novgorod placed it outside the circle of Russian lands, which were the main stage of activity of the princes and their squads. This freed Novgorod from direct pressure from the prince and his squad and allowed Novgorod life develop more freely, in a larger space. On the other hand, Novgorod lay close to the main river basins of our plain, to the Volga, Dnieper, Western Dvina, and Volkhov connected it by water with the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic Sea. Thanks to this proximity to the great trade roads of Rus', Novgorod was early involved in diverse trade turnover. Having become on the outskirts of Rus', surrounded on several sides by hostile foreigners and, moreover, engaged primarily in foreign trade, Novgorod always needed a prince and his squad to defend its borders and trade routes. But it was precisely in the 12th century, when tangled princely scores lowered the authority of the princes, Novgorod needed the prince and his squad much less than it needed before and began to need later. Then on the Novgorod borders there were two dangerous enemy, Livonian Order and united Lithuania. In the 12th century. there was neither one nor the other enemy yet: the Livonian Order was founded at the very beginning of the 13th century, and Lithuania began to unite from the end of this century. Under the influence of these favorable conditions Novgorod’s relationship with the princes, the structure of its government, and its social system developed.
After the death of Monomakh, the Novgorodians managed to achieve important political benefits. Princely strife were accompanied by frequent changes of princes on the Novgorod table. These strife and changes helped the Novgorodians introduce two important principles into their political system, which became the guarantors of their freedom: 1) selectivity of the highest administration, 2) row, i.e. agreement with the princes. Frequent changes of princes in Novgorod were accompanied by changes in personnel supreme Novgorod administration. The prince ruled Novgorod with the assistance of assistants appointed by him or the Grand Duke of Kyiv, the mayor and the thousand. When the prince left the city voluntarily or involuntarily, the mayor appointed by him usually resigned his position because new prince usually appointed his mayor. But in the intervals between the two reigns, the Novgorodians, remaining without a higher government, got used to choosing a mayor to temporarily correct the position and demanding that the new prince confirm him in office. Thus, by the very course of affairs, the custom of electing a mayor began in Novgorod. This custom begins to operate immediately after the death of Monomakh, when, according to the chronicle, in 1126 the Novgorodians “gave posadnik” to one of their fellow citizens. Afterwards, the choice of mayor became a permanent right of the city, which Novgorodians valued very much. The change in the very nature of this position, which occurred due to the fact that it was given not at the princely court, but at the veche square, is understandable: from a representative and guardian of the interests of the prince before Novgorod, the elected mayor had to turn into a representative and guardian of the interests of Novgorod before the prince. Afterwards, another important position of the thousand also became elective. In the Novgorod administration important had a local bishop. Until half of the 12th century. he was appointed and ordained by the Russian metropolitan with a council of bishops in Kiev, therefore, under the influence of the Grand Duke. But from the second half of the 12th century, Novgorodians began to choose their own ruler from the local clergy, gathering “the whole city” at a meeting and sending the chosen one to Kyiv to the metropolitan for ordination. The first such elected bishop was the abbot of one of the local monasteries, Arkady, elected by the Novgorodians in 1156. Since then, the Kyiv Metropolitan only had the right to ordain a candidate sent from Novgorod. So, in the second and third quarter of the 12th century. The highest Novgorod administration became elected. At the same time, the Novgorodians began to more accurately define their relationship to the princes. The strife between the princes gave Novgorod the opportunity to choose between rival princes and impose on its chosen one certain obligations that constrained his power. These obligations were set out in ranks, agreements with the prince, which determined the importance of the Novgorod prince in local government. Vague traces of these rows, sealed with a kiss of the cross on the part of the prince, appear already in the first half of the 12th century. Later they are more clearly identified in the chronicler's story. In 1218, the famous Mstislav Mstislavich Udaloy, Prince of Toropets, who ruled it, left Novgorod. His Smolensk relative Svyatoslav Mstislavich arrived in his place. This prince demanded a change in the elected Novgorod mayor Tverdislav. "For what? - asked the Novgorodians. “What is his fault?” “Yes, without guilt,” answered the prince. Then Tverdislav said, addressing the meeting: “I am glad that I am not guilty, and you, brothers, are free to be mayors and princes.” Then the veche said to the prince: “You are depriving your husband of his position, but you kissed the cross for us without guilt; you should not deprive your husband of his position.” So, already at the beginning of the 13th century. The princes sealed the well-known rights of the Novgorodians with a kiss of the cross. The condition is not to deprive a Novgorod dignitary of his position without guilt, i.e. without trial, is one of the main guarantees of Novgorod freedom in later treaties.
The political benefits that the Novgorodians achieved were set out in treaty documents. The first such charters that have come down to us are not earlier than the second half XIII V. There are three of them: they set out the conditions under which Yaroslav of Tver ruled the Novgorod land. Two of them were written in 1265 and one in 1270. Later treaty documents repeat only the conditions set out in these letters of Yaroslav. Studying them, we see the grounds political structure Novgorod. The Novgorodians obliged the princes to kiss the cross, as their fathers and grandfathers kissed them. home general duty, which fell on the prince, was that he should rule, “keep Novgorod in the old days according to duties,” i.e. according to old customs. This means that the conditions set out in Yaroslav’s letters were not an innovation, but a testament of antiquity. The agreements determined: 1) the judicial and administrative relations of the prince to the city, 2) financial relations cities to the prince, 3) the prince’s relationship to Novgorod trade. The prince was the highest judicial and government authority. But he performed all judicial and administrative actions not alone and not at his personal discretion, but in the presence and with the consent of the elected Novgorod mayor. For lower positions, filled not by choice, but by princely appointment, the prince elected people from Novgorod society, and not from his squad. He distributed all such positions with the consent of the mayor. The prince could not take away the positions of an elected or appointed official without a trial. Moreover, he carried out all judicial and government actions personally in Novgorod and could not control anything, living in his inheritance: “And from the Suzdal land,” we read in the agreement, “Novagorod should not be removed, nor should volosts (positions) be distributed.” In the same way, without a mayor, the prince could not judge, and could not issue letters to anyone. Thus, all judicial and government activities of the prince were controlled by a representative of Novgorod. With petty suspicion, the Novgorodians determined their financial relations with the prince and his income. The prince received gift from the Novgorod land, going to Novgorod, and could not take it, going from the Novgorod land. The prince received tribute only from Zavolochye, a conquered region that was not part of the five-fold division of the Novgorod region; and the prince usually gave this tribute to the Novgorodians. If he collected it himself, then he sent two collectors to Zavolochye, who could not take the collected tribute directly to the prince’s estate, but brought it first to Novgorod, from where it was transferred to the prince. Since the Tatar invasion, the Horde rule was imposed on Novgorod as well. exit- tribute. The Tatars then entrusted the collection of this exit, called black boron, i.e. general, universal tax, the Grand Duke of Vladimir. The Novgorodians themselves collected black forest and handed it over to their prince, who delivered it to the Horde. In addition, the prince used famous lands in the Novgorod land, fishing grounds, boarding grounds, and animal races; but he used all these lands for sure certain rules, at scheduled times and in conventional sizes. The prince’s relationship with Novgorod trade was defined with the same precision. Trade, mainly foreign, was the lifeblood of the city. Novgorod needed the prince not only to defend its borders, but also to ensure trade interests; he was supposed to give Novgorod merchants a free and safe route in his principality. It was precisely determined what duties the prince should collect from each Novgorod trade boat or trade cart that appeared in his principality. German merchants settled early in Novgorod. In the 14th century there were two courts of overseas merchants in Novgorod: one belonged to the Hanseatic cities, the other, Gothic, belonged to merchants from the island of Gotland. At these courts there were even two Catholic churches. The prince could participate in the city's trade with overseas merchants only through Novgorod intermediaries; he could not close the courts of foreign merchants or assign his own bailiffs to them. Thus, the foreign trade of Novgorod was protected from arbitrariness on the part of the prince. Bound by such obligations, the prince received certain food for his military and government services to the city. Let us recall the meaning of the prince, the leader of the squad, in the ancient trading cities of Rus' in the 9th century: he was a hired military guard of the city and its trade. The Novgorod prince of the specific time had exactly the same significance. This importance of the prince in the free city is expressed in the Pskov chronicle, which calls one Novgorod prince of the 15th century “the governor and the well-fed prince, about whom they stood and fought.” Novgorod tried to maintain the importance of the prince as a mercenary with treaties until the end of his freedom. This is how the relations of Novgorod with the princes were determined by treaties.
Control. Veche. Novgorod administration was built in connection with the definition of the city's relationship with the prince. These relations, we saw, were determined by treaties. Thanks to these agreements, the prince gradually withdrew from the local society, losing organic connections with him. He and his squad entered this society only mechanically, as an outside temporary force. Thanks to this, the political center of gravity in Novgorod had to move from the princely court to the veche square, into the environment of local society. That is why, despite the presence of the prince, Novgorod in the appanage centuries was actually a city republic. Further, in Novgorod we meet the same military device, which had already developed in other older cities of Rus' before the princes. Novgorod was thousand- an armed regiment under the command of a thousand. This thousand was divided by hundreds- military units of the city. Each hundred, with its elected sotsky, represented a special society that enjoyed a certain degree of self-government. IN war time it was a recruiting district, in peacetime it was a police district. But the hundred was not the smallest administrative part of the city: it was divided into streets, each of which with its own elected street people The headman also constituted a special local world that enjoyed self-government. On the other hand, hundreds added up to more large unions - ends. Each city end consisted of two hundred. At the head of the end stood the elected Konchansky the headman, who conducted the current affairs of the end under the supervision of the Konchansky gathering or veche, which had administrative power. The union of ends constituted the community of Veliky Novgorod. Thus, Novgorod represented a multi-degree combination of small and large local worlds, of which the latter were composed by adding the former. The combined will of all these allied worlds was expressed in the general assembly of the city. The meeting was sometimes convened by the prince, more often by one of the main city dignitaries, the mayor or the mayor. It was not a permanent institution; it was convened when there was a need for it. There was never a fixed time limit for its convening. The evening gathered at the sound of a bell veche bell, usually on the square called Yaroslav's Court. It was not a representative institution in its composition, did not consist of deputies: everyone who considered himself a full citizen fled to the veche square. The veche usually consisted of citizens of one senior city; but sometimes residents of the smaller cities of the earth also appeared on it, however, only two, Ladoga and Pskov. The issues to be discussed at the evening were proposed to him with degrees high dignitaries, a sedate mayor or a thousand. These issues were legislative and constituent. The veche established new laws, invited the prince or expelled him, elected and judged the main city dignitaries, settled their disputes with the prince, resolved issues of war and peace, etc. At the meeting, by its very composition, there could be neither a correct discussion of the issue nor a correct vote. The decision was made by eye, or better yet, by ear, based more on the strength of the shouts than on the majority of votes. When the veche was divided into parties, the verdict was reached by force, through a fight: the side that prevailed was recognized by the majority (a peculiar form fields, judgment of God). Sometimes the whole city was divided, and then two meetings were convened, one at the usual place, on the Trade Side, the other on Sofia. Usually the discord ended with both vechs, moving against each other, meeting on the Volkhov Bridge and starting a fight if the clergy did not manage to separate the opponents in time.
Posadnik and Tysyatsky. Executive bodies the evening there were two highest elected dignitaries who conducted the current affairs of administration and court - mayor And thousand. While they held their positions they were called sedate, i.e. standing on the degree, and upon leaving the post they entered the category of posadniks and thousand old. It is quite difficult to distinguish between the departments of both dignitaries. It seems that the mayor was the civil ruler of the city, and the thousand was the military and police officer. That is why the Germans in appanage centuries called the mayor a burgrave, and the thousand - a duke. Both dignitaries received their powers from the veche for an indefinite period of time: some ruled for a year, others less, others for several years. It seems not earlier than the beginning of the 15th century. a certain period was established for occupying their positions. At least one French traveler, Lannoy, who visited Novgorod at the beginning of the 15th century, says about the mayor and the thousand that these dignitaries were replaced annually. The posadnik and tysyatsky ruled with the help of a whole staff of lower agents subordinate to them.
Council of gentlemen. There was a meeting legislative institution. But by its nature it could not correctly discuss the issues put before it. A special institution was needed that could pre-develop legislative issues and propose a party finished projects laws and decisions. Such a preparatory and administrative institution was the Novgorod council of gentlemen, Herrenrath, as the Germans called it, or gentlemen, as it was called in Pskov. The Lords of the Free City developed from the ancient boyar duma of the prince with the participation of the city elders. The chairman of this council in Novgorod was the local ruler - the archbishop. The council consisted of the princely governor, the sedate posadnik and tysyatsky, the elders of the Konchansky and Sotsky villages, the old mayor and tysyatsky. All these members, except the chairman, were called boyars.
Regional administration. WITH central management was closely connected with the regional one. This connection was expressed in the fact that each five-acre of Novgorod land in management depended on the city end to which it was assigned. A similar relationship between parts of the territory and the ends of the city existed in the Pskov land. Here the old suburbs have long been distributed between the ends of the city. In 1468, when many new suburbs had accumulated, at the meeting it was also decided to divide them by lot between the ends, two suburbs at each end. The spot, however, was not whole administrative unit, did not have one local administrative center. She was falling apart administrative districts, called in Moscow time in half, subdivided into counties; each district had its own special administrative center in a well-known suburb, so the Konchan administration was the only connection connecting Pyatina into one administrative whole. The suburb with its district was the same local self-governing world as the Novgorod ends and hundreds were. Its autonomy was expressed in the local suburban council. However, this evening was led by the mayor, who was usually sent from the older city. The forms in which the political dependence of the suburbs on the older city was expressed are revealed in the story of how Pskov became an independent city. Until the half of the 14th century it was a suburb of Novgorod. In 1348, by agreement with Novgorod, it became independent from it and began to be called younger brother his. Under this agreement, the Novgorodians renounced the right to send a mayor to Pskov and summon the Pskovites to Novgorod for civil and ecclesiastical trials. This means that the main city appointed a mayor to the suburbs and the highest court over the townspeople was concentrated in it. However, the dependence of the suburbs on Novgorod was always very weak: the suburbs sometimes refused to accept mayors sent by the main city.
Classes of Novgorod society. As part of Novgorod society, it is necessary to distinguish between urban and rural classes. The population of Novgorod the Great consisted of boyars, wealthy people, merchants and black people.
At the head of Novgorod society was the boyars. It was composed of rich and influential Novgorod families, whose members were appointed by the princes who ruled Novgorod to senior positions in local government. Occupying positions by appointment of the prince that were given to princely boyars in other regions, the Novgorod nobility acquired the meaning and title of boyars and retained this title even later, when they began to receive their government powers not from the prince, but from the local veche.
Not so clear in Novgorod monuments second class living, or living, of people. It can be noted that this class stood closer to the local boyars than to the lower strata of the population. The living people were, apparently, middle-class capitalists who did not belong to the top government nobility. The merchant class was called merchants. They were already closer to the urban common people, weakly separated from the mass of urban black people. They worked with the help of boyar capital, or received loans from the boyars, or conducted their trade affairs as clerks. Black people there were small artisans and workers who took work or money for work from the upper classes, boyars and wealthy people. This is the composition of society in the main city. We meet the same classes in the suburbs, at least the most important ones.
In the depths of rural society, as well as urban ones, we see serfs. This class was very numerous in the Novgorod land, but invisible in Pskov. The free peasant population in the Novgorod land consisted of two categories: the smerds, who cultivated the state lands of Novgorod the Great, and ladles who leased land from private owners. The ladles got their name from the usual conditions of land lease in ancient Rus' - to cultivate the land half-heartedly, from half the harvest. However, in the Novgorod land of specific time, ladles rented land from private owners and on more favorable terms, from the third or fourth sheaf. The ladles were in a more degraded state in the Novgorod land compared to the free peasants in Princely Rus', stood in a position close to slaves. This humiliation was expressed in two conditions that the Novgorodians included in the contracts with the princes: 1) slaves and ladle without a master should not be judged and 2) Novgorod slaves and ladles who fled to the prince’s inheritance should be given back. In this respect, Pskov land differed sharply from Novgorod. In the first Izorniki, as they called peasants there who rented private land, usually with a loan, cool, were free cultivators who enjoyed the right to transfer from one owner to another. There's even promissory note did not attach the isornik to the landowner. According to Russian Truth, a purchase that ran away from its owner without payment became his complete slave. According to the Pskov Pravda, a monument that received its final form in the second half of the 15th century, an isornik who ran away from his owner without retribution was not punished by imprisonment when he returned from running; the owner could only, with the participation of local authorities, sell the property abandoned by the fugitive and thus compensate himself for the unrepaid loan. If the fugitive’s property was not enough for this, the master could seek additional payment at the isornik when he returned. The peasants in the princely Rus' of the appanage centuries had similar relationships to their masters. So, in the free Novgorod land rural population, working on the master's lands, was made more dependent on the landowners than anywhere else in Rus' at that time.
Another feature of Novgorod, as well as Pskov, land ownership was the class of peasant owners, which we do not meet in princely Rus', where all peasants worked either on state or private master's lands. This class was called to the earthlings, or fellow countrymen. These were generally small landowners. The natives either cultivated their lands themselves or rented them out to peasant ladles. In terms of occupation and size of the farm, the natives were no different from the peasants; but they owned their lands as full property rights. This rural class of natives was formed primarily from city dwellers. In the Novgorod and Pskov lands, the right to land ownership was not a privilege of the upper service class. Urban inhabitants acquired small rural plots of land as their property not only for arable farming, but also for the purpose of their industrial exploitation, growing flax, hops and timber, and catching fish and animals. This was the composition of society in the Novgorod land.
Political life of Novgorod the Great. The forms of political life in Novgorod, as in Pskov, were of a democratic nature. All free inhabitants had equal votes at the meeting, and the free classes of society did not differ sharply in political rights. But trade, which served as the basis National economy in these free cities, gave actual dominance to those classes that possessed trading capital - the boyars and the common people. This is the dominance of the trading aristocracy under democratic forms government system appeared both in the administration and in the political life of Novgorod, causing a lively struggle between political parties; but at different times the nature of this struggle was not the same. In this regard, the internal political life of the city can be divided into two periods.
Until the 14th century, princes in Novgorod often changed, and these princes competed with each other, belonging to hostile princely lines. Under the influence of this frequent change of princes, local political circles were formed in Novgorod, which stood for different princes and were led by the heads of the richest boyar families of the city. One might think that these circles were formed under the influence of trade relations between the boyar houses of Novgorod and one or another Russian principality. Thus, the first period in the history of the political life of Novgorod was marked by the struggle of the princely parties, more precisely, by the struggle of the Novgorod trading houses competing with each other.
Since the 14th century stops frequent change princes on the Novgorod table, along with this the nature of the political life of Novgorod changes. From the death of Yaroslav I to the Tatar invasion, the Novgorod chronicle describes up to 12 unrest in the city; Of these, only two were not associated with princely changes, i.e. were not caused by the struggle of local political circles for this or that prince. From the Tatar invasion to the accession of John III to the Grand Duke's table, more than 20 unrest are described in the local chronicle; of them, only 4 are associated with princely successions; everyone else had a completely different source. This new source political struggle, opening from the 14th century, there was social strife - the struggle of the lower poor classes of Novgorod society with the upper rich. Novgorod society has since been divided into two hostile camps, of which one consisted the best, or languishing, people, as the Novgorod chronicle calls the local rich nobility, and in another, people young, or smaller, i.e. black. So since the 14th century. the struggle of trading firms in Novgorod gave way to the struggle of social classes. This new struggle also had its roots in the political and economic system cities. Sharp wealth inequality between citizens is a very common phenomenon in large commercial cities, especially those with republican forms of organization. In Novgorod, this inequality of property, with political equality and democratic forms of organization, was felt especially sharply and had an irritating effect on the lower classes. This effect was further strengthened by the heavy economic dependence of the lower working population on the capitalist boyars. Thanks to this, an irreconcilable antagonism against the upper classes developed in the lower classes of Novgorod society. At the head of both of these social parties were rich boyar families, so that young people in Novgorod acted under the leadership of some noble boyar houses, who became the leaders of the Novgorod common people in the fight against their boyar brethren.
Thus, the Novgorod boyars remained the leader of local political life throughout the history of the free city. Over time, all local government fell into the hands of a few noble houses. From among them, the Novgorod veche elected mayors and thousanders; their members filled the Novgorod government council, which, in fact, gave direction to local political life.
Peculiarities economic situation and the political life of Novgorod helped important shortcomings take root in its system, which prepared the way for the easy fall of its freedom in the second half of the 15th century. Those were: 1) lack of internal social unity, discord among the classes of Novgorod society, 2) lack of zemstvo unity and government centralization in the Novgorod region, 3) economic dependence on lower princely Rus', i.e. central Great Russia, from where Novgorod and its non-grain-bearing region received grain, and 4) the weakness of the military structure of the trading city, the militia of which could not stand against the princely regiments.
But in all these shortcomings one must see only the conditions of the ease with which Novgorod fell, and not the reasons for its fall itself; Novgorod would have fallen even if it had been free from these shortcomings: the fate of its freedom was decided not by one or the other weak side its structure, but a more general cause, a broader and more oppressive historical process. By the half of the 15th century. The formation of the Great Russian people was already completed: it lacked only political unity. This nation had to fight for its existence in the east, south and west. She was looking for political center, around which she could gather her forces for a difficult fight. Moscow became such a center. The meeting of the specific dynastic aspirations of the Moscow princes with the political needs of the entire Great Russian population decided the fate of not only Novgorod the Great, but also other independent political worlds, which still remained in Rus' by the half of the 15th century. The destruction of the individuality of the zemstvo units was a sacrifice required by the common good of the entire earth, and the Moscow sovereign was the executor of this demand. Novgorod, with a better political system, could have waged a more stubborn struggle with Moscow, but the result of this struggle would have been the same. Novgorod would inevitably fall under the blows of Moscow. From the book Faces of the Epoch. From origins to Mongol invasion[anthology] author Akunin Boris
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The possessions of Novgorod were located in the north-west of Russian lands (from the Gulf of Finland and Lake Peipsi in the west to the foothills of the Urals in the east; from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the source of the Volga in the south).
The Novgorod land was characterized by unfavorable climatic conditions, infertile soils, swamps, huge forests.
Specifics geographical location largely determined the features of the Novgorod economy. The most important trade routes were located here of Eastern Europe: the path “from the Varangians to the Greeks”; another way is through the river network to Volga Bulgaria, Khazaria and other countries of the East. All this contributed active development foreign trade.
The special position of Novgorod within Kievan Rus was determined by the fact that it was from here that the Rurik dynasty came. From the 9th century A tradition developed according to which the Grand Duke of Kiev, as the Novgorod governor, planted his eldest son in Novgorod, which ensured Kyiv’s control over the functioning of the most important trade artery.
During the time of Vladimir the Saint? from the tribute that came annually from the Novgorod territories went to Kyiv. Yaroslav Vladimirovich was the first to refuse to comply with this demand. From then on, the tribute collected from the subject territories began to remain in Novgorod and was used to support the prince and his administration.
In the 11th century The children of Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod Yaroslavich alternately visited the Novgorod table. But none of them created their own dynasty here. Longest at the turn of the 11th–12th centuries. Representatives of the princely house of Vsevolod Yaroslavich were in Novgorod. Thus, from 1097 to 1117 Mstislav the Great ruled in Novgorod.
After twenty years of his stay in the north-west, Mstislav Vladimirovich left for Southern Rus' in 1117, leaving his eldest son in Novgorod Vsevolod Mstislavich(1117–1136).
However, the princely dynasty in the Novgorod land never developed. This was facilitated events of the late XI - first half of the XII centuries.
After the death of his father in 1132, Vsevolod Mstislavich, at the request of his uncle, the Grand Duke of Kyiv Yaropolk Vladimirovich, went to the Pereyaslavl table. Pereyaslavl was then considered as the last step in the ascension to the Grand Duke's table. Therefore, Mstislav Vladimirovich’s younger brothers Yuri (Dolgoruky) and Andrei became worried, thinking that the childless Prince Yaropolk Vladimirovich intended his eldest nephew Vsevolod Mstislavich to take his place. A conflict occurred, as a result of which their father’s brothers, Yuri and Andrey, expelled Vsevolod Mstislavich, who had to return to the abandoned Novgorod table.
After the prince left, a veche was convened in Novgorod. The Novgorodians decided to expel the prince from the city for breaking his oath, but then nevertheless returned him to the Novgorod table. After this conflict, Vsevolod Mstislavich spent about 4 years in Novgorod. And in 1136 the situation repeated itself. Again, the Novgorodians, Pskovians and Ladoga residents gathered at a meeting in Novgorod and decided to expel the prince from the city. He was reminded of his past guilt, and also added new claims: he did not care about the population subject to tribute; was not distinguished by courage and bravery during two military campaigns against Suzdal (1134-1135).
In Novgorod, the principle of “liberty in princes” prevailed, acting according to which the Novgorodians invited at their own discretion candidates for the princely throne. Thus, conditions arose for the development of a unique political structure of the Novgorod land, which in the scientific literature received the name “Novgorod Republic”.
A large role in the formation of features Novgorod land played by the local boyars, who were financially independent.
The highest authority in Novgorod became veche, at which representatives of the executive branch were elected, the candidacy of the prince was considered, the most important decisions were made important questions internal and foreign policy. Until now, there is no consensus among researchers about the composition of its participants: whether they were all free male residents of the city or only the owners of estates. Some believe that the veche was nominally a meeting of the owners of these urban boyar estates (no more than 500 people), who ruled the city and the entire land. Other researchers believe that Novgorod was a territorial community with the features of a pre-feudal democracy. At that time, all free members of this community were participants in veche meetings, regardless of their social affiliation.
The main official in the Novgorod administration was mayor;since the 80s XI century The position of Novgorod mayor was separated from the princely power and began to exist parallel to it. At first, posadniks were representatives of the Kyiv boyar aristocracy, appointed by the Kyiv Grand Duke. And from the second quarter of the 12th century. Novgorod boyars began to be elected to this position at the assembly. The mayor stood at the head of the Novgorod government, presided over the assembly, and was in charge of the citywide court and administration. In fact, representatives of several boyar families were elected mayors.
The second important person in city government was thousand. He headed the city militia, was in charge of tax collection and court proceedings. trade affairs. Since 1156, the post of Novgorod governor also belonged to the elective institutions bishop(since 1165 - archbishop). The Novgorod ruler managed the treasury, controlled foreign policy relations and the disposal of the land fund, and was the keeper of the standards of measures and weights.
Chosen at the meeting and invited to the city prince headed Novgorod army. His squad maintained public order in the city. He performed representative functions in other principalities and was a symbol of the unity of the Novgorod lands. But the position of the Novgorod prince was unstable, since his fate very often depended on the decision of the veche assembly. From 1095 to 1304 On the Novgorod table, the princes changed at least 58 times.
Thus, in the Novgorod form of government one can notice three main elements: monarchical, republican and aristocratic. At the same time, it was the latter that prevailed.
Reasons for the strengthening of Novgorod. Novgorod land was located between lakes Ilmen and Chudskoye, along the banks of the river. Volkhov, Lovat. Cities: Pskov, Ladoga, Rusa (now Staraya Russa), Torzhok, Velikiye Luki, etc. As a result of colonization, Finno-Ugric tribes - Karelians, Zavolochskaya Chud - became part of the Novgorod land. As academician V. Yanin believes, Novgorod arose as an association-federation of three tribal settlements: Slavic and two Finno-Ugric - Meryan and Chud. Novgorod was one of the largest and richest cities in Europe. Stone fortifications were built here already in 1044. The city had a high level of improvement: wooden pavements appeared here earlier than in Paris, a drainage system drained groundwater. Novgorod was located on trade routes connecting the Baltic Sea with the Black and Caspian Seas. The city traded with Scandinavia and North German cities, which concluded agreements in the 14th century. trade and political union Gá nza. Archaeologists have found the remains of a German trading court in Novgorod. Novgorod exports included furs, honey, wax, salt, leather, fish, and walrus ivory. Novgorod's weak point: unfavorable conditions for agriculture, the need to import grain. Novgorod's main opponent, the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, often cut off its grain supplies.
Features of the Novgorod Republic . There was no monarchical princely system of power in Novgorod. Established here boyar feudal republic. The Novgorod boyars, unlike the Vladimir-Suzdal boyars, were not princely warriors by origin, but descendants of the local tribal nobility. They formed a closed group of genera. In Novgorod one could not become a boyar, one could only be born one. Boyar land ownership developed here early. Princes were sent here as governors. In addition to Novgorod, in 1348–1510. There was a Pskov Republic.
Control system. Novgorod was the first to separate from Kyiv. During the uprising 1136 the prince was expelled Vsevolod Mstislavich for “neglect” of city interests. Novgorod was considered a “stronghold of freedom.” The highest authority was veche – meeting of the male population of the city, body of state administration and self-government. The first mention in the chronicles of the veche dates back to 997. The veche consisted of 300–500 people, decided issues of war and peace, summoned and expelled princes, adopted laws, and concluded treaties with other lands. It gathered on Yaroslav's Court - a square paved with cow jaws, or on Sophia Square. The veche was public - they voted by shouting, sometimes the decision was made through a fight: the winning side was recognized by the majority.
They were elected at the meeting mayor, thousand, bishop.
-Posadnik carried out city management, diplomatic negotiations, administered court, and controlled the activities of the prince.
-Tysyatsky- the head of the people's militia, he also held court in trade matters and resolved financial issues. They obeyed him Withó tskie who collected taxes (taxes).
-Bishop(from 1165 - archbishop), “lord”, was elected for life at the assembly and then confirmed by the metropolitan. He headed the church and the church court, managed the treasury and the “sovereign” regiment, and sealed international agreements with his personal seal.
-Prince of Novgorod- military commander, head of the squad, performed military-police functions, in Peaceful time maintained order in the city. Since the time of the “calling of the Varangians”, Novgorod has been characterized by an invitation from the prince (remember Rurik). There was an agreement with the prince row"(agreement), which prohibited the prince from interfering in the affairs of city government, changing officials, attending the meeting, acquiring land and real estate, and settling in the city. The prince and his retinue lived in a country residence - on the Rurik Settlement, three kilometers from Novgorod. The veche had the right to expel the prince if he violated the “order” with the words: “prince, you are yours, and we are yours.” The expulsion of princes (as well as posadniks) was common. For the XII–XIII centuries. Princes in Novgorod changed 68 times. The famous Alexander Nevskiy. In 1097–1117 was the prince of Novgorod Mstislav the Great, son of Vladimir Monomakh. When in 1102 the Prince of Kiev Svyatopolk Izyaslavich wanted to replace him with his son, the Novgorodians replied: “We don’t want Svyatopolk or his son... If your son has two heads, then send him to us!”
The territory of the republic was divided into regions - Pyatina. City of Novgorod r. Volkhov was divided into two sides: Sofia (Kremlin) and Trade, as well as ends(districts) and streets With Konchansky And street veche. The ordinary population participated in the Konchansky and Ulichansky veche, electing the elders of the ends and streets.
The veche system of Novgorod did not ensure true democracy. In fact, the republic was ruled by the Novgorod gentlemen(power elite) represented by the boyars and wealthy merchants. The positions of mayors and thousanders were held only by rich boyars (“ Council of gentlemen", or " 300 gold belts"). Novgorod can be considered aristocratic, oligarchic republic. Therefore, uprisings of the common people often broke out here (1136, 1207, 1229, etc.).
Galicia-Volyn land.
The Galicia-Volyn principality is the southwestern outskirts of Rus'. Favorable climate, fertile soils, trade routes to Poland and Hungary contributed to its strengthening. Initially, Galicia and Volhynia were separate principalities. After the death of Yaroslav the Wise, his grandson began to rule in Volyn Davyd Igorevich, and in Galicia – great-grandchildren Vasilko And Volodar. But the princely congress expelled Davyd for blinding Vasilko Terebovlsky after the Lyubech Congress. The Monomashich dynasty, descendants of Vladimir Monomakh, strengthened in Volyn. The Galician principality achieved power under the grandson of Volodar Yaroslav Osmomysl(1119–1187; 1153–1157 gg.), married to the daughter of Yuri Dolgoruky Olga.
In 1199 Galicia and Volyn principality united Roman Mstislavovich Volynsky(1150–1205; 1199 – 1205 gg.). Roman sought to subjugate the rebellious Galician boyars. He said about the boyars: “If you don’t kill the bees, you can’t eat honey.” In 1203, Roman occupied Kyiv and took the title of Grand Duke. The Pope offered Roman the royal crown, but he rejected it. In 1205, Roman died in Poland in a battle with the Prince of Krakow Leshkom Bely. Strife began.
Roman's four-year-old son - Daniil (Danilo) Romanovich(1201 or 1204–1264; 1238 – 1264 yy.) was expelled with his mother from Galich, but, having matured, by 1238 Vladimir of Volynsky, Galich, annexed the Kiev and Turov-Pinsk principalities, founded the cities of Lvov and Kholm. In 1240, Daniil's possessions were destroyed by Batu. In 1254 he received the title of king from the Pope.
Thus, fragmentation, on the one hand, was a progressive phenomenon for economic development, but, on the other hand, it undermined the defense capability of Russia and led to the Mongol yoke.