Russian principalities of the 12th-13th centuries, Russian principalities
(XII-XVI centuries) - state formations on the territory of modern Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and Poland, as well as (outlying lands) on the territory of modern Romania and Latvia, headed by princes from the Rurik and Gedimin dynasties. They were formed after the collapse of the Old Russian state into separate principalities. The period of existence of individual Russian principalities is sometimes called the term Specific Rus'. within the framework of the Marxist theory of historical materialism, it is described as feudal fragmentation.

• 1 Review
  • 1.1 Novgorod Republic
  • 1.2 Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, Grand Duchy of Vladimir
  • 1.3 Principality of Kiev
  • 1.4 Galicia-Volyn Principality
  • 1.5 Smolensk Principality
  • 1.6 Principality of Chernigov
  • 1.7 Grand Duchy of Lithuania
  • 1.8 Grand Duchy of Moscow
• 2 Economics
• 3 Military affairs
• 4 Culture
• 5 Foreign wars
  • 5.1 Cumans
  • 5.2 Catholic orders, Sweden and Denmark
  • 5.3 Mongol-Tatars
• 6 See also
• 7 Notes
• 8 Literature
• 9 Links

Review

The Old Russian state first included tribal principalities, and as the local nobility was displaced by the Rurikovichs, principalities began to emerge led by representatives of the younger lines of the ruling dynasty. The division of Rus' by Yaroslav the Wise between his sons in 1054 is considered to be the beginning of the division into principalities proper. The next important stage was the decision of the Lyubech Congress of Princes “let each one keep his fatherland” in 1097, but Vladimir Monomakh and his eldest son and heir Mstislav the Great, through seizures and dynastic marriages, were able to again put all the principalities under the control of Kyiv.

The death of Mstislav in 1132 is considered to be the beginning of a period of political fragmentation (in Soviet Marxist historiography - feudal fragmentation), however, Kiev remained not only a formal center, but also a powerful principality for several more decades, its influence on the periphery did not disappear, but only weakened in comparison with first third of the 12th century. The Kiev prince continued to control the Turov, Pereyaslav and Vladimir-Volyn principalities and have both opponents and supporters in every region of Rus' until the middle of the century. The Chernigovo-Seversk, Smolensk, Rostov-Suzdal, Murom-Ryazan, Peremyshl and Terebovl principalities and the Novgorod land became separated from Kyiv. Chroniclers began to use the name of land for the principalities, which previously only designated Rus' as a whole (“Russian land”) or other countries (“Greek land”). The lands acted as independent subjects of international relations and were ruled by their own Rurik dynasties, with some exceptions: the Principality of Kiev and the Novgorod land did not have their own dynasty and were objects of struggle between princes from other lands (while in Novgorod the rights of the prince were greatly limited in favor of the local boyar aristocracy) , and for the Galicia-Volyn principality after the death of Roman Mstislavich, for about 40 years there was a war between all the southern Russian princes, ending in the victory of Daniil Romanovich Volynsky. At the same time, the unity of the princely family and church unity were preserved, as well as the idea of ​​Kyiv as formally the most important Russian table and the Kyiv land as the common property of all princes. By the beginning of the Mongol invasion (1237), the total number of principalities, including appanages, reached 50. The process of formation of new fiefs continued everywhere (in the XIV century the total number of principalities is estimated at 250), but in the XIV-XV centuries the reverse process began to gain strength, the result of which was the unification of Russian lands around two great principalities: Moscow and Lithuania.

In historiography, when considering the period of the XII-XVI centuries, special attention is usually paid to several principalities.

Novgorod Republic

Main articles: Novgorod land, Novgorod Republic

In 1136, Novgorod left the control of the Kyiv princes. Unlike other Russian lands, the Novgorod land became a feudal republic, its head was not a prince, but a mayor. The mayor and tysyatsky were elected by the veche, while in the rest of the Russian lands the tysyatsky was appointed by the prince. The Novgorodians entered into alliances with some Russian principalities to protect their independence from others, and from the beginning of the 13th century, to fight external enemies: Lithuania and the Catholic orders that settled in the Baltic states.

Since 1333, Novgorod for the first time invited a representative of the Lithuanian princely house to reign. In 1449, under an agreement with Moscow, the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV renounced claims to Novgorod; in 1456, Vasily II the Dark concluded the unequal Yazhelbitsky peace treaty with Novgorod, and in 1478, Ivan III completely annexed Novgorod to his possessions, abolishing the veche. In 1494, the Hanseatic trading court in Novgorod was closed.

Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, Grand Duchy of Vladimir

Main article: North-Eastern Rus' Courtyard of the appanage prince. Painting by A. M. Vasnetsov

In chronicles until the 13th century it was usually called “Suzdal land”, from the end. XIII century - “the great reign of Vladimir”. historiography is designated by the term “North-Eastern Rus'”.

Soon after the Rostov-Suzdal prince Yuri Dolgoruky, as a result of many years of struggle, established himself in the reign of Kiev, his son Andrei Bogolyubsky left for the north, taking with him the icon of the Mother of God from Vyshgorod (1155). Andrei moved the capital of the Rostov-Suzdal principality to Vladimir and became the first Grand Duke of Vladimir. In 1169 he organized the capture of Kyiv, and, in the words of V.O. Klyuchevsky, “separated seniority from place,” placing his younger brother in the reign of Kiev and remaining to reign in Vladimir. The Smolensk Rostislavichs, who were entrenched in the Kyiv land, were able to reject Andrei’s attempts to dispose of their possessions (1173). The winner in the struggle for power after the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky was his younger brother Vsevolod the Big Nest, supported by the residents of the new cities in the southwestern part of the principality (“slaves-masons”) against the proteges of the old Rostov-Suzdal boyars. By the end of the 1190s, he achieved recognition of his seniority by all the princes, except those of Chernigov and Polotsk. Shortly before his death, Vsevolod convened a congress of representatives of various social strata on the issue of succession to the throne (1211): Great Prince Vsevolod convened all his boyars from cities and volosts and Bishop John, and abbots, and priests, and merchants, and nobles, and all the people.

The Pereyaslavl principality was under the control of the Vladimir princes from 1154 (with the exception of a short period 1206-1213). They used the dependence of the Novgorod Republic on the supply of food from the agricultural Opolye through Torzhok to extend their influence over it. Also, the Vladimir princes used their military capabilities to protect Novgorod from invasions from the west and from 1231 to 1333 they invariably reigned in Novgorod.

In 1237-1238, the principality was devastated by the Mongols. In 1243, the Vladimir prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich was summoned to Batu and recognized as the oldest prince in Rus'. At the end of the 1250s, a census was carried out and the systematic exploitation of the principality by the Mongols began. After the death of his son Alexander Nevsky (1263), Vladimir ceased to be the residence of the grand dukes. During the 13th century, appanage principalities with their own dynasties were formed on its territory: Belozerskoye, Galitsko-Dmitrovskoye, Gorodetskoye, Kostroma, Moscow, Pereyaslavskoye, Rostovskoye, Starodubskoye, Suzdal, Tverskoye, Uglitskoye, Yuryevskoye, Yaroslavskoye (up to 13 principalities in total), and in In the 14th century, the Tver, Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal princes began to be called “great”. The Vladimir great reign itself, which included the city of Vladimir with a vast territory in the zone of the Suzdal Opolye and the right to collect tribute for the Horde from all the principalities of North-Eastern Rus', except the great ones, was received by one of the princes by label from the Horde khan.

In 1299, the Metropolitan of All Rus' moved from Kyiv to Vladimir, and in 1327 - to Moscow. Since 1331, the Vladimir reign was assigned to the Moscow princely house, and since 1389 it appeared in the wills of the Moscow princes along with the Moscow domain. In 1428, the final merger of the Vladimir principality with the Moscow principality took place.

Principality of Kiev

Main article: Principality of Kiev

The death of Mstislav the Great (1132) was followed by an open struggle between his younger brothers and sons, thanks to which the Chernigov Olgovichi were able not only to restore the positions lost in the previous period, but also to join the struggle for Kyiv. In the middle of the 12th century, two major internecine wars took place (1146-1154 and 1158-1161), as a result of which Kyiv lost direct control over the Volyn, Pereyaslav and Turov principalities.

The Kyiv land itself was crushed. The attempt of Mstislav Izyaslavich (1167-1169) to concentrate its management caused discontent among the appanage princes, which allowed Andrei Bogolyubsky to create an alliance, through whose forces Kyiv was defeated for the first time in the history of strife (1169). Moreover, the victorious prince, having established his influence in the south, continued to occupy the Vladimir throne.

In 1181-1194, a duumvirate of the heads of the Chernigov and Smolensk princely houses operated in Kyiv. The period was marked by the absence of a struggle for power in Kyiv and successes in the Russian-Polovtsian confrontation.

In 1202, Roman Mstislavich, the leader of the united Galician-Volyn principality, presented his rights to the Kiev region. During the struggle, Rurik Rostislavich and his allies defeated Kyiv for the second time. The influence of the Vladimir princes on southern Russian affairs also remained, until the death of Vsevolod the Big Nest (1212).

Kyiv continued to be the center of the fight against the steppe. Despite actual independence, other principalities (Galician, Volyn, Turov, Smolensk, Chernigov, Seversk, Pereyaslavl) sent troops to the Kyiv training camp. The last such gathering was carried out in 1223 at the request of the Polovtsians against a new common enemy - the Mongols. The battle on the Kalka River was lost by the allies, the Kiev prince Mstislav the Old, along with 10 thousand soldiers, died, the Mongols, after the victory, invaded Rus', but did not reach Kiev, which was one of the goals of their campaign.

In 1240, Kyiv was captured by the Mongols. Immediately after the Mongol invasion, Mikhail Vsevolodovich of Chernigov returned to Kyiv, who, like all major Russian princes, went to the Horde and was executed there in 1246. In 1243, Batu gave the devastated Kyiv to Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, recognized as “the oldest prince in the Russian language.” After the death of Yaroslav, Kyiv was transferred to his son, Alexander Nevsky. This is the last time the city is mentioned in the chronicle as the center of the Russian land.

After the fall of the Nogai ulus (1300), the Kyiv land included vast territories on the left bank of the Dnieper, including Pereyaslavl and Posemye, and the Putivl dynasty (descendants of Svyatoslav Olgovich) was established in the principality.

Around 1320, the Principality of Kiev came under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and although it retained its integrity, since then representatives of the Lithuanian dynasty have reigned there.

Galicia-Volyn Principality

Main article: Galicia-Volyn Principality

After the suppression of the first Galician dynasty, Roman Mstislavich Volynsky took possession of the Galician throne, thereby uniting the two principalities in his hands. In 1201, he was invited to the great reign by the Kyiv boyars, but left a younger relative to reign in Kyiv, turning Kyiv into an outpost of his possessions in the east.

Roman hosted the Byzantine Emperor Alexios III Angelos, who was expelled by the crusaders during the Fourth Crusade. Received an offer of the royal crown from Pope Innocent III. According to the version of the “first Russian historian” Tatishchev V.N., Roman was the author of a project for the political structure of all Russian lands, in which the Grand Duke of Kiev would be elected by six princes: Vladimir (Vladimir-Volynsky), Chernigov, Galician, Smolensk, Polotsk, Ryazan. This is how it is written about this in the list of letters from Roman Mstislavich himself: “when the great prince dies in Kiev, then immediately the local princes of Vladimir - Chernigov - Galicia - Smolensk - Polotsk and Rezan will agree They will elect an old and worthy one as the Great Prince and confirm him with a kiss on the cross in some other way respectable communities are being carried out - the younger princes are not required to be elected - but they must listen to what they determine...” Their principalities would be inherited by the eldest son. The chronicle calls Roman "the autocrat of all Rus'."

After the death of Roman in 1205, there was a long struggle for power, from which Roman's eldest son and heir Daniel emerged victorious, having restored his control over all of his father's possessions by 1240 - the year of the beginning of the last phase of the western campaign of the Mongols - the campaign against Kyiv, the Galician-Volyn principality and to Central Europe. 1250s Daniel fought against the Mongol-Tatars, but he still had to admit his dependence on them. The Galician-Volyn princes paid tribute and participated as forced allies in the Horde campaigns against Lithuania, Poland and Hungary, but maintained the order of transfer of the throne.

The Galician princes also extended their influence to the Turovo-Pinsk principality. Since 1254, Daniil and his descendants bore the title of “Kings of Rus'”. After the transfer of the residence of the Metropolitan of All Rus' from Kyiv to Vladimir in 1299, Yuri Lvovich Galitsky founded a separate Galician metropolis, which existed (with interruptions) until the capture of Galicia by Poland in 1349. The Galician-Volynian lands were finally divided between Lithuania and Poland in 1392 following the War of the Galician-Volynian Succession.

Principality of Smolensk

Main article: Principality of Smolensk

It became isolated under the grandson of Vladimir Monomakh - Rostislav Mstislavich. The Smolensk princes were distinguished by their desire to occupy tables outside their principality, thanks to which it was almost not subject to fragmentation into appanages and had interests in all regions of Rus'. The Rostislavichs were constant contenders for Kyiv and firmly established themselves in a number of its suburban tables. From 1181 to 1194, a duumvirate was established in the Kyiv land, when the city was owned by Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich of Chernigov, and the rest of the principality was owned by Rurik Rostislavich. After the death of Svyatoslav, Rurik gained and lost Kyiv several times and in 1203 repeated the act of Andrei Bogolyubsky, subjecting the capital of Rus' to defeat for the second time in the history of civil strife.

The pinnacle of Smolensk power was the reign of Mstislav Romanovich, who occupied the Kiev throne from 1214 to 1223. During this period, Novgorod, Pskov, Polotsk, Vitebsk and Galich were under the control of the Rostislavichs. It was under the auspices of Mstislav Romanovich as the prince of Kyiv that an essentially all-Russian campaign against the Mongols was organized, which ended in defeat on the river. Kalke.

The Mongol invasion affected only the eastern outskirts of the principality and did not affect Smolensk itself. The Smolensk princes recognized their dependence on the Horde, and in 1275 a Mongol census was carried out in the principality. The position of Smolensk was more favorable compared to other lands. It was almost never subjected to Tatar raids; the appanages that arose within it were not assigned to individual princely branches and remained under the control of the Smolensk prince. 90s In the 13th century, the territory of the principality expanded due to the annexation of the Bryansk principality from the Chernigov land, at the same time, the Smolensk princes established themselves in the Yaroslavl principality through a dynastic marriage. 1st half In the 14th century, under Prince Ivan Alexandrovich, the Smolensk princes began to be called great. However, by this time the principality found itself in the role of a buffer zone between Lithuania and the Moscow principality, whose rulers sought to make the Smolensk princes dependent on themselves and gradually seized their volosts. In 1395, Smolensk was conquered by Vytautas. In 1401, the Smolensk prince Yuri Svyatoslavich, with the support of Ryazan, regained his throne, but in 1404 Vytautas again captured the city and finally incorporated it into Lithuania.

Principality of Chernigov

Main articles: Principality of Chernigov, Bryansk Principality

It became isolated in 1097 under the rule of the descendants of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, their rights to the principality were recognized by other Russian princes at the Lyubech Congress. After the youngest of the Svyatoslavichs was deprived of his reign in 1127 and, under the rule of his descendants, the lands on the lower Oka separated from Chernigov, and in 1167 the line of descendants of Davyd Svyatoslavich was cut off, the Olgovich dynasty established itself on all the princely tables of the Chernigov land: the northern and upper Oka lands the descendants of Vsevolod Olgovich owned (they were also permanent claimants to Kyiv), the Novgorod-Seversky principality was owned by the descendants of Svyatoslav Olgovich. Representatives of both branches reigned in Chernigov (until 1226).

In addition to Kyiv and Vyshgorod, at the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries, the Olgovichs managed to briefly extend their influence to Galich and Volyn, Pereyaslavl and Novgorod.

In 1223, the Chernigov princes took part in the first campaign against the Mongols. In the spring of 1238, during the Mongol invasion, the northeastern lands of the principality were devastated, and in the autumn of 1239, the southwestern ones. After the death of the Chernigov prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich in the Horde in 1246, the lands of the principality were divided between his sons, and the eldest of them, Roman, became a prince in Bryansk. In 1263, he liberated Chernigov from the Lithuanians and annexed it to his possessions. Starting from Roman, the Bryansk princes were usually titled as the Grand Dukes of Chernigov.

At the beginning of the 14th century, the Smolensk princes established themselves in Bryansk, presumably through a dynastic marriage. The struggle for Bryansk lasted for several decades, until in 1357 the Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd Gediminovich installed one of the contenders, Roman Mikhailovich, to reign. In the second half of the 14th century, in parallel with him, Olgerd’s sons Dmitry and Dmitry-Koribut also reigned in the Bryansk lands. After the Ostrov agreement, the autonomy of the Bryansk principality was eliminated, Roman Mikhailovich became the Lithuanian governor in Smolensk, where he was killed in 1401.

Grand Duchy of Lithuania

Territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania Main article: Grand Duchy of Lithuania

In the 13th century, as a result of the subjugation of a number of territories by Prince Mindaugas, the so-called Lithuania Mindaugas was formed, which became the basis of a new state. The consolidating factor in the formation of the state is considered to be the aggression of the Crusaders, with which the Grand Duchy of Lithuania successfully fought for almost two hundred years, and the constant danger from the Horde. In 1320-1323, the Grand Duke of Lithuania Gediminas conducted successful campaigns against Volyn and Kyiv. After Olgerd Gediminovich established control over Southern Russia in 1362, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania became a state in which, despite the presence of a Lithuanian pagan core, the majority of the population was Russian, and the predominant religion was Orthodoxy. The principality acted as a rival to another rising center of Russian lands at that time - Moscow. Attempts by Olgerd and his successors to expand their influence in North-Eastern Rus' ended unsuccessfully.

A key moment in the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was the conclusion of a personal union with the Kingdom of Poland in 1385. The Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiello, having married the heir to the Polish throne, Jadwiga, was crowned King of Poland. One of the obligations assumed by Jagiello was the Christianization of pagan lands in the north-west of the principality within four years. From that time on, the influence of Catholicism, enjoying strong state support, in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania constantly grew. A few years after the conclusion of the union, as a result of the dynastic struggle, Jogaila actually lost control over the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, but at the same time formally remained the head of state. His cousin Vitovt became the Grand Duke of Lithuania, whose almost forty-year reign is considered the heyday of the state. Smolensk and Bryansk were finally subordinated to his rule; for some time, Tver, Ryazan, Pronsk, Veliky Novgorod and a number of other Russian cities were under the control of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Vytautas almost managed to get rid of Polish influence, but his plans were thwarted by a crushing defeat from the Tatars in the Battle of Worksla. Contemporaries noted that Vytautas, nicknamed the Great during his lifetime, was a much more influential person than Jagiello himself.

After the unexpected death of Vytautas on the eve of the impending coronation in 1430, a struggle for power broke out again in the Grand Duchy. The need to win over the Orthodox nobility led to the equalization of the rights of Orthodox and Catholics. The situation stabilized in 1440, when Jogaila's young son Casimir was elected Grand Duke, whose more than half-century-long reign saw a period of centralization. In 1458, on the Russian lands subject to Casimir, the Kiev metropolitanate, independent of Moscow, was formed.

The gradual weakening of the principality and the impossibility of independently fighting the ever-increasing Moscow state led to an increase in dependence on Poland. The materially difficult Livonian War became one of the main reasons for the conclusion of a new union, uniting the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland into a confederation known as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Despite the significant limitation of the sovereignty of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, as well as the loss of a number of territories, separatist tendencies in it were far from exhausted, which was reflected in the adoption of the third edition of the Statute in 1588. This period of the Grand Duchy was reached by European Renaissance trends, directly related to the Reformation that came from the German lands.

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania emerged victorious from the Livonian War, but despite this, its consequences for the country were very difficult. The following centuries were marked by increasing Polonization, which gradually led to the erosion of the “Litvinian” self-awareness of the dominant class. Polonization was accompanied by active Catholicization of the gentry, which jeopardized the position of the Orthodox Church. militarily, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was quite weak; numerous wars of the 17th and 18th centuries were mostly unsuccessful. Economic difficulties, internal and external conflicts, and generally mediocre governance led to the weakening of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which soon fell under the influence of more powerful neighbors and, over time, lost its political independence. Attempts to reform the state resulted in open opposition with neighboring states and internal reaction. In general, rather weak and unorganized efforts led to foreign intervention, and soon the division of the state between Russia, Prussia and Austria. Repeated attempts to revive the state, both the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the independent Grand Duchy of Lithuania, ended in vain.

Grand Duchy of Moscow

Main article: Grand Duchy of Moscow Growth of the Moscow Principality in 1300-1462.

It emerged from the Grand Duchy of Vladimir at the end of the 13th century as the inheritance of the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniel. In the first years of the 14th century, it annexed a number of adjacent territories and began to compete with the Tver Principality. In 1328, together with the Horde and Suzdal people, they defeated Tver, and soon the Moscow prince Ivan I Kalita became the Grand Duke of Vladimir. Subsequently, the title, with rare exceptions, was retained by his offspring. After the victory on the Kulikovo Field, Moscow became the center of the unification of Russian lands. In 1389, Dmitry Donskoy transferred the great reign in his will to his son Vasily I, which was recognized by all the neighbors of Moscow and the Horde.

In 1439, the Moscow Metropolis of “All Rus'” did not recognize the Florentine Union of the Greek and Roman churches and became virtually autocephalous.

After the reign of Ivan III (1462), the process of unification of the Russian principalities under the rule of Moscow entered a decisive phase. By the end of the reign of Vasily III (1533), Moscow became the center of the Russian centralized state, annexing, in addition to all of North-Eastern Rus' and Novgorod, also the Smolensk and Chernigov lands conquered from Lithuania. In 1547, the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan IV was crowned king. In 1549, the first Zemsky Sobor was convened. In 1589, the Moscow metropolitanate was transformed into a patriarchate. In 1591, the last inheritance in the kingdom was eliminated.

Economy

River routes of Ancient Rus': the Volga route is marked in red, the Dnieper – in purple. Places where coins were minted from a treasure found in the village of Stary Dedin

As a result of the capture of the city of Sarkel and the Tmutarakan principality by the Cumans, as well as the success of the first crusade, the importance of trade routes changed. The route “From the Varangians to the Greeks,” on which Kyiv was located, gave way to the Volga trade route and the route that connected the Black Sea with Western Europe through the Dniester. in particular, the campaign against the Polovtsians in 1168 under the leadership of Mstislav Izyaslavich was aimed at ensuring the passage of goods along the lower Dnieper.

The “Charter of Vladimir Vsevolodovich,” issued by Vladimir Monomakh after the Kyiv uprising of 1113, introduced an upper limit on the amount of interest on debts, which freed the poor from the threat of long-term and eternal bondage. XII century, although the predominant work of craftsmen to order remained, many signs indicate the beginning of more progressive work for the market.

Large craft centers became targets of the Mongol invasion of Rus' in 1237-1240. Their ruin, the capture of craftsmen and the subsequent need to pay tribute caused the decline of crafts and trade. As for the Novgorod Republic, during the invasion only its southern outskirts were devastated, and although in 1259 it was forced to agree to pay regular tribute to the Mongols, the importance of Veliky Novgorod as a trading center of the Baltic and Volga trade continued to grow throughout the specific period. “The Polotsk-Minsk and other lands of Belarus also survived the Mongol invasion, Black Rus' (Novogorodok, Slonim, Volkovysk), Gorodno, Turovo-Pinsk and Beresteysko-Dorogichinsky lands were not conquered by the Tatar-Mongol feudal lords.” The Baltic trade of Polotsk and Vitebsk also continued to develop through the mediation of the Livonians and Gotlanders.

At the end of the 15th century, the distribution of land to nobles under the condition of service (estate) began in the Moscow principality. In 1497, the Code of Law was adopted, one of the provisions of which limited the transfer of peasants from one landowner to another on St. George’s day in the autumn.

Warfare

Main articles: Army of Ancient Rus', Novgorod Army, Army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Army of the Moscow Principality

In the 12th century, instead of a squad, a regiment became the main fighting force. The senior and junior squads are transformed into the militia of the landowner boyars and the prince's court.

In 1185, for the first time in Russian history, the division of the battle order was noted not only along the front into three tactical units (regiments), but also in depth up to four regiments, the total number of tactical units reached six, including the first mention of a separate rifle regiment, which is also mentioned on Lake Peipus in 1242 (Battle of the Ice).

The blow dealt to the economy by the Mongol invasion also affected the state of military affairs. The process of differentiation of functions between the detachments of heavy cavalry, which dealt a direct blow with melee weapons, and the detachments of riflemen, broke down, reunification occurred, and the warriors again began to use a spear and sword and shoot from a bow. Separate rifle units, and on a semi-regular basis, reappeared only at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries in Novgorod and Moscow (pishchalniki, archers).

Culture

Main article: Culture of Ancient Rus' See also: List of Old Russian architectural structures of the pre-Mongol period, Cross-domed churches of Ancient Rus', Russian icon painting and Old Russian facial embroidery

Foreign Wars

Cumans

Main article: Russian-Polovtsian wars

After a series of offensive campaigns at the beginning of the 12th century, the Polovtsians were forced to migrate to the southeast, right up to the foothills of the Caucasus. The resumption of internecine struggle in Rus' in the 1130s allowed the Polovtsians to again ravage Rus', including as allies of one of the warring princely factions. The first offensive movement of the allied forces against the Polovtsians in several decades was organized by Mstislav Izyaslavich in 1168, then Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich in 1183 organized a general campaign of forces of almost all southern Russian principalities and defeated a large Polovtsian association of the southern Russian steppes, led by Khan Kobyak. And although the Polovtsians managed to defeat Igor Svyatoslavich in 1185, in subsequent years the Polovtsians did not undertake large-scale invasions of Rus' outside of princely strife, and the Russian princes undertook a series of powerful offensive campaigns (1198, 1202, 1203). By the beginning of the 13th century, there was a noticeable Christianization of the Polovtsian nobility. Of the four Polovtsian khans mentioned in the chronicle in connection with the first Mongol invasion of Europe, two had Orthodox names, and the third was baptized before the joint Russian-Polovtsian campaign against the Mongols (Battle of the Kalka River). The Polovtsians, like Rus', became victims of the western campaign of the Mongols in 1236-1242.

Catholic orders, Sweden and Denmark

Main article: Northern Crusades

The first appearance of Catholic preachers in the lands of the Livs dependent on the Polotsk princes occurred in 1184. The founding of the city of Riga and the Order of the Swordsmen dates back to 1202. The first campaigns of the Russian princes were undertaken in 1217-1223 in support of the Estonians, but gradually the order not only subjugated the local tribes, but also deprived the Russians of their possessions in Livonia (Kukeinos, Gersik, Viljandi and Yuryev).

In 1234, the crusaders were defeated by Yaroslav Vsevolodovich of Novgorod in the battle of Omovzha, in 1236 by Lithuanians and Semigallians in the Battle of Saul, after which the remnants of the Order of the Swords became part of the Teutonic Order, founded in 1198 in Palestine and seized the lands of the Prussians in 1227, and northern Estonia became part of Denmark. An attempt at a coordinated attack on Russian lands in 1240, immediately after the Mongol invasion of Rus', ended unsuccessfully (Battle of the Neva, Battle of the Ice), although the crusaders managed to briefly capture Pskov.

After the combined military efforts of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Teutonic Order suffered a decisive defeat in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, became dependent on Poland in 1466 and lost its possessions in Prussia as a result of the secularization of 1525. In 1480, while standing on the Ugra, the Livonian Order launched an attack on Pskov, but to no avail. In 1561, during the Livonian War, the Order was liquidated, part of its lands became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Estland fell into the hands of the Swedes, and the Danes captured the island of Ezel.

Mongol-Tatars

Main articles: Mongol invasion of Rus', Mongol-Tatar yoke

After the victory at Kalka in 1223 over the combined forces of the Russian principalities and the Polovtsians, the Mongols abandoned the plan to march on Kiev, which was the final goal of their campaign, turned east, were defeated by the Volga Bulgars at the crossing of the Volga and launched a large-scale invasion of Europe only 13 years later , but at the same time they no longer met organized resistance. Poland and Hungary also became victims of the invasion, and the Smolensk, Turovo-Pinsk, Polotsk principalities and the Novgorod Republic managed to avoid defeat.

The Russian lands (with the exception of the Polotsk and Turov-Pinsk principalities) became dependent on the Golden Horde, which was expressed in the right of the Horde khans to establish princes on their tables and the payment of annual tribute. The rulers of the Horde were called “kings” in Rus'.

During the onset of the “great turmoil” in the Horde following the death of Khan Berdibek (1359), the Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd Gediminovich defeated the Horde at Blue Waters (1362) and established control over Southern Russia, thereby putting an end to the Mongol-Tatar yoke in this region. During the same period, the Grand Duchy of Moscow took a significant step towards liberation from the yoke (Battle of Kulikovo in 1380).

During periods of struggle for power in the Horde, the Moscow princes suspended the payment of tribute, but were forced to resume it after the invasions of Tokhtamysh (1382) and Edigei (1408). In 1399, the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas tried to return the Horde throne to Tokhtamysh and thus establish control over the Horde, but was defeated by Timur’s henchmen in the Battle of Vorskla, in which the Lithuanian princes who took part in the Battle of Kulikovo were killed, and Vytautas himself barely escaped.

After the collapse of the Golden Horde into several khanates, the Moscow Principality received the opportunity to pursue an independent policy in relation to each khanate. The descendants of Ulu-Muhammad received the Meshchera lands from Vasily II, forming the Kasimov Khanate (1445). Beginning in 1472, in alliance with the Crimean Khanate, Moscow fought against the Great Horde, which entered into an alliance with the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV. The Crimeans repeatedly ravaged the southern Russian possessions of Casimir, primarily Kyiv and Podolia. In 1480, the Mongol-Tatar yoke (standing on the Ugra) was overthrown. After the liquidation of the Great Horde (1502), a common border arose between the Moscow Principality and the Crimean Khanate, immediately after which regular Crimean raids on Moscow lands began. The Kazan Khanate, starting from the middle of the 15th century, increasingly experienced military and political pressure from Moscow, until in 1552 it was annexed to the Muscovite kingdom. In 1556, the Astrakhan Khanate was also annexed to it, and in 1582 the conquest of the Siberian Khanate began.

see also

External images
	East Slavic lands in the 9th century (inaccessible link)
	Polit. map of Rus' in the 10th century (inaccessible link)
	Polit. map of Rus' in the 11th century (inaccessible link)
	Polit. map of Rus' in the 12th century (inaccessible link)
	Polit. map of Rus' at the beginning of the 13th century (inaccessible link)
	Polit. map of Rus' at the end of the 13th century (inaccessible link)
	Polit. map of Rus' at the beginning of the 14th century (inaccessible link)
	Polit. map of Rus' at the end of the 14th century (inaccessible link)
	Polit. map of Rus' 1400-1462 (inaccessible link)
	Polit. map of Rus' 1462-1505 (inaccessible link)
	Polit. map of Rus' at the beginning of the 16th century (inaccessible link)
	Polit. map of Rus' at the end of the 16th century (inaccessible link)
	Polit. map of Rus' at the beginning of the 17th century (inaccessible link)
	Polit. map of Rus' at the end of the 17th century (inaccessible link)

• Russian principalities in alphabetical order
• List of Russian principalities
• Collapse of the Old Russian State
• Early feudal monarchy
• Patrimonial monarchy
• Estates-representative monarchy
• Territorial and political expansion of the Moscow Principality
• Russian land
• Civil war in Rus' (1146-1154)
• Civil war in Rus' (1158-1161)
• Civil War in Southern Rus' (1228-1236)

Notes

1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Rybakov B. A. The Birth of Rus'
2. Grekov I. B., Shakhmagonov F. F. The World of History. Russian lands in the XIII-XV centuries. - M.: “Young Guard”, 1988. - ISBN 5-235-00702-6.
3. 1 2 Zuev M. N. Chronicle of Russian history. IX-XX centuries. - M.: Bustard, 1995. - ISBN 5-7107-0440-7.
4. Laurentian Chronicle. When Vsevolod Chermny occupied Kyiv in 1206, he expelled Vsevolod's son the Big Nest Yaroslav from Pereyaslavl. Then Rurik occupied Kyiv in 1206 and installed his son Vladimir to reign in Pereyaslavl. In 1207, Rurik was expelled from Kyiv by Vsevolod Chermny, but returned the same year. In 1210, through the mediation of Vsevolod the Big Nest, peace was concluded, Vsevolod Chermny sat in Kyiv, and Rurik in Chernigov. In 1213, Yuri Vsevolodovich Vladimirsky sent his brother Vladimir to reign in Pereyaslavl.
5. Vernadsky G.V. Mongols and Rus'
6. Presnyakov A.E. Princely law in ancient Rus'. Lectures on Russian history. Kievan Rus. - M.: Science. - 635 pp., 1993
7. The specific circumstances under which Yaroslav established his power in Kyiv are unknown from the chronicle. Most historians from N.M. Karamzin to A.A. Gorsky consider it an obvious fact that Yaroslav received Kyiv under the khan's label, just as his son Alexander Nevsky did six years later (in 1249).
8. Laurentian Chronicle
9. Regarding the authenticity of the battle on Irpen, described in later sources, opinions differ: some accept the date of Stryikovsky - 1319-1320, others attribute the conquest of Kiev by Gediminas to 1324 (Shabuldo F. M. Lands of South-Western Rus' as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania), finally, some (V.B. Antonovich) completely reject the fact of the conquest of Kiev by Gediminas and attribute it to Olgerd, dating it to 1362.
10. Presnyakov A.E. Princely law in Ancient Rus'. Lectures on Russian history. Kievan Rus - M.: Nauka, 1993. - ISBN 5-02-009526-5.
11. Acts and documents of the Galicia-Volyn principality of the XIII - first half of the XIV century. Research. Acts and Documents of 13th century - early 14th century. Halych and Volyn’ Principle: Research. Documents. (Ukrainian)
12. Gorsky A. A. Russian lands in the XIII-XIV centuries: Paths of political development. M., 1996. pp.46.74; Glib Ivakin Historical development of Kiev XIII - mid-XVI century. K., 1996; BRE. Tom Russia. M., 2004. pp. 275, 277. The frequently encountered opinion about the transfer of the nominal capital of Rus' from Kyiv to Vladimir in 1169 is a widespread inaccuracy. See Tolochko A.P. Russian History by Vasily Tatishchev. Sources and news. M., Kyiv, 2005. P.411-419. Gorsky A. A. Rus' from the Slavic Settlement to the Moscow Kingdom. M., 2004. - P.6.
13. Roman Mikhailovich Stary
14. Oleg Romanovich
15. Roman Mikhailovich Young
16. Voytovich L. PRINCE DYNASTS OF SHADING EUROPE
17. Kondratyev D.L. Secrets of Russian coins. - M.: Nachala-Press, 1997.
    Spassky I.G. Russian monetary system. - L.: State Hermitage Publishing House, 1962.
18. Pashuto V. T. Formation of the Lithuanian state. - M., 1959. - P. 375.
19. Nesterov F. F. Connection of times. / Rec. d.i. Sc., prof. Kargalov V.V. - M.: “Young Guard”, 1984.
20. The hidden legend of the Mongols. // Translation by S. A. Kozin

Literature

• Borisov N. S., Levandovsky A. A., Shchetinov Yu. A. Key to the history of the Fatherland: A manual for applicants. - 2nd edition, expanded. - M.: Publishing house Mosk. University, 1995. - ISBN 5-211-03338-8.
• Golovatenko A. History of Russia: controversial issues: A guide for applicants to humanities faculties. - M.: Shkola-Press, 1994. - ISBN 5-88527-028-7.
• Gorinov M. M., Gorsky A. A., Daines V. O. History of Russia from antiquity to the present day: A guide for applicants to universities. / Ed. M. N. Zueva. - M.: Higher school, 1994. ISBN 5-06-003281-7.
• Old Russian principalities of the X-XIII centuries. - M.: Nauka, 1975.
• Karamzin N. M. History of the Russian State. - St. Petersburg: Type. N. Grecha, 1816-1829.
• Koyalovich M. O. Federative theory. // Koyalovich M. O. History of Russian self-awareness based on historical monuments and scientific works. - St. Petersburg, 1884.
• Kostomarov N. Thoughts on the federal beginning of ancient Rus' // Otechestvennye zapiski. - 1861. - Book. 2. - pp. 53-66.
• Platonov S. F. Textbook of Russian history. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1994. - ISBN 5-02-027401-1.
• Presnyakov A.E. Princely law in Ancient Rus'. Lectures on Russian history. Kievan Rus. - M.: Nauka, 1993. - ISBN 5-02-009526-5.
• Grekov I. B., Shakhmagonov F. F. The World of History. Russian lands in the XIII-XV centuries. - M.: Young Guard, 1988. - ISBN 5-235-00702-6.

Links

• Principality section on the website Genealogy of the Russian Nobility
• Kievan Rus and Russian principalities on the CHRONOS Project
• Kuchkin V. A. Formation of the state territory of north-eastern Rus' in the X-XIV centuries.
• Razin E. A. History of military art
• Rybakov B. A. The Birth of Rus'
• Shabuldo F. M. Lands of South-Western Rus' as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
• Ipatiev Chronicle
• Solovyov S. M. History of Russia since ancient times

Rus
Chronological and political division	Novgorod Kiev Galicia-Volynsk Vladimir Moscow Lithuanian
Geographical and ethnographic division	Northwestern Northeastern (colonization) Western Southwestern Great Small White Black Chervonaya New Galician Carpathian Pryashevskaya
Stages of development	baptism of Rus' political collapse of Rus' Russian principalities unification of Rus'
Wars with nomads	Russian-Pecheneg wars Russian-Polovtsian wars Mongol invasion of Rus' Crimean-Nogai raids on Rus'
Etymology and vocabulary	the name of Rus' “all Rus'” Holy Rus' Ruthenia
Related ethnonyms	Rus Old Russian people/Rusichi Rusyns/Rusnaki/Ruthens (ethnonym of the past) Belarusians Little Russians Russian Carpathian Rusyns Pannonian Rusyns
All-Russian identities	Little Russian identity Western Russianism triune Russian people

Russian principalities, Russian principalities of the 12th-13th centuries

Russian principalities Information About

For a long time, Slavic, Latvian, and Lithuanian Finno-Ugric tribes lived scatteredly in the vast territories of Eastern Europe. The following East Slavic tribes lived on the territory of the future mighty state of Kievan Rus:

• Drevlyans, glades, northerners,Dulibs, Tivertsy, White Croats - these tribes are future Ukrainians;
• Dregovichi, Polotsk residents - future Belarusians;
• Krivichi, Radimichi, Slovenians, Vyatichi - future Russians.

In the 8th-9th centuries, the process of unification of these tribes and the formation of the Old Russian people took place. Thus, a powerful state is formed with a territory of about 1,330,000 km², FROM: Taman Peninsula in the south, Dniester to Northern Dvina in the north.

It must be said that when the tribes were united, there were two centers of the state at once - Novgorod and Kyiv. The origins of the grand-ducal dynasty belonged to Novgorod, but the capital was in Kyiv.

The collapse of a great state into principalities.

"And the whole Russian land burst into flames..."- this is the record of the chronicler that has come down to us. Which indicates that the Grand Duke of Kiev Mstislav died and all the principalities left the obedience of the capital of Kyiv.

In the second quarter of the 12th century, Kievan Rus actually disintegrated into independent principalities.

By the middle of the 12th century, Kievan Rus was fragmented into 13 principalities. The principalities pursued their own policies. Kyiv was the most desirable territory of all the principalities and was a constant “bone of discord.”

You can observe how much the great state was fragmented.

The Kiev principality became the most powerful, later the Vladimir-Suzdal and Smolensk principalities were stronger.

9 principalities became the property of the sons of the eldest grandson of Yaroslav the Wise. Later they received the name - the Principality of Galicia.

The principality of Chernigov was ruled by the sons of Davyd and Oleg Svyatoslavich.

Their uncle Yaroslav Svyatoslavich ruled in the Principality of Murom.

Some principalities disintegrated over time, some were completely destroyed. How the Tmutarakan principality, which in the 12th century fell under the raids of the Polovtsians, ceased to exist.

And by the 13th century, the total number of principalities had already reached 50.

Despite the huge decline in power and defense potential, the period of feudal fragmentation is characterized by the prosperity of cities and the growth of culture.

In the XV-XVII centuries, the period of fragmentation of these lands ended and a single Moscow state was formed. Which became one of the largest states in Europe.

7. Specific period in the history of Russia (XII- XVcenturies).

By the middle of the 12th century, Rus' split into 15 principalities, which were only formally dependent on Kyiv. One of the reasons for this state of statehood in Rus' was the constant division of land between the Rurikovichs. The local boyars were not interested in the existence of a single, strong political center. Secondly, the gradual growth of cities and the economic development of individual lands led to the emergence, along with Kiev, of new centers of craft and trade, increasingly independent of the capital of the Russian state.

Feudal fragmentation weakened Rus'. However, this was a natural process that also had its positive aspects - the cultural and economic development of various lands, the emergence of many new cities in them, a noticeable increase in crafts and trade. The consciousness of the unity of the Russian land was not lost, but the ability to resist the external threat was reduced.

In the initial stage, the ancient Russian state split into 3 main areas:

Northwestern Rus'.

The Novgorod land was located from the Arctic Ocean to the upper Volga and from the Baltic to the Urals. The city was located at the crossroads of trade routes connecting it with Western Europe, and through it with the East and Byzantium. Novgorod was owned by the one who ruled Kiev. Novgorod was a boyar republic, because The boyars defeated the princes in the struggle for power, they owned economic power. The highest body of power was the assembly, at which the board was elected and issues of domestic and foreign policy were considered. A bishop was chosen. In case of military campaigns, the veche invited the prince who controlled the army.

Culture – writing of Cyril and Methodius. Church schools. Literacy of the population - birch bark letters were found. Chronicle - The Tale of Bygone Years, compiled by Nestor, a monk of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra in Kh. Artisans - blacksmiths were famous in Western Europe, bell casting, jewelers, glass makers, weapons production. Iconography and architecture developed - St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. Golden Gate, mosaic. Art schools were formed. An ancient Russian nation was taking shape, which was characterized by: a single language, political unity, a common territory, and historical roots.

North-Eastern Rus'.

The Vladimir-Suzdal principality was located between the Oka and Volga rivers. There were fertile soils here. New cities arose and old ones developed. In 1221 Nizhny Novgorod was founded.

Economic growth was facilitated by the influx of population in the 11th-12th centuries from the northwestern Novgorod land to these regions. Causes:

there is a lot of arable land suitable for farming;

northeastern Rus' knew almost no foreign invasions, primarily the raids of the Polovtsians;

the extensive system of agriculture from time to time created overpopulation and excess population appeared;

the settling of the squad on the land and the creation of boyar villages worsened the situation of the peasantry.

Due to the harsh climate and less fertile soils than in northeastern Rus', agriculture was less developed here, although it was the main occupation of the population. Novgorodians periodically experienced a shortage of bread - this economically and politically tied Novgorod to the Vladimir land.

Trade routes were developed. The most important was the Volga trade route, connecting northeastern Rus' with the countries of the East. The capital was Suzdal, ruled by the 6th son of Vladimir Monomakh - Yuri. For his constant desire to expand his territory and subjugate Kyiv, he received the nickname “Dolgoruky”. Having captured Kyiv and becoming the great prince of Kyiv, Yuri Dolgoruky actively influenced the policies of Novgorod the Great. In 1147, Moscow was first mentioned, built on the site of a former estate, which was confiscated from the boyar Kuchka by Yuri Dolgoruky.

North-Eastern Rus' has the role of a unifier and the future center of the Russian state

Southwestern Rus' (Galician-Volyn land).

Thanks to the fertile soil, feudal land ownership arose early here. Southwestern Rus' is characterized by a powerful boyar system. The largest cities were Vladimir Volynsky and Galich. At the turn of the 12th-13th centuries, Prince Roman Mstislavovich united the Vladimir and Galician principalities.

The policy of centralization of power was carried out by his son Daniil Romanovich. Troubles and strife began in southwestern Rus'. In the mid-12th century, Lithuania captured Volyn, and Poland captured Galicia. During the 13th-14th centuries, the main territory of the Kyiv state came under the rule of the Lithuanians. The Grand Duke of Lithuania did not interfere in the external life of the conquered principalities. In the Lithuanian-Russian state, Russian culture prevailed, and there was a tendency towards the formation of a new version of Russian statehood. However, under the Grand Duke of Lithuania Yagaev, a pro-Western orientation took over, and this region of the former Kyiv state was unable to become a unifier of the Eastern Slavs and create a new Russian statehood.

In each of the appanage principalities, 3 categories of land ownership were formed.

the prince's private lands were cultivated by slaves;

lands of the clergy and boyars (private property);

black lands - free peasants worked on them and were subject to taxes.

Whoever comes to us with a sword will die by the sword.

Alexander Nevskiy

Udelnaya Rus' originates in 1132, when Mstislav the Great dies, which leads the country to a new internecine war, the consequences of which had a huge impact on the entire state. As a result of subsequent events, independent principalities emerged. In Russian literature, this period is also called fragmentation, since all events were based on the disunion of lands, each of which was actually an independent state. Of course, the dominant position of the Grand Duke was preserved, but this was already a nominal figure rather than a truly significant one.

The period of feudal fragmentation in Rus' lasted almost 4 centuries, during which the country underwent strong changes. They affected both the structure, the way of life, and the cultural customs of the peoples of Russia. As a result of the isolated actions of the princes, Rus' for many years found itself branded with a yoke, which was only possible to get rid of after the rulers of the destinies began to unite around a common goal - the overthrow of the power of the Golden Horde. In this material we will consider the main distinctive features of appanage Rus' as an independent state, as well as the main features of the lands included in it.

The main reasons for feudal fragmentation in Rus' stem from the historical, economic and political processes that were taking place in the country at that point in time. The following main reasons for the formation of Appanage Rus' and fragmentation can be identified:

This whole set of measures led to the fact that the causes of feudal fragmentation in Rus' turned out to be very significant and led to irreversible consequences that almost put the very existence of the state at stake.

Fragmentation at a certain historical stage is a normal phenomenon that almost any state has encountered, but in Rus' there were certain distinctive features in this process. First of all, it should be noted that literally all the princes who ruled the estates were from the same ruling dynasty. There was nothing like this anywhere else in the world. There have always been rulers who held power by force, but had no historical claims to it. In Russia, almost any prince could be chosen as chief. Secondly, the loss of the capital should be noted. No, formally Kyiv retained a leading role, but this was only formal. At the beginning of this era, the Kiev prince was still dominant over everyone, other fiefs paid him taxes (whoever could). But literally within a few decades this changed, since first the Russian princes took the previously impregnable Kyiv by storm, and after that the Mongol-Tatars literally destroyed the city. By this time, the Grand Duke was the representative of the city of Vladimir.

Appanage Rus' - consequences of existence

Any historical event has its causes and consequences, which leave one or another imprint on the processes occurring within the state during such achievements, as well as after them. The collapse of the Russian lands in this regard was no exception and revealed a number of consequences that were formed as a result of the emergence of individual appanages:

1. Uniform population of the country. This is one of the positive aspects that was achieved due to the fact that the southern lands became the object of constant wars. As a result, the main population was forced to flee to the northern regions to find safety. If by the time the state of Udelnaya Rus was formed, the northern regions were practically deserted, then by the end of the 15th century the situation had already changed radically.
2. Development of cities and their arrangement. This point also includes economic, spiritual, and craft innovations that appeared in the principalities. This is due to a rather simple thing - the princes were full-fledged rulers in their lands, to maintain which it was necessary to develop a natural economy so as not to depend on their neighbors.
3. The appearance of vassals. Since there was no single system providing security to all principalities, weak lands were forced to accept the status of vassals. Of course, there was no talk of any oppression, but such lands did not have independence, since in many issues they were forced to adhere to the point of view of a stronger ally.
4. Decrease in the country's defense capability. The individual squads of the princes were quite strong, but still not numerous. In battles with equal opponents, they could win, but strong enemies alone could easily cope with each of the armies. Batu’s campaign clearly demonstrated this when the princes, in an attempt to defend their lands alone, did not dare to join forces. The result is widely known - 2 centuries of yoke and the murder of a huge number of Russians.
5. Impoverishment of the country's population. Such consequences were caused not only by external enemies, but also by internal ones. Against the backdrop of the yoke and constant attempts by Livonia and Poland to seize Russian possessions, internecine wars do not stop. They are still large-scale and destructive. In such a situation, as always, the common population suffered. This was one of the reasons for the migration of peasants to the north of the country. This is how one of the first mass migrations of people took place, which gave birth to appanage Rus'.

We see that the consequences of the feudal fragmentation of Russia are far from clear-cut. They have both negative and positive sides. Moreover, it should be remembered that this process is characteristic not only of Rus'. All countries have gone through it in one form or another. Ultimately, the destinies united anyway and created a strong state capable of ensuring its own security.

The collapse of Kievan Rus led to the emergence of 14 independent principalities, each of which had its own capital, its own prince and army. The largest of them were the Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galician-Volyn principalities. It should be noted that in Novgorod a political system that was unique at that time was formed - a republic. Appanage Rus' became a unique state of its time.

Features of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

This inheritance was located in the northeastern part of the country. Its inhabitants were mainly engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding, which was facilitated by favorable natural conditions. The largest cities in the principality were Rostov, Suzdal and Vladimir. As for the latter, it became the main city of the country after Batu captured Kyiv.

The peculiarity of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality is that for many years it maintained its dominant position, and the Grand Duke ruled from these lands. As for the Mongols, they also recognized the power of this center, allowing its ruler to personally collect tribute for them from all destinies. There are a lot of guesses on this matter, but we can still say with confidence that Vladimir was the capital of the country for a long time.

Features of the Galicia-Volyn Principality

It was located in the southwest of Kyiv, the peculiarities of which were that it was one of the largest in its time. The largest cities of this inheritance were Vladimir Volynsky and Galich. Their significance was quite high, both for the region and for the state as a whole. Local residents for the most part were engaged in crafts, which allowed them to actively trade with other principalities and states. At the same time, these cities could not become important shopping centers due to their geographical location.

Unlike most appanages, in Galicia-Volyn, as a result of fragmentation, wealthy landowners very quickly emerged, who had a huge influence on the actions of the local prince. This land was subject to frequent raids, primarily from Poland.

Principality of Novgorod

Novgorod is a unique city and a unique destiny. The special status of this city dates back to the formation of the Russian state. It was here that it originated, and its inhabitants have always been freedom-loving and wayward. As a result, they often changed princes, keeping only the most worthy ones. During the Tatar-Mongol yoke, it was this city that became the stronghold of Rus', a city that the enemy was never able to take. The Principality of Novgorod once again became a symbol of Russia and a land that contributed to their unification.

The largest city of this principality was Novgorod, which was guarded by the Torzhok fortress. The special position of the principality led to the rapid development of trade. As a result, it was one of the richest cities in the country. In terms of its size, it also occupied a leading place, second only to Kyiv, but unlike the ancient capital, the Novgorod principality did not lose its independence.

Significant dates

History is, first of all, dates that can tell better than any words what happened in each specific segment of human development. Speaking about feudal fragmentation, we can highlight the following key dates:

• 1185 - Prince Igor made a campaign against the Polovtsians, immortalized in the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign”
• 1223 – Battle of the Kalka River
• 1237 - the first Mongol invasion, which led to the conquest of Appanage Rus'
• July 15, 1240 – Battle of the Neva
• April 5, 1242 – Battle of the Ice
• 1358 – 1389 – The Grand Duke of Russia was Dmitry Donskoy
• July 15, 1410 – Battle of Grunwald
• 1480 - great stand on the Ugra River
• 1485 – annexation of the Tver principality to the Moscow one
• 1505-1534 - the reign of Vasily 3, which was marked by the liquidation of the last inheritances
• 1534 - the reign of Ivan 4, the Terrible, begins.

The factors that caused the collapse of Kievan Rus are diverse. The system of subsistence farming that had emerged by that time in the economy contributed to the isolation of individual economic units (family, community, inheritance, land, principality) from each other. Each of them was self-sufficient, consuming all the product it produced. There was no significant exchange of goods.

Along with the economic prerequisites for fragmentation, there were socio-political preconditions. Representatives of the feudal elite (boyars), having transformed from the military elite (combatants, princely men) into feudal landowners, strived for political independence. The process of “settling the squad to the ground” was underway.

In the financial field, it was accompanied by the transformation of tribute into feudal rent. Conventionally, these forms can be divided as follows: tribute was collected by the prince on the basis that he was the supreme ruler and defender of the entire territory over which his power extended; rent is collected by the owner of the land from those who live on this land and use it. During this period, the system of government changes: the decimal system is replaced by the palace-patrimonial system. Two control centers are formed: the palace and the fiefdom. All court ranks (Kravchiy, bed-keeper, equerry, etc.) are simultaneously government positions within each individual principality, land, appanage, etc.

Finally, foreign policy factors played an important role in the process of collapse of the relatively unified Kyiv state.

The invasion of the Tatar-Mongols and the disappearance of the ancient trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which united the Slavic tribes around itself, completed the collapse. In the 13th century. The Principality of Kiev, seriously damaged by the Mongol invasion, was losing its significance as a Slavic state center. But already in the 12th century. A number of principalities are separated from it. A conglomerate of feudal states was formed:

Rostov-Suzdal;

Smolensk;

Ryazanskoe;

Muromskoe;

Galicia-Volynskoe;

Pereyaslavskoe;

Chernigovskoe;

Polotsk-Minsk;

Turovo-Pinsk;

Tmutarakanskoe;

Kyiv;

Novgorod land.

Smaller feudal formations formed within these principalities, and the process of fragmentation deepened.

In the XII - XIII centuries. The immune system has developed greatly. liberating boyar estates from princely administration and court. A complex system of vassal relations and a corresponding system of feudal land ownership was established. The boyars received the right of free “departure”, that is, the right to change overlords.

Old Russian principalities- these are state formations that existed in Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation.

Originated in the second half of the 10th century. and became in the 11th century. The practice of distributing lands for conditional holding by the rulers of the Old Russian state to their sons and other relatives became the norm in the second quarter of the 12th century. to its actual collapse.

The conditional holders wanted, on the one hand, to turn their conditional holdings into unconditional ones and achieve economic and political independence from the center, and on the other, by subjugating the local nobility, to establish complete control over their possessions.

The prince was considered the supreme owner of all lands in the principality: part of them belonged to him as a personal possession (domain), and he disposed of the rest as the ruler of the territory; they were divided into domain possessions of the church and conditional holdings of the boyars and their vassals (boyar servants).

In the middle of the 11th century. The process of disintegration of large principalities began, first of all affecting the most developed agricultural regions. In the XII - first half of the XIII century. this trend has become universal. Fragmentation was especially intense in the Kiev, Chernigov, Polotsk, Turovo-Pinsk and Murom-Ryazan principalities. To a lesser extent, it affected the Smolensk land, and in the Galicia-Volyn and Rostov-Suzdal (Vladimir) principalities, periods of collapse alternated with periods of temporary unification of destinies under the rule of the “senior” ruler. Only the Novgorod land continued to maintain political integrity throughout its history.

Principality of Smolensk was located in the Upper Dnieper basin. It bordered in the west with Polotsk, in the south with Chernigov, in the east with the Rostov-Suzdal principality, and in the north with the Pskov-Novgorod land. It was inhabited by the Slavic tribe of Krivichi.

In 1125, the new Kiev prince Mstislav the Great allocated the Smolensk land as an inheritance to his son Rostislav, the founder of the local princely dynasty of the Rostislavichs, since then it has become an independent principality.

In the second half of the XII - early XIII centuries. The Rostislavichs very actively tried to bring the most prestigious and richest regions of Rus' under their control.

In the second half of the 13th century. The lines of Davyd Rostislavich were established on the Smolensk table: it was successively occupied by the sons of his grandson Rostislav Gleb, Mikhail and Feodor. Under them, the collapse of the Smolensk land became inevitable, Vyazemsky and a number of other appanages emerged from it. The Smolensk princes had to recognize vassal dependence on the Great Prince of Vladimir and the Tatar Khan (1274).

In the XIV century. Under Alexander Glebovich, his son Ivan and grandson Svyatoslav, the principality completely lost its former political and economic power; the Smolensk rulers tried unsuccessfully to stop Lithuanian expansion in the west. After the defeat and death of Svyatoslav Ivanovich in 1386 in a battle with the Lithuanians on the Vehra River near Mstislavl, the Smolensk land became dependent on the Lithuanian prince Vitovt, who began to appoint and remove Smolensk princes at his discretion, and in 1395 established his direct rule.

In 1401, the Smolensk people rebelled and, with the help of the Ryazan prince Oleg, expelled the Lithuanians, the Smolensk table was occupied by Svyatoslav's son Yuri. However, in 1404 Vytautas took the city, liquidated the Smolensk Principality and included its lands in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Galicia - Volyn principality. The southwestern lands of Rus' - Volyn and Galicia, where the Slavic tribes of the Dulebs, Tiverts, Croats, and Buzhans had long settled - became part of Kievan Rus at the end of the 10th century. under Vladimir Svyatoslavich.

The heyday of the Principality of Galicia occurred during the reign of Yaroslav Vladimirovich Osmomysl (1153 - 1187). Yaroslav Osmomysl had unquestioned authority, both in domestic Russian affairs and in international ones, he gave a decisive rebuff to the Hungarians and Poles who pressed him and led a fierce struggle against the boyars. After the death of Yaroslav Osmysl, the Galician land became the arena of a long internecine struggle between the princes and the local boyars.

Its duration and complexity is explained by the relative weakness of the Galician princes, whose land ownership lagged behind that of the boyars in size.

The situation was different in the Volyn land. Volyn until the middle of the 12th century. did not have its own dynasty of princes. From the middle of the 12th century, the Volyn land became the ancestral domain of the descendants of Izyaslav Mstislavich. A powerful princely fiefdom developed here early on.

In 1189, the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich united the Galician and Volyn lands. With the death of Osmomysl's son, Vladimir Yaroslavich, the Rostislavich dynasty ceased to exist. In 1199, Roman Mstislavich again took possession of the Galician principality and again united the Galician and Volyn lands into a single Galician-Volyn principality.

The economic and cultural rise of the Galicia-Volyn principality during the reign of Daniil Romanovich was interrupted by the invasion of Batu. In 1259, at the request of the Tatars, Daniil tore down the fortifications of the cities of Danilov, Lvov, Kremenets, Lutsk, Vladimir, the only way he managed to save these cities from destruction and ruin. Hoping to create an anti-Horde coalition on a European scale with the help of the pope, Daniil Romanovich agreed to accept the royal crown offered to him by Innocent IV. The coronation took place in 1253 during the campaign against the Lithuanian Yatvingians, in the small town of Dorogichina, located near the western border of the principality. The Roman Curia turned its attention to Galicia and Volhynia, hoping to spread Catholicism to these lands.

In 1264, Daniil Romanovich died in Kholm. After his death, the decline of the Galicia-Volyn principality began, breaking up into four appanages.
In the 1270s, Lev Daniilovich moved the capital of the principality to Lviv, where it was located until 1340. In 1292 - annexed Lublin.

In the XIV century. Galicia was captured by Poland, and Volyn by Lithuania. After the Union of Lublin in 1569, the Galician and Volyn lands became part of a single multinational Polish-Lithuanian state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Rostov-Suzdal (Vladimir-Suzdal) principality. The state of society in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality is most easily understood by its class composition, dividing the population by class, legal and social status.

The feudal class consisted of princes, boyars, free servants, nobles, children of boyar and church feudal lords. The legal status of the princes was characterized by:

Ownership of hereditary princely estates - domains;

The combination of the supreme power of the prince and his ownership of the largest land estates, villages and cities;

Allocation of the prince's estates, merging with state lands, into palace lands.

The legal status of the boyars was characterized by:

1. vassalage to the prince, military service with him;

2. the presence of land estates, formed as a result of princely grants and the seizure of communal lands;

3. the presence of the right to sever official ties with the prince at his own discretion while maintaining the estates;

4. development of immunities, i.e., exemption of estates from princely taxes and duties;

5. exercise of the right of sovereign rulers in their fiefdoms;

6. the presence of their own vassals - that is, medium and small feudal lords.

The majority of feudal lords in the Northeast were free servants. They were obliged to perform military service to the Vladimir princes, they were given the right to freely move from one prince to another. The boyar children included former descendants of impoverished boyar families. The nobles, who emerged as a social group at the top of society in the 12th century, constituted its lowest layer. The nobles were characterized by the following features of their legal status: they served their prince, received land for this, the property was conditional - that is, during the time the nobleman served.

Church feudal lords occupied a significant place among the feudal lords. Their land ownership grew from princely grants, land contributions from boyars, and the seizure of peasant communal lands. The dependent population united, in addition to smerds, purchases, outcasts, and serfs, also new categories: ladles, mortgages, sufferers. The ladles went into bondage to the feudal lords for a share of the harvest. Mortgages were “pawned” to the feudal lords for food. The term "sufferers" meant slaves who were put on the ground.

The legal status of dependent peasants was characterized by the fact that they had the right to transfer from one feudal lord to another after paying off the debt. Peasants bore service in the form of quitrent in kind, labor rent (corvee labor), and state duties.

By the middle of the 12th century. The Rostov-Suzdal principality seceded from the Kyiv state and became an independent land; at the end of the same century, the capital of the land moved to Vladimir, the city of the Great Prince of Vladimir-Suzdal. The prince's power extended over most of the territory of North-Eastern Rus'.

The features of the reign were a very strong princely power, deprivation of cities of veche independence, and the construction of new cities. The transfer of the grand prince's throne from Kyiv to Vladimir, as well as the move of the Kyiv metropolitan, contributed to the transformation of Vladimir into the central city of the Northeast.

Vladimir-Suzdal Principality began to lay claim not only to independence, but also to a central position in all of Rus'. It strengthened and grew. The principality maintained international relations with the countries of the West and East, fought with neighboring Russian principalities and established close economic and political ties with Novgorod. It reached its greatest prosperity in the 12th and first half of the 13th centuries.

On the territory of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality there were many large cities, but the urban population was divided into two categories: citizens of old cities, with veche privileges, and residents of new cities, entirely subject to the prince.

The feudal-dependent population consisted of peasants living on lands owned by princes and boyars. In part it was completely enslaved, in part it was semi-free.

At the head of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality was the Grand Duke, who had great political influence. The prince had a council consisting of boyars and clergy; to restore order and wars - the princely squad. Feudal congresses were occasionally held. Even less often, a city people's assembly - a veche - was convened to resolve important issues.

In the Vladimir-Suzdal principality there was a palace-patrimonial system of government, with all the characteristic features: at the head of the system was a butler, local representatives of the princely power were posadniks (governors) and volostels, who carried out the functions of management and court; instead of a salary for their service, they received “food” - part of what was collected from the population. The time of greatest prosperity of the principality also coincided with the time of its decline: in the 13th century. it was conquered by the Mongols.

Novgorod land. It occupied a huge territory (almost 200 thousand sq. km.) between the Baltic Sea and the lower reaches of the Ob. Its western border was the Gulf of Finland and Lake Peipus, in the north it included Lakes Ladoga and Onega and reached the White Sea, in the east it captured the Pechora basin, and in the south it was adjacent to the Polotsk, Smolensk and Rostov-Suzdal principalities (modern Novgorod, Pskov, Leningrad, Arkhangelsk, most of the Tver and Vologda regions, Karelian and Komi autonomous republics). It was inhabited by Slavic (Ilmen Slavs, Krivichi) and Finno-Ugric tribes (Vod, Izhora, Korela, Chud, Ves, Perm, Pechora, Lapps).

The unfavorable natural conditions of the North hindered the development of agriculture; grain was one of the main imports. At the same time, huge forests and numerous rivers were conducive to fishing, hunting, fur trading, and the extraction of salt and iron ore became of great importance.

Since ancient times, the Novgorod land has been famous for its variety of crafts and high quality handicrafts. Its advantageous location at the intersection of routes from the Baltic Sea to the Black and Caspian Sea ensured its role as an intermediary in the trade of the Baltic and Scandinavian countries with the Black Sea and Volga regions. Craftsmen and merchants, united in territorial and professional corporations, represented one of the most economically and politically influential layers of Novgorod society. Its highest stratum – large landowners (boyars) – also actively participated in international trade.

The Novgorod land was divided into administrative districts - Pyatina, directly adjacent to Novgorod (Votskaya, Shelonskaya, Obonezhskaya, Derevskaya, Bezhetskaya), and remote volosts: one stretched from Torzhok and Volok to the Suzdal border and the upper reaches of the Onega, the other included Zavolochye (the interfluve of the Onega and Mezen), and the third - lands east of Mezen (Pechora, Perm and Yugorsk territories).

In 1102, the Novgorod elite (boyars and merchants) refused to accept the reign of the son of the new Grand Duke Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, wishing to retain Mstislav, and the Novgorod land ceased to be part of the grand ducal possessions. In 1117 Mstislav handed over the Novgorod table to his son Vsevolod (1117–1136).

In 1136 the Novgorodians rebelled against Vsevolod. Accusing him of misgovernment and neglect of the interests of Novgorod, they imprisoned him and his family, and after a month and a half they expelled him from the city. From that time on, a de facto republican system was established in Novgorod, although princely power was not abolished.

The supreme governing body was the people's assembly (veche), which included all free citizens. The Veche had broad powers - it invited and removed the prince, elected and controlled the entire administration, decided issues of war and peace, was the highest court, and introduced taxes and duties.

The prince turned from a sovereign ruler into a supreme official. He was the supreme commander-in-chief, could convene a veche and make laws if they did not contradict customs; Embassies were sent and received on his behalf. However, upon election, the prince entered into contractual relations with Novgorod and gave an obligation to rule “in the old way”, to appoint only Novgorodians as governors in the volost and not to impose tribute on them, to wage war and make peace only with the consent of the veche. He did not have the right to remove other officials without a trial. His actions were controlled by the elected mayor, without whose approval he could not make judicial decisions or make appointments.

The local bishop (lord) played a special role in the political life of Novgorod. From the middle of the 12th century. the right to elect him passed from the Kyiv metropolitan to the veche; the metropolitan only sanctioned the election. The Novgorod ruler was considered not only the main clergyman, but also the first dignitary of the state after the prince. He was the largest landowner, had his own boyars and military regiments with a banner and governors, certainly participated in negotiations for peace and the invitation of princes, and was a mediator in internal political conflicts.

Despite the significant narrowing of princely prerogatives, the rich Novgorod land remained attractive to the most powerful princely dynasties. First of all, the elder (Mstislavich) and younger (Suzdal Yuryevich) branches of the Monomashichs competed for the Novgorod table; The Chernigov Olgovichi tried to intervene in this struggle, but they achieved only episodic success (1138–1139, 1139–1141, 1180–1181, 1197, 1225–1226, 1229–1230).

In the 12th century. the advantage was on the side of the Mstislavich family and its three main branches (Izyaslavich, Rostislavich and Vladimirovich); they occupied the Novgorod table in 1117–1136, 1142–1155, 1158–1160, 1161–1171, 1179–1180, 1182–1197, 1197–1199, some of them (especially the Rostislavichs) managed to create independent, but short-lived principalities in the Novgorod land (Novotorzhskoe and Velikolukskoe).

However, already in the second half of the 12th century. The position of the Yuryevichs began to strengthen, who enjoyed the support of the influential party of Novgorod boyars and, in addition, periodically put pressure on Novgorod, closing the routes for the supply of grain from North-Eastern Rus'.

In 1147, Yuri Dolgoruky made a campaign in the Novgorod land and captured Torzhok; in 1155, the Novgorodians had to invite his son Mstislav to reign (until 1157). In 1160, Andrei Bogolyubsky imposed his nephew Mstislav Rostislavich on the Novgorodians (until 1161); he forced them in 1171 to return Rurik Rostislavich, whom they had expelled, to the Novgorod table, and in 1172 to transfer him to his son Yuri (until 1175). In 1176, Vsevolod the Big Nest managed to plant his nephew Yaroslav Mstislavich in Novgorod (until 1178).

In the 13th century. The Yuryevichs (the line of Vsevolod the Big Nest) achieved complete dominance. In the 1200s, the Novgorod table was occupied by Vsevolod's sons Svyatoslav (1200–1205, 1208–1210) and Constantine (1205–1208). True, in 1210 the Novgorodians were able to get rid of the control of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes with the help of the Toropets ruler Mstislav Udatny from the Smolensk Rostislavich family; The Rostislavichs held Novgorod until 1221 (with a break in 1215–1216). However, then they were finally forced out of the Novgorod land by the Yuryevichs.

The success of the Yuryevichs was facilitated by the deterioration of the foreign policy situation of Novgorod. In the face of an increased threat to its western possessions from Sweden, Denmark and the Livonian Order, the Novgorodians needed an alliance with the most powerful Russian principality at that time - Vladimir. Thanks to this alliance, Novgorod managed to protect its borders. Summoned to the Novgorod table in 1236, Alexander Yaroslavich, nephew of the Vladimir prince Yuri Vsevolodich, defeated the Swedes at the mouth of the Neva in 1240, and then stopped the aggression of the German knights.

The temporary strengthening of princely power under Alexander Yaroslavich (Nevsky) gave way at the end of the 13th – beginning of the 14th centuries. its complete degradation, which was facilitated by the weakening of external danger and the progressive collapse of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. At the same time, the role of the veche decreased. An oligarchic system was actually established in Novgorod.

The boyars turned into a closed ruling caste, sharing power with the archbishop. The rise of the Moscow Principality under Ivan Kalita (1325–1340) and its emergence as a center for the unification of Russian lands aroused fear among the Novgorod elite and led to their attempts to use the powerful Lithuanian Principality that had arisen on the southwestern borders as a counterweight: in 1333, it was first invited to the Novgorod table Lithuanian prince Narimunt Gedeminovich (although he only lasted a year), in the 1440s the Grand Duke of Lithuania was granted the right to collect irregular tribute from some Novgorod volosts.

Although the XIV century. became a period of rapid economic prosperity for Novgorod, largely due to its close ties with the Hanseatic Trade Union; the Novgorod elite did not take advantage of it to strengthen their military-political potential and preferred to pay off the aggressive Moscow and Lithuanian princes. At the end of the 14th century. Moscow launched an offensive against Novgorod. Vasily I captured the Novgorod cities of Bezhetsky Verkh, Volok Lamsky and Vologda with the adjacent regions; in 1401 and 1417 he tried, albeit unsuccessfully, to take possession of Zavolochye.

Principality of Chernigov became isolated in 1097 under the rule of the descendants of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, their rights to the principality were recognized by other Russian princes at the Lyubech Congress. After the youngest of the Svyatoslavichs was deprived of his reign in 1127 and, under the rule of his descendants, the lands on the lower Oka separated from Chernigov, and in 1167 the line of descendants of David Svyatoslavich was cut off, the Olegovich dynasty established itself on all the princely tables of the Chernigov land: the northern and upper Oka lands the descendants of Vsevolod Olegovich owned (they were also permanent claimants to Kyiv), the Novgorod-Seversky principality was owned by the descendants of Svyatoslav Olegovich. Representatives of both branches reigned in Chernigov (until 1226).

In addition to Kyiv and Vyshgorod, at the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries, the Olegovichs managed to briefly extend their influence to Galich and Volyn, Pereyaslavl and Novgorod.

In 1223, the Chernigov princes took part in the first campaign against the Mongols. In the spring of 1238, during the Mongol invasion, the northeastern lands of the principality were devastated, and in the autumn of 1239, the southwestern ones. After the death of the Chernigov prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich in the Horde in 1246, the lands of the principality were divided between his sons, and the eldest of them, Roman, became a prince in Bryansk. In 1263, he liberated Chernigov from the Lithuanians and annexed it to his possessions. Starting from Roman, the Bryansk princes were usually titled as the Grand Dukes of Chernigov.

At the beginning of the 14th century, the Smolensk princes established themselves in Bryansk, presumably through a dynastic marriage. The struggle for Bryansk lasted for several decades, until in 1357 the Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd Gediminovich installed one of the contenders, Roman Mikhailovich, to reign. In the second half of the 14th century, in parallel with him, Olgerd’s sons Dmitry and Dmitry-Koribut also reigned in the Bryansk lands. After the Ostrov agreement, the autonomy of the Bryansk principality was eliminated, Roman Mikhailovich became the Lithuanian governor in Smolensk, where he was killed in 1401.

The Grand Duchy of Moscow was formed around the middle of the 14th century. as a result of the growth of the Moscow principality, which emerged in the 1st half. XIII century as the inheritance of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.

Since the 1320s, Moscow princes bore the title of Grand Dukes of Vladimir. In 1247, the Principality of Moscow went to Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich Khorobrit.

From 1267, Daniil, the son of Prince Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky, reigned in Moscow. At the beginning of the 14th century. The Moscow principality expanded significantly due to the annexation of Kolomna (1301), Pereslavl-Zalessky (1302), and Mozhaisk (1303). Relying on growing material forces, the Moscow princes waged a stubborn struggle for political supremacy in the Russian lands.

Prince Yuri Danilovich, relying on the support of Novgorod the Great, as well as using the Golden Horde khans, became the Grand Duke of Vladimir in 1318, but from 1325 the great reign was transferred to the Tver prince. Ivan Danilovich Kalita gained great confidence from the khan and in 1328 became the Grand Duke of Vladimir.

The skillful policy of Ivan Kalita provided the Moscow principality with a long respite from Mongol invasions, which contributed to the rise of its economy and culture. Kalita's heir, Grand Duke Semyon Ivanovich Proud (1340 - 53), called himself “Grand Duke of All Rus'.”

In the 1360s, after the struggle with the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod prince, the great reign was established with Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (1359 - 89). Moscow became the center of gathering forces against the Mongol-Tatar conquerors, Moscow troops repulsed the attacks of the Mongol-Tatars in the Nizhny Novgorod and Ryazan principalities, and in 1380 Dmitry Ivanovich led the all-Russian forces that moved towards the troops of Temnik Mamai.

The victory in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 consolidated the leading position of the Grand Duchy of Moscow in the Russian lands. Dmitry Ivanovich for the first time transferred the Great Reign to his son Vasily Dmitrievich (1389-1425) as his “fatherland”, without the sanction of the Golden Horde Khan.

The territory of the Grand Duchy of Moscow at the end of the 14th century consistently expanded, in 1392 Nizhny Novgorod was annexed, and the influence of the Grand Duchy of Moscow in the possessions of the Novgorod feudal republic increased significantly.

Grand Duchy of Lithuania. One of the consequences of the state decentralization of the Kievan state, intensified by Batu’s pogrom, was the disunion of ancient Russian territories, when Southern and Western Rus' fell under the rule of Lithuania. The once united Russian people were divided into three branches - Great Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. The severance of cultural and political ties between parts of a previously unified whole led to the conservation of some dialectal and ritual features, although the awareness of spiritual and ethnic community did not leave the descendants of the ancient Russians in conditions of mutual isolation.

The annexation of Western Russian lands to Lithuania began in the second third of the 13th century under the Grand Duke of Lithuania Mindovgas. During the reign of Gediminas and his son Olgerd, Lithuania's territorial acquisitions continued. It included Polotsk, Vitebsk, Minsk, Drutsk principalities, Turov-Pinsk Polesie, Beresteyshchyna, Volyn, Podolia, Chernigov land and part of the Smolensk region. In 1362, Kyiv was brought under the rule of the Lithuanian prince. Indigenous Lithuania was surrounded by a belt of Russian lands subject to it, which amounted to 9/10 of the entire territory of the resulting state, stretching from the Baltic to the Black Sea.

Russian cultural influence in the new state enjoyed overwhelming predominance, subjugating the politically dominant nation - the Lithuanians. Gediminas and his sons were married to Russian princesses, and the Russian language dominated at court and in official business. Lithuanian writing did not exist at all at that time.

Until the end of the 14th century, Russian regions, joining Lithuania, did not experience national-religious oppression. The structure and character of local life was preserved, the descendants of Rurik remained in their economic positions, losing little in political terms, since the political system of Lithuania was federal in nature. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was more of a conglomerate of lands and possessions than a single political whole. For some time now, Russian cultural influence in the Lithuanian-Russian state has been increasing. The Gediminites became Russified, many of them converted to Orthodoxy. There were trends leading towards the formation of a new, unique version of Russian statehood in the southern and western lands of the former Kyiv state.

These trends were broken when Jogaila became the Grand Duke of Lithuania. His pro-Western orientation was the result of Jagiello's personal characteristics: lust for power, vanity, cruelty. In 1386, he converted to Catholicism and formalized the union of Lithuania with Poland. The ambitions of the Polish gentry, associated with the desire to penetrate the vast Western Russian lands, were satisfied.

Her rights and privileges quickly outweighed the rights of the Russian aristocracy. Catholic expansion into the western lands of Rus' began. Large regional principalities in Polotsk, Vitebsk, Kyiv and other places were abolished, self-government was replaced by governorship. The Lithuanian aristocracy changed its cultural orientation from Russian to Polish.

Polonization and Catholicization captured part of the Western Russian nobility, while the majority of Russians remained faithful to Orthodoxy and ancient traditions. National and religious enmity began, which did not exist until the 80s of the 14th century. This enmity developed into a fierce political struggle, during which the nationally-minded part of the Western Russian population inevitably grew stronger in favor of a unified Russian state. The process of forming the state core in the northeast of Rus' influenced and strengthened these sentiments.

So, each principality in southwestern Rus' had its own prince. The prince was considered the supreme owner of all lands in the principality: part of them belonged to him as a personal possession (domain), and he disposed of the rest as the ruler of the territory; they were divided into domain possessions of the church and conditional holdings of the boyars and their vassals.