Stories of knights loyal to the king, a beautiful lady and military duty have been inspiring men to exploits and people of art to creativity for many centuries.
Ulrich von Liechtenstein (1200-1278)
Ulrich von Liechtenstein did not storm Jerusalem, did not fight the Moors, and did not participate in the Reconquista. He became famous as a knight-poet. In 1227 and 1240 he made travels, which he described in the courtly novel “Serving the Ladies.”
According to him, he walked from Venice to Vienna, challenging every knight he met to battle in the name of Venus. He also created The Ladies' Book, a theoretical work on love poetry.
Lichtenstein's "Serving the Ladies" is a textbook example of a courtly novel. It tells how a knight sought the favor of a beautiful lady. To do this, he had to amputate his little finger and half of his upper lip, defeat three hundred opponents in tournaments, but the lady remained adamant. Already at the end of the novel, Lichtenstein concludes “that only a fool can serve indefinitely where there is nothing to count on for reward.”
Richard the Lionheart (1157-1199)
Richard the Lionheart is the only king knight on our list. In addition to the well-known and heroic nickname, Richard also had a second one - “Yes and No.” It was invented by another knight, Bertrand de Born, who christened the young prince so for his indecisiveness.
Already being king, Richard was not at all involved in governing England. In the memory of his descendants, he remained a fearless warrior who cared about personal glory more than the well-being of his possessions. Richard spent almost the entire time of his reign abroad.
He took part in the Third Crusade, conquered Sicily and Cyprus, besieged and took Acre, but the English king never decided to storm Jerusalem. On the way back, Richard was captured by Duke Leopold of Austria. Only a rich ransom allowed him to return home.
After returning to England, Richard fought with the French king Philip II Augustus for another five years. Richard's only major victory in this war was the capture of Gisors near Paris in 1197.
Raymond VI (1156-1222)
Count Raymond VI of Toulouse was an atypical knight. He became famous for his opposition to the Vatican. One of the largest feudal lords of Languedoc in Southern France, he patronized the Cathars, whose religion was professed by the majority of the population of Languedoc during his reign.
Pope Innocent II excommunicated Raymond twice for refusing to submit, and in 1208 he called for a campaign against his lands, which went down in history as the Albigensian Crusade. Raymond offered no resistance and publicly repented in 1209.
However, in his opinion, the demands on Toulouse that were too cruel led to another rift with the Catholic Church. For two years, from 1211 to 1213, he managed to hold Toulouse, but after the defeat of the crusaders at the Battle of Mur, Raymond IV fled to England, to the court of John the Landless.
In 1214 he again formally submitted to the pope. In 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council, which he attended, deprived him of his rights to all lands, leaving only the Marquisate of Provence to his son, the future Raymond VII.
William Marshal (1146-1219)
William Marshal was one of the few knights whose biography was published almost immediately after his death. In 1219, a poem entitled The History of William Marshal was published.
The marshal became famous not because of his feats of arms in wars (although he also took part in them), but because of his victories in knightly tournaments. He gave them sixteen whole years of his life.
The Archbishop of Canterbury called the Marshal the greatest knight of all time.
Already at the age of 70, Marshal led the royal army in a campaign against France. His signature appears on the Magna Carta as the guarantor of its observance.
Edward the Black Prince (1330-1376)
Eldest son of King Edward III, Prince of Wales. He received his nickname either because of his difficult character, or because of the origin of his mother, or because of the color of his armor.
The “Black Prince” gained his fame in battles. He won two classic battles of the Middle Ages - at Cressy and at Poitiers.
For this, his father especially noted him, making him the first Knight of the new Order of the Garter. His marriage to his cousin, Joanna of Kent, also added to Edward's knighthood. This couple was one of the brightest in Europe.
On June 8, 1376, a year before his father's death, Prince Edward died and was buried in Canterbury Cathedral. The English crown was inherited by his son Richard II.
The Black Prince left his mark on culture. He is one of the heroes of Arthur Conan Doyle's dilogy about the Hundred Years' War, a character in Dumas's novel "The Bastard de Mauleon".
Bertrand de Born (1140-1215)
The knight and troubadour Bertrand de Born was the ruler of Périgord, owner of the castle of Hautefort. Dante Alighieri portrayed Bertrand de Born in his "Divine Comedy": the troubadour is in Hell, and holds his severed head in his hand as punishment for the fact that in life he stirred up quarrels between people and loved wars.
And, according to Dante, Bertrand de Born sang only to sow discord.
De Born, meanwhile, became famous for his courtly poetry. In his poems, he glorified, for example, Duchess Matilda, the eldest daughter of Henry II and Alienora of Aquitaine. De Born was familiar with many troubadours of his time, such as Guilhem de Bergedan, Arnaut Daniel, Folke de Marseglia, Gaucelme Faidit and even the French trouvère Conon of Bethune. Towards the end of his life, Bertrand de Born retired to the Cistercian Abbey of Dalon, where he died in 1215.
Godfrey of Bouillon (1060-1100)
To become one of the leaders of the First Crusade, Godfrey of Bouillon sold everything he had and gave up his lands. The pinnacle of his military career was the storming of Jerusalem.
Godfrey of Bouillon was elected the first king of the Crusader kingdom in the Holy Land, but refused such a title, preferring the title of baron and Defender of the Holy Sepulcher.
He left orders to crown his brother Baldwin king of Jerusalem in the event that Godfrey himself died - this is how an entire dynasty was founded.
As a ruler, Godfrey took care of expanding the boundaries of the state, imposed taxes on the emissaries of Caesarea, Ptolemais, Ascalon and subjugated the Arabians on the left side of the Jordan to his power. On his initiative, a law was introduced that was called the Jerusalem Assisi.
He died, according to Ibn al-Qalanisi, during the siege of Acre. According to another version, he died of cholera.
Jacques de Molay (1244-1314)
De Molay was the last Master of the Knights Templar. In 1291, after the fall of Acre, the Templars moved their headquarters to Cyprus.
Jacques de Molay set himself two ambitious goals: he wanted to reform the order and convince the pope and European monarchs to launch a new Crusade to the Holy Land.
The Templar Order was the richest organization in the history of medieval Europe, and its economic ambitions were beginning to thwart European monarchs.
On October 13, 1307, by order of King Philip IV the Fair of France, all French Templars were arrested. The order was officially banned.
The last Master of the Tramplars remained in history thanks in part to the legend of the so-called “curse of de Molay.” According to Geoffroy of Paris, on March 18, 1314, Jacques de Molay, having mounted the fire, summoned the French king Philip IV, his adviser Guillaume de Nogaret and Pope Clement V to God's court. Already shrouded in clouds of smoke, he promised the king, adviser and pope that they will survive it for no more than a year. He also cursed the royal family to the thirteenth generation.
In addition, there is a legend that Jacques de Molay, before his death, founded the first Masonic lodges, in which the prohibited Order of the Templars was to be preserved underground.
Jean le Maingre Boucicaut (1366-1421)
Boucicault was one of the most famous French knights. At 18 he went to Prussia to help the Teutonic Order, then he fought against the Moors in Spain and became one of the heroes of the Hundred Years' War. During the truce in 1390, Boucicaut competed in a knight's tournament and took first place in it.
Boucicault was a knight errant and wrote poems about his valor.
His was so great that King Philip VI made him Marshal of France.
At the famous Battle of Agincourt, Boucicault was captured and died in England six years later.
Sid Campeador (1041(1057)-1099)
The real name of this famous knight was Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar. He was a Castilian nobleman, a military and political figure, a national hero of Spain, a hero of Spanish folk legends, poems, romances and dramas, as well as the famous tragedy of Corneille.
The Arabs called the knight Sid. Translated from folk Arabic, “sidi” means “my master.” In addition to the nickname "Sid", Rodrigo also earned another nickname - Campeador, which translates as "winner".
Rodrigo's fame was forged under King Alfonso. Under him, El Cid became commander-in-chief of the Castilian army. In 1094, Cid captured Valencia and became its ruler. All attempts by the Almorravids to reconquer Valencia ended in their defeats in the battles of Cuarte (in 1094) and Bairen (in 1097). After his death in 1099, Sid became a folk hero, sung in poems and songs.
It is believed that before the final battle with the Moors, El Cid was mortally wounded by a poisoned arrow. His wife dressed Compeador's body in armor and mounted it on a horse so that his army would maintain its morale.
In 1919, the remains of Cid and his wife Doña Jimena were buried in the Burgos Cathedral. Since 2007, Tisona, a sword that supposedly belonged to Sid, has been located here.
William Wallace (c. 1272-1305)
William Wallace is a national hero of Scotland, one of the most important figures in its wars of independence in 1296-1328. His image was embodied by Mel Gibson in the film “Braveheart”.
In 1297, Wallace killed the English Sheriff of Lanark and soon established himself as one of the leaders of the Scottish rebellion against the English. On September 11 of the same year, Wallace's small army defeated a 10,000-strong British army at Stirling Bridge. Most of the country was liberated. Wallace was knighted and declared Guardian of the Realm, ruling on behalf of Balliol.
A year later, the English king Edward I again invaded Scotland. On July 22, 1298, the Battle of Falkirk took place. Wallace's forces were defeated and he was forced into hiding. However, a letter from the French king to his ambassadors in Rome dated November 7, 1300 has been preserved, in which he demands that they provide support to Wallace.
Guerrilla warfare continued in Scotland at this time, and Wallace returned to his homeland in 1304 and took part in several clashes. However, on August 5, 1305, he was captured near Glasgow by English soldiers.
Wallace rejected accusations of treason at trial, saying: “I cannot be a traitor to Edward, because I was never his subject.”
On August 23, 1305, William Wallace was executed in London. His body was beheaded and cut into pieces, his head was hung on the Great London Bridge, and his body parts were exhibited in Scotland's largest cities - Newcastle, Berwick, Stirling and Perth.
Henry Percy (1364-1403)
For his character, Henry Percy received the nickname "hotspur" (hot spur). Percy is one of the heroes of Shakespeare's historical chronicles. Already at the age of fourteen, under the command of his father, he participated in the siege and capture of Berwick, and ten years later he himself commanded two raids on Boulogne. In the same 1388, he was knighted of the Garter by King Edward III of England and took an active part in the war with France.
For his support of the future king Henry IV, Percy became constable of the castles of Flint, Conwy, Chester, Caernarvon and Denbigh, and was also appointed justiciar of North Wales. At the Battle of Homildon Hill, Hotspur captured Earl Archibald Douglas, who commanded the Scots.
The outstanding military leader of the Hundred Years' War, Bertrand Deguclin, in his childhood bore little resemblance to the future famous knight.
According to the troubadour Cuvelier from Tournai, who compiled Du Guesclin’s biography, Bertrand was “the ugliest child in Rennes and Dinant” - with short legs, too broad shoulders and long arms, an ugly round head and dark “boar” skin.
Deguclin entered the first tournament in 1337, at the age of 17, and later chose a military career - as researcher Jean Favier writes, he made war his craft “as much out of necessity as out of spiritual inclination.”
Bertrand Du Guesclin became most famous for his ability to storm well-fortified castles. His small force, supported by archers and crossbowmen, stormed the walls using ladders. Most castles, which had small garrisons, could not withstand such tactics.
After the death of Du Guesclin during the siege of the city of Chateauneuf-de-Randon, he was given the highest posthumous honor: he was buried in the tomb of the French kings in the Church of Saint-Denis at the feet of Charles V.
John Hawkwood (c. 1320-1323 -1394)
The English condottiere John Hawkwood was the most famous leader of the “White Company” - a detachment of Italian mercenaries of the 14th century, who served as the prototype for the heroes of Conan Doyle’s novel “The White Company”.
Along with Hawkwood, English archers and foot-at-arms appeared in Italy. For his military merits, Hawkwood received the nickname l'acuto, "cool", which later became his name - Giovanni Acuto.
Hawkwood's fame was so great that the English king Richard II asked the Florentines for permission to bury him in his homeland in Hedingham. The Florentines returned the ashes of the great condottiere to their homeland, but ordered a tombstone and a fresco for his empty grave in the Florentine Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore.
This will be of interest to all lovers of medieval history.
Sequence of 13th century knight's vestments.
Step 1.
It is absolutely clear that the chain mail was not worn on a naked body
and not on underwear. First it was necessary to protect the legs with
pretty thick quilted pants:
Step 2.
Then chain mail “boots-stockings” were put on,
which were tied to the knight's belt.
They were fastened under the knees with special belts,
otherwise there would be too much stress on the lower back:
Step 3.
Before putting on chain mail, the knight wore the same as his pants
quilted kaftan:
Step 4.
The chain mail is put on.
Now the knight is almost completely protected:
Step 5.
On top of the chain mail is a mandatory cloak in the heraldic colors of the knight with his family coat of arms,
otherwise it would be unclear what kind of knight he is and on whose side in battle he stands.
However, the cloaks of the knights of the Catholic orders most often did not differ from each other,
if we talk about members of the same order.
Then a helmet with corresponding heraldic signs served as a distinctive sign.
Knights could also be distinguished by the shape of their helmet. Unlike foot bollards, whose helmets
were uniform, mounted knights strived for individuality and their helmets were very
varied in both form and decor.
The helmet was also worn not on a bare head, but on a kind of cap with garters under the chin.
Step 6.
Horse equipment.
During knightly tournaments, as a rule, the horse was also dressed in a blanket
heraldic colors of a knight-rider. But in real battles it was
not a mandatory rule.
In winter, the knight may have felt comfortable in such attire. But in the warm (and especially hot) season, he should have simply languished from the heat, dripping with sweat. And given the attitude of the Western European Middle Ages to hygiene, one can imagine how stinking these noble knights were!
Thank you for attention.
Sergey Vorobiev.
Knights
The knights considered themselves the best in everything: in social position, in the art of war, in rights, in manners and even in love. They looked at the rest of the world with extreme disdain, considering townspeople and peasants "uncouth louts." And they even considered priests to be people devoid of “noble manners.” The world, in their understanding, is eternal and unchanging, and in it the dominance of the knightly class is eternal and unchanging. Only that which relates to the life and activities of knights is beautiful and moral; everything else is ugly and immoral.
The origin of knighthood dates back to the era of the Great Migration of Peoples - VI - VII centuries. During this era, the power of the kings strengthened: conquests and the enormous booty associated with them sharply increased their authority. Along with the king, the members of his squad also grew stronger. At first, their elevation above their fellow tribesmen was relative: they remained free and full-fledged people. Like the ancient Germans, they were both landowners and warriors, participating in tribal governance and legal proceedings. True, large land holdings of the nobility grew next to their relatively small plots. Feeling their impunity, tycoons often forcibly took away land and property from weaker neighbors, who were forced to admit that they were dependent people.
Number and role
in medieval society
The number of knights in Europe was small. On average, knights made up no more than 3% of the population of a given country. Due to the peculiarities of the historical development of Poland and Spain, the number of knights there was slightly higher, but also no more than 10%. However, the role of chivalry in Medieval Europe was enormous. The Middle Ages were a time when power decided everything, and power was in the hands of chivalry. It was the knights (if this term is considered as a synonym for the word feudal lord) who owned the main means of production - land, and it was they who concentrated all the power in medieval society. The number of knights who were vassals of the lord determined his nobility.
In addition, it is very important to note that it was the knightly environment that gave rise to a special type of culture, which became one of the most striking aspects of the culture of the Middle Ages. The ideals of chivalry permeated all court life, as well as military conflicts and diplomatic relations. Therefore, the study of the features of knightly ideology seems absolutely necessary for understanding all aspects of the life of medieval society.
Knights | Dedication
Becoming a knight, the young man underwent an initiation procedure: his lord hit him on the shoulder with the flat of his sword, they exchanged a kiss, which symbolized their reciprocity.
Armor
- Helmet 1450
- Helmet 1400
- Helmet 1410
- Helmet Germany 1450
- Milanese helmet 1450
- Italy 1451
- - 9. Italy (Tlmmaso Negroni) 1430
Knight's weapons
The medieval feudal lord was armed with heavy cold steel weapons: a long sword with a meter-long cross-shaped handle, a heavy spear, and a thin dagger. In addition, clubs and battle axes (axes) were used, but they fell out of use quite early. But the knight paid more and more attention to means of protection. He put on chain mail or armor, replacing the previous leather armor.The first armor made of iron plates began to be used in the 13th century. They protected the chest, back, neck, arms and legs. Additional plates were placed over the shoulder, elbow and knee joints.
An indispensable part of knightly weapons was a triangular wooden shield, on which iron plates were stuffed.
An iron helmet with a visor was placed on the head, which could be raised and lowered to protect the face. Helmet designs were constantly changing, providing better and better protection, and sometimes just for the sake of beauty. Covered with all this metal, leather and clothing, the knight suffered from intense heat and thirst during a long battle, especially in the summer.
The knight's war horse began to be covered with a metal blanket. In the end, the knight with his horse, to which he seemed to grow, became a kind of iron fortress.
Such heavy and clumsy weapons made the knight less vulnerable to arrows and blows from the enemy’s spear or sword. But it also led to the knight’s low mobility. The knight, knocked out of the saddle, could no longer mount without the help of a squire.
Nevertheless, for a peasant army on foot, the knight remained for a long time a terrible force against which the peasants were defenseless.
The townspeople soon found a means of defeating the detachments of knights, using their greater mobility and simultaneous cohesion, on the one hand, and better (compared to the peasant) weapons, on the other. In the 11th - 13th centuries, knights were beaten more than once by townspeople in different countries of Western Europe.
But it was only the invention and improvement of gunpowder and firearms in the 14th century onwards that brought an end to chivalry as the exemplary military force of the Middle Ages.
Feudal castles and their structure
After the cathedral, the most important type of building in the Middle Ages was undoubtedly the castle. In Germany, following the formation of the type of dynastic fortress in the 11th century, an idea developed about the practical and symbolic advantages of a significant building height: the higher the castle, the better it is. Dukes and princes competed with each other for the right to be called the owner of the highest castle. In the medieval worldview, the height of a castle was directly correlated with the power and wealth of its owner.Taking as an example the southwestern part of Germany, where castles were built especially actively, we will briefly consider some political, social and legal aspects of the development of fortification architecture.
Representatives of the Hohenberg dynasty, descendants of the Counts of Pollern, followed a tradition that ordered a major lord to build a castle on top of a cliff as a sign of his power and authority. In the mid-12th century, this branch of the Zollerns chose a rocky mountain peak above a mountain meadow, now known as Hummelsberg (near Rottweil), as the site of a family fortress. Having thus found itself at an altitude of about a kilometer, the Hohenberg castle “overtook” the Zollern-Hohenzollern castle by approximately 150 meters. To emphasize this advantage, the count owners of the castle took their surname in honor of this mountain peak: "Hohenberg" means "high mountain" in German ("hohen Berg"). Conical outcrops of rocks similar to Hummelsberg, steep on all sides, are typical of the Swabian highlands. They were ideal geographical symbols of power and greatness.
The medieval castle was the center of life of the feudal court. Documentary evidence has been preserved that castles performed many ceremonial functions of the palace: it is known, for example, that in the castle of Count Albrecht 2 Hohenberg on Christmas Day 1286, long and extremely magnificent celebrations were organized in honor of the German Emperor Rudolf 1, who was visiting the count's court. It is also known that in the castles there were many officials typical of the administrative structure of the palace, such as butlers, seneschals and marshals, and this is another evidence of the frequency with which all kinds of holidays were held in the castles.
What did a typical medieval castle look like? Despite the differences between local types of castles, all medieval German castles were generally built according to approximately the same pattern. They had to satisfy two main requirements: to provide reliable protection in the event of an enemy attack and conditions for the social life of the community in general and the feudal court in particular.
As a rule, the castle was surrounded by a fence, the walls of which rested on massive buttresses. A covered patrol path usually ran along the top of the wall; the remaining parts of the wall were protected by battlements alternating with embrasures. You could get inside the castle through a gate with a gate tower. Towers were also erected in the corners of the wall and along it at certain intervals. Outbuildings and the castle chapel were usually located in close proximity to such towers: this ensured greater security. The main building, where there were living quarters and reception rooms for guests, was the palace - the German analogue of the great hall, which performed the same functions in the castles of other countries. It was adjacent to cattle stalls. In the center of the courtyard stood a donjon (sometimes it was placed closer to the palace, and sometimes close to it). Lichtenberg Castle, north of Stuttgart, is one of the few medieval German castles that have been completely preserved to this day. According to masons' marks, its construction dates back to approximately 1220.
Returning to the Hohenbergs, it should be noted that they, along with the Counts Palatine of Tübingen, belonged to the most powerful aristocratic families of Southwestern Germany in the 12th and 13th centuries. They owned extensive estates in the upper reaches of the Neckar River, as well as, in addition to the main castle of Hohenburg, castles in Rothenburg, Horb and other places.
It was in Horb, a city built on a hill above the Neckar, that the Hohenberg dream of an ideal residence, completely dotted with towers reaching into the heavens, came close to being realized. The former owner of Horb, Count Palatine of Tübingen Rudolf II, conceived, but did not have time to complete, a project to build a grandiose castle on a rocky ledge hanging over the city market. At the end of the 13th century, Horb, as part of the dowry of a bride from the Tübingen family, passed to the Hohenbergs, who completed the construction work, uniting the castle with the city in such a way that the city church was also protected by the castle walls. Built between 1260 and 1280, this former collegiate church of the Holy Cross is now dedicated to the Virgin Mary.
As a result, the castle and the town in Horb merged into a single whole in a unique way. It is almost certain that Horb was the first German town to serve as the basis for a lord's residence. Thanks to this, many buildings that belonged to the count appeared in the city itself, which stimulated the development of the functions of the count's court as a social institution.
Further development of this process took place in Rothenburg. In 1291, Count Albrecht 2 Hohenberg, who had previously lived in seclusion on the Weilerburg peak, founded a residence for himself above Rothenburg; The castle and the city also formed a single whole here. The secluded Weilerburg castle on a rock, cut off from public life, was, of course, not completely abandoned, but basically lost its role as a residence. Rothenburg turned into the capital of the Hohenbergs and remained a residence city even after this count's family died out.
Thus, the development of medieval residence towns in the 13th and 14th centuries was determined mainly by the process of transferring the castle to the city. This process, which formed a new type of urban culture and entailed important political and social consequences, can be considered in the context of frequent changes of rulers.
The increasing political power of the lords created the need to maintain more lavish courts and finance expensive building projects - castle towns and castle palaces. Of course, such a blatant display of force brought danger to the new castles. The castle and the surrounding area had to be carefully fortified. Defense required heavily fortified castle walls and well-armed knights; however, open conflict was usually preceded by intense diplomatic negotiations. And only if all possibilities for non-violent resolution of the conflict were exhausted, war was declared and the opponents locked themselves in their castles to prepare for hostilities.
Then the lord either marched out of the castle with his army or took defensive measures. Not only the castle, but also the city took part in preparing for the defense. At the end of the war, a peace treaty was signed, the sole purpose of which was to prevent further strife. The agreement established new boundaries, which were sometimes described down to the smallest detail, listing pastures and fiefs. Descendants, however, often did not want to recognize the legality of such a redistribution of land, and if such a conflict, which dragged on for generations, could not be resolved, it could ultimately lead to the destruction of the castle or a change of ruler. In the Middle Ages, formally declared civil wars were often considered a completely legal means of restoring inheritance rights.
Some medieval castles, and subsequently residential towns, developed into cultural centers. If the lord turned out to be a lover of fine arts, he tried to attract scientists and artists to the court, founded a university and ordered work on the construction or decoration of temples and palaces.
Leisure
TournamentsThe purpose of the tournament is to demonstrate the fighting qualities of the knights who made up the main military. the power of the Middle Ages. Tournaments were usually organized by the king, or barons, major lords on especially solemn occasions: in honor of the marriages of kings, princes of the blood, in connection with the birth of heirs, the conclusion of peace, etc. Knights from all over Europe gathered for the tournament; it took place publicly, with a wide gathering of feudal people. nobility and common people.
Over time, coats of arms began to be checked at the tournament, and special tournament books and tournament lists were introduced. Usually the tournament began with a duel between knights, usually those who had just been knighted, the so-called. "jute". Such a duel was called "tiost" - a duel with spears. Then the main competition was held - an imitation of a battle between two detachments, formed by “nations” or regions. The victors took their opponents prisoner, took away weapons and horses, and forced the vanquished to pay a ransom.
From the 13th century the tournament was often accompanied by severe injuries and even death of participants. The church prohibited tournaments and the burial of the dead, but the custom turned out to be ineradicable. At the end of the tournament, the names of the winners were announced and awards were distributed. The winner of the tournament had the right to choose the queen of the tournament. Tournaments stopped in the 16th century, when the knightly cavalry lost its importance and was supplanted by infantry riflemen recruited from townspeople and peasants.
Knightly mottos
An important attribute of the knight was his motto. This is a short saying that expresses the most important side of the knight’s character, his life principles and aspirations. Mottos were often depicted on the coats of arms of knights, their seals, and armor. Many knights had mottos that emphasized their courage, determination, and especially complete self-sufficiency and independence from anyone. The characteristic knightly mottos were the following: “I will go my own way,” “I will not become anyone else,” “Remember me often,” “I will overcome,” “I am not a king or a prince, I am the Count de Coucy.”
When reading about knights, warriors of the thirteenth century, we often come across references to their armor and weapons. What did the military armor of the 13th century look like, how did the warrior put on all his equipment, how did he use it? You can, of course, consult numerous reference materials that provide information on these issues, but nothing beats a good practical demonstration of 13th century knightly equipment.
Numerous military history clubs study military equipment of various eras, make knightly armor and weapons, and even know what underwear was like in the 13th century. 
Participants in military history clubs know very well that It’s much more interesting to see everything with your own eyes.
Practice has shown that to put on all the equipment and complete equipment of a 13th century warrior you will need a lot of time and help , at least one servant-squire, but it is better to take two assistants who know what to do.
To begin, the knight must dress in thirteenth-century underwear.
The warrior puts on over his underwear not one-piece trousers, but two quilted trouser legs , which are attached to the belt with special leather straps. Homemade on the feet of a warrior leather shoes , sewn according to old patterns.
The first item of a knight's mail vestment is chain mail greaves
(eng. Chain Leggings), which are worn "on the leg"
over quilted trouser legs. 
Chain Leggings quite difficult to put on , since they should fit snugly enough to the leg.
If they were too loose, the knight would have difficulty walking, his legs would cling to one another.
Chainmail Leggings give a knight has the opportunity to sit comfortably on a horse.
Chainmail greaves are attached to the belt with special straps knight.
For that. to prevent chain mail greaves from sagging, they are supported by additional leather straps tied around the knee and ankle.
Then the knight puts on a thick soft quilt (English gambeson - overalls), consisting of many layers of material, fabric, cotton wool and horsehair, the entire quilt is stitched with strong threads, so it is hard to the touch, and at the same time soft armor, like a blanket.
A good quilt can stand on its own! Quilted dense fabric, like a padded jacket, weakens the force of any blows that can hit the knight, and also serves as a softening protective layer from the harsh touch of iron chain mail.
Quilting is a very warm and poorly breathable material, so the knight became very hot and sweaty while moving or fighting for several hours. Before a battle or before a campaign, a warrior had to drink enough water, otherwise he could die from dehydration.
Then the knight puts on a soft quilted balaclava, which hides his hair and serves as protection for his head from the iron chain mail
.
What is typical for the manufacture of chain mail of this period?
If you look closely at the close-up, you will see that it consists of alternating rows of solid rings and riveted links.
This method of joining rings is a little faster because you don't have to rivet each ring, but it is still a very labor-intensive process.
First, the blacksmith forged steel, made individual links, connected them correctly, performing riveting.
We are talking about several weeks of work by a qualified craftsman, as well as expensive materials. That is why chain mail was very expensive, and ordering it from a master was only possible for wealthy people.
Chain mail was invented approximately in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e., but it is impossible to say exactly who and where first made it.
Word "chain mail" comes from the Vedic Sanskrit word “armor from many rings (with the root “stake”, “kolo” - “circle, ring”); armor that fits tightly to the upper body, a shell made of rings. This is a derivative word from root “kanq” - kañc - 1) ‘to bind’, 2) “to shine.”
Putting on chain mail for a warrior on his own is also not easy. Hauberk
quite heavy, but it is also very flexible, so the knight in it can easily 
move.
Since the 10th century, the spread of chain mail reached its maximum, when they were invented Hauberks , with hood and gloves and mail shirt , covering the entire body.
The word hauberk comes from the old German word " Halsberge
", which originally meant Hals- "hals" 
- throat and berge - “take care.”
B 13th century chain mail in Europe sometimes they were reinforced with extensive shoulder and chest plates.
As you can see, the hauberk has a built-in hood
, which should be laced with a leather strap around the head. 
A leather strap holds the hood in place, and serves to ensure that it does not fall forward over the eyes, but stays on the knight's forehead when he rides a horse or fights in battle.
The hood is equipped with a collar that protects the throat.
The flexible hood collar can be secured in two positions - up and down.
An important part of a knight's equipment is belt on the waist , which helps distribute the weight of heavy chain mail.
When a knight puts on a hauberk, the entire weight of the iron equipment hangs down presses on his shoulders.
If a warrior raises his hands, and a servant-squire tightly tie a belt around the waist , then lowering his hands again, the warrior will feel that the big part of the weight of the chain mail is now held by the belt.
An integral part of the equipment of a 13th century knight are mittens.
The mittens have chainmail protection with back side , but on the palm side they are leather, so that it is easier for the knight to hold the reins of his horse and weapons.
There is a slot in the palm of the leather gauntlet so that the knight can remove his hand from the gauntlet when necessary. 
If you look at modern illustrations of combat, you will see that knights always wear gauntlets, and there is a reason for this.
No one in their right mind would go into battle without gloves; first of all, this is protection from damage to the hands holding the weapon. Hands in mittens, covered with chain mail protection on the back side, are a powerful weapon in close combat.
Gauntlets attached to hauberk (English hauberk), but are located so that you can take them off or put them on. They also have a leather tie around the wrist to keep them in place.
The knight puts on a hauberk shirt
(English) sur
+coat - “surcoat”, hence the word “frock coat”). Researchers have differing opinions regarding the original purpose of wearing a shirt. 
Researchers of military equipment believe that the outer shirt protected the iron chain mail from heating in the sun, because the chain mail could become too hot, or the shirt could protect the chain mail from the rain, because the iron chain mail could rust. Either way, the shirt served both purposes.
Overcoat (Surcoat) used to apply the coat of arms of a knight, which was very important because it was very difficult distinguish one warrior from another, when they are wearing mail helmets and raised collars.
At the beginning of the 13th century, heraldic symbols were quite simple, mainly geometric designs or stylized images animals.
On the shields of knights of the 13th century there were not yet very complex heraldic emblems and coats of arms, consisting of quarters and eighths, indicating kinship with the distant ancestors of the clan. 
The emblems of the 13th century can be described as “embellished sable”, that is, black and white.
Over the shirt with the coat of arms the knight wore belt with a sword. The sword in the scabbard was attached to the left side so that the knight can quickly and easily grab the hilt of the sword with his right hand.
By the way, 13th century swords are much less heavy than many people think, they weighed about 3 pounds or 1.5 kg, which is only three times more than a fencing sword. The sword is a weapon of balance and skill, not a striking weapon like a mace.
A knight could hold a mace or an ax in his left hand and deliver crushing, fatal blows to the enemy. Depending on the situation, the knight could use his shield while holding it in his left hand.
Then an additional soft protective headdress is put on the knight's head, with a sewn-in circle, like egalema which ones are worn on head Arabs. This circle helps hold the chainmail helmet in place, just as the egalem holds a man's headscarf, the kufiyah.
Now the helmet. The early thirteenth century was something of a transitional time for helmets: if you look at modern illustrations, you will see old-fashioned nose helmets next to the later "mask" type of helmet. However, the most modern 13th century fashion There was a flat top helmet whose design was a clear step backwards, not a good idea for a helmet as it could get dented badly if hit, causing serious injury to the knight. At the end of the thirteenth century the helmet design changed , and became like a “sugarloaf”, in subsequent centuries helmets almost always have a rounded shape, which protects the head well, but the shoulders may suffer. Chain mail was reinforced with shoulder armor that protected the warrior’s shoulders.
Wearing a helmet does not give the warrior a wide range of vision, and it does not take into account ease of breathing. A balance must be struck between greater security and a smaller visual range, which would basically mean that the knight's head was completely covered. With a greater range of vision, the warrior should have a more open and vulnerable face to injury. Thus, the design of the 13th century helmet resulted in narrow eye slits and small breathing holes.
The shield is placed on the knight's left hand.
On the back side of the shield are two short belts (English enarmes), through which the warrior threads his left hand. But there is also a longer belt on the shield called guige, that is giga ntsky to hang it over his shoulder when he is not using it for protection. The 13th century shield is made of wood and covered with several layers of thick leather to form a strong, layered defense. As on the outer shirt, the distinctive sign of the knight, the coat of arms, was depicted on the shield.
The main weapon of a 13th century knight was, of course, not a sword, but a spear. In the early thirteenth century, the spear was not a blunt, striped wooden pole, but rather a true war spear, consisting of a wooden shaft ten to twelve feet long, with a sharp, double-edged metal point at the end.
In earlier centuries the spear was used more frequently during battle, as seen when William's Norman cavalry fights against Harold's Anglo-Saxon heavy infantry at the Battle of Hastings October 14, 1066. The impact force of a horseman's spear was much higher than the impact force of a spear of a heavily armed warrior on foot.
By the early 13th century, knights used the technique of thrusting a spear held firmly under the rider's right arm. Considering that the knight sat quite firmly in the saddle of his horse, and the entire weight of the armored rider and the galloping horse was concentrated on the sharp cutting edge of the spear, which acquired the lethal force of the projectile. There is reliable news from contemporaries of the events that the spear pierced the enemy in armor right through.
What were the horses like in the 13th century army? Contrary to popular myths, war horses were not massive animals, but they were very strong to carry the entire weight of an armed knight in armor.
So, the knight is now armed and ready for battle.
There are a few things to note that refute common misconceptions that come from Hollywood movies or television. Firstly, it is physically impossible for a knight to put on all the necessary military equipment and arm himself on his own. As you can see in the photographs, there is no way a warrior could put on the equipment without outside help: he needs at least one, and preferably two assistants. 
Secondly, it takes quite a lot of time to properly arm a knight. In modern conditions, at a minimum, about twenty minutes of time is required, provided that you have two experienced assistants. Under other conditions, it will take at least half an hour to put everything on and tie it correctly and neatly, and not sloppy and crooked. Otherwise, the hood may fall over the knight's eyes, and the sleeves of the chain mail may slide down onto the mittens, which would be catastrophic for the warrior during battle. Preparation for battle must be thorough and thorough; during the battle it will be too late to do this.
And finally, there are issues of weight and ease of movement. Yes, the armor is heavy - as it should be, otherwise it is unlikely to be useful for protecting a warrior. But let's not forget that the knight trained almost every day since childhood. This meant that he was used to the armor and its weight, and could easily move in it. The chain mail is quite flexible, and its owner has freedom of movement.
So, here he is - an armored knight of the thirteenth century.
The chain mail in the photo is made of a metal braid, and is an exact copy of knightly equipment of the 13th century.
Weight of various parts of a 13th century knight's equipment in a modern version:
Gambeson: 10 lbs (4.5 kg)
Chain mail (English: Hauberk): 38 pounds (17 kg)
Leggings (eng. Chausses - highways): 18 pounds (8 kg)
Helm: 6 lbs (2.5 kg)
Shield: 4 lbs (2 kg)
Scabbard and sword belt: 2 pounds (1 kg)
Sword: 3 pounds (1.5 kg)
Axe: 4 lbs (2 kg)
That's a total of 85 pounds or 38.5 kg.
A knight of the 13th century, equipped with full armor, was an “armored tank” of his time - practically invincible and unkillable despite all the iron protection. Very few 13th century knights died during battle; many more died among civilians or lightly armed foot soldiers.
Many thanks to Knight Colin Middleton and his faithful squire.
2018-12-15Here we look at knightly armor from the 11th century to the first half of the 12th century, in particular from the Battle of Hastings to the First Crusade. Let us assume that knightly equipment in Central Europe was very similar. Significant regional differences cannot be inferred from the sources, but the pictorial sources presented here do not allow them to be isolated. The limits of applicability of these design features go far to the east, for example, helmet shapes typical of Eastern Europe. We find differences in equipment in the Byzantine Empire and in the regions subordinate to it, and the equipment of the Spanish knights also has its own characteristics.
In the first quarter of the 11th century, it should be noted that the shields are still not almond-shaped, and most of the helmets can only be dated to the second half of the 11th century.
Chain mail
The concepts: chain mail armor, hauberk, chain mail can be used interchangeably, so from now on we will simply call it “chain mail”. The terms presented above describe the most common iron armor in use at the time. Several pieces of chain mail dating back to the 11th century have survived. Almost none survived. To get an idea of the appearance of chain mail, consider artifacts and pictorial sources before and after and naturally during the selected period.
(A) Mail from Gjermundby 10th century
It is very short; according to the restoration, it is only just below the waist (to the hip bones) in a man 1.75 m tall. The restoration is very unreliable, since the chain mail was preserved in the form of many small fragments. The sleeves are short, barely covering the shoulders. Assembled from alternating rows of riveted and completely closed rings.
Riveted rings: wire with a cross-section from 1.09 mm to 1.4 or 1.68 mm, a ring with a diameter of 7.4 mm to 8.3 mm, and 7.7 mm here and there. The wire is round in cross-section. The rivet heads are on only one side of the ring, all the rivet heads are on the same side of the row.
Closed rings: material with a cross-section from 1.1 mm to 2 mm, internal ring diameter from 7.5 to 8.4 mm. The cross section is in the shape of a “rounded square”. These rings were most likely forged.
In total, about 25,000 of the above-mentioned rings were discovered, weighing a total of 5.5 kg. (2, 17)
(B1) Mail prescribed to Saint Wenceslas, exhibition "Europe to 1000 AD." Prague, Czech Republic, early 10th century The weight of chain mail B1 is 10 kg. Long, for a person 1.75 m tall it reaches almost to the knees. Long sleeves cover most of the forearm. This chain mail was apparently repaired and modified in later times. Rings with a cross section from 0.75 mm to 0.8 mm, and 0.9 mm at the collar. All rings are riveted. The inner diameter of the rings varies from 6.5 mm and 8 mm. The cut was probably on the back of the head, that is, in this photo the chain mail is from the back. Obviously, after the chain mail was put on, this very cut was tightened with a leather cord.
(C) Chain mail, State Historical Museum on Red Square, Moscow. Judging by the visual assessment of the chain mail, its length is up to the middle of the thigh. The sleeves are short, covering to the middle of the shoulders. The wire has a cross-section of about 1.5 mm, the inner diameter of the ring is about 7-8 mm. Riveted rings.
When looking at these three shirts, the following impressions emerge: the chainmails are very different in length, they end up somewhere between the waist and the knees. They are short sleeved - a maximum of one third of the forearm is covered. The rings are slightly flattened in cross-section (round, oval, almost square, etc.). But no flat rings are known. The rings of chain mail are often solid, and chain mail was sometimes assembled from alternating rows of riveted and solid rings. Completely closed rings are either stamped (Gjermundby 17) or joined by welding (Coppergate 8). The studs have a circular cross-section and are mainly made of iron, although some presence of non-ferrous metal alloys has been found. (8).
As a pictorial source for modern reconstructions of chain mail, we consider of course the Bayeux Tapestry. The late date of manufacture and the circumstances of its production affect the quality of this source (it was made 20 years after the Battle of Hastins). Chain mail extends to the knee and elbow, well, at least covering the forearms. Other pictorial sources confirm this impression. The long sleeves covering the wrist are shown in figure Q1 from the Apocalypse von St. Sever, Französische Ritter zwischen 1028 und 1072,).
(D1) detail of the Bayeux Tapestry. Here the chain mail is depicted in squares, which is interesting, the sword is “hidden” under the chain mail, pay attention to the square on the chest. Over time, chain mail tends to cover the entire body. It grows beyond the knee and covers the entire forearm, and in the second half of the 12th century the hand was covered with a chain mail glove. This development culminates in the 13th century with the full armor of the knight in chain mail. Among the finds at the site of the Battle of Visby, on the island. Gotland 1361, there are also chainmails which strongly resemble the chainmails of earlier periods. The ring is generally 8-10mm in diameter, with variations from 4-17mm. The rings are mainly round in cross-section, but flattened rings are also present (16). Flat rings on steel mail were probably common in the 14th century and were riveted using a rivet from a small triangular plate. (8)
It is impossible to say definitely about the cut on chain mail: for short chain mail they are not needed; cuts on the sides are very convenient, but the warrior runs the risk of being hit on the hips and pelvis with a sword (and in that early period the predominant technique was chopping with swords), so cuts in the front and back are preferable. Such cuts are very often found in pictorial sources of that period, and besides, such cuts are very useful for horsemen, and knights were horsemen.
An incision occurs in the collar area. A flared skirt was not found on chain mail of the period of interest to us. Also, no scallops were found on the chain mail of the period of interest to us.
The side slot for a sword scabbard appears in the second half of the 11th century and is found until the mid-12th century on chain mail. A sword with its hilt protruding from this gap is visible from it, the tip of the scabbard often peeks out from under the chain mail. On the Bayeux Tapestry, (see fig. D). we see how the sword was worn; also a very interesting figure in the Hildesheim Cathedral (German: Hildesheimer Dom) see fig. K, "Massacre of the Innocents" (see fig. I3) and look at the facade of the cathedral in Angouleme (German: Kathedrale von Angouleme) in fig. U. I don’t know of any earlier data about wearing a sword under chain mail.
Another feature of knights on pictorial sources is the chainmail squares on the chest. What this could be is debatable. Perhaps this is an additional breastplate flap attached to the chain mail in the chest area, or a chain mail valve that protects the neck and face. The option with a valve is supported by the hooks on the nosepieces of some of the helmets found. Such hooks only make sense if something is mounted on them. Logically, the breastplate should be permanently attached, but images on the Bayeux Tapestry speak against this theory. If this is a breastplate why is it never shown in the fight scenes? Although in combat scenes the chain mail squares are often no longer on the chest, the face is still displayed as completely as before. But since I think that the helmet artifact is more significant than the Tapestry, I believe that it was still a valve covering the face, see also fig. I7. There are also many images without this square.
Chain mail (and any kind of protection in general) on legs and feet was extremely rare in pictorial sources of the 11th and first half of the 12th centuries, and if it did exist, it belonged to the highest-ranking warriors. Bishop Odo depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry very likely wears chain mail stockings; William was depicted several times (though in later sources) wearing chain mail stockings.
Perhaps the chain mail was coated with something to protect against corrosion. From the late Middle Ages and early modern times there are examples of tinning, that is, coating with tin. And there is a silver-plated chainmail from the 10th century, which is kept in the National Archaeological Museum in Sofia, Bulgaria (1). Since there is no evidence for the period and region of interest to us, coverage is unlikely.
The thickness of the wire and the diameter of the rings varies greatly, so we can imagine many variations.
All numbers are in mm. Almost all genuine rings are in the green zone. Some individual rings reach sizes up to 2.9 mm thick and almost 15 mm in outer diameter. Interestingly, the trend shows that the older the chainmail, the thicker the rings (sixth/seventh centuries), while earlier finds are predominantly of smaller diameter (8th-10th centuries).(20)
(E) German foot or dismounted warriors 1130-1140, Andlau abbey in Alsace (eastern France) Abteikirche von Andlau im Elsaß). Even fairly long chain mail, apparently, did not necessarily have slits. The shields, despite the mid-12th century, are round. Chain mail was made in dozens of varieties, sizes and weights and is almost impossible to date accurately. Since they are made of iron wire, they are very susceptible to corrosion. Therefore, it is not at all surprising that the surviving medieval artifacts are fragmentary and of uncertain origin. However, thoroughly cleaned and oiled (...) chain mail has virtually no shelf life. It was not ordinary soldiers who were equipped with ringed armor, especially if it was new and in good condition. Therefore, it is likely that already in the late Middle Ages chain mail made a very long time ago was used (13).
(F) riveted chain mail: two examples of flat rings, round and oval rings
In addition to the chain mail listed below (F2) made from joined rings made of round wire, burials from the 3rd century are found. BC. in Chiumesti, Romania, where fragments of chain mail were discovered. They probably represent the remains of two different chain mail, since one of them consists of alternating rows of stamped and butted rings, while on the second chain mail the rings of the second type are riveted. Also, a fragment of chain mail from the “record” was found in the Sutton Hoo burial of the 6th-7th centuries, this is a burial mound necropolis east of Woodbridge in the English county of Suffolk. At the same time, there are many examples of chain mail made from riveted rings from ancient times and the late Middle Ages.
(F2) Combined chain mail, Augsburg, 1582. Cavalry armor of Elector Christian, in the Zwinger Arsenal in Dresden (18). a piece of chain mail covering the thigh. Chainmail head protection
At the moment, it seems as if the chainmail head protection was presented in the following variants:
- The chain mail hood is integral with the chain mail;
- Chain mail aventail on the helmet;
- Separate chain mail hood;
- The warrior has chain mail on his body, but there is no chain mail protection for the head and neck
A chainmail shirt, which forms a single whole with a chainmail hood, is an undeniable option. Although, of course, not a single such artifact has been found, a lot of relevant pictorial sources indicate that this version of the head protection has no doubt: the Bayeux Tapestry, the Great Seal of Henry I, the Bible of Saint-Etienne, the Apocalypse of Saint Sever, etc. .
(N1) Apocalypse of John the Evangelist (Beatus-Apokalypse), 10th century (975) dated from accompanying artifacts from the cathedral in Gerona (im Besitz der Kathedrale von Gerona), northwestern Spain. But the very high armor class of the depicted warriors casts doubt on the dating. But these are most likely features of Spanish weapons and equipment. Knights in Fig. N1 up to the hand is completely protected by chain mail. The legs and feet are also clad in chain mail. This chainmail protection is more similar to that used at the end of the 12th century. At least one Phrygian helmet is visible, (more details below left). The shields are round without umbos; finds of such shields date back to the 10th century. Nasals are also depicted on some helmets; they are connected at the lower edge to a chain mail hood.
(L) Detail of a holy water vessel from Lorraine (c. 1000) currently kept in Aachen Cathedral. The chain mail covering the ears and neck is clearly visible, as well as two chain mail with short sleeves and oval shields.  |
 |
| (M) Evangeliar von Echternach (Codex aureus Epternacensis)), 1030-1050. Today it is kept in the German National Museum in Nuremberg (Hs 156 142). Good pictorial source. | (F), fresco from the crypt of the Basilica of Aquileia from the province of Udine (Krypta der Basilika von Aquileia) in northern Italy, early 12th century. |
 |
 |
| (J) Two knights from the de Ebulo Liber manuscript. 1196 “Liber ad honorem Augusti sive de rebus Siculis” von Petrus de Ebulo (Code 120 II of the Civil Library in Bern). The complete picture also shows Bishop Conrad von Würzburg. Drawings (F and J) show that the chainmail hood in later times becomes the standard equipment. | (I1) The marked warrior, unlike many others, does not have chain mail on his body. The segmented helmet is equipped with a chain mail aventail at the bottom. Iso. early 11th century, illustration of “The Vision of Avacuum” from northern France, the Bible of the Benedictine monastery of Saint-Vaast, near Arras (“The Vision of Habukuk” aus der nordfranzösischen Bibel des Benediktinerklosters Saint-Vaast in der Nähe von Arras). MS 435, Municipal Library , Arras. |
In addition to chain mail hoods attached to the shirt, a chain mail aventail was common, attached to the helmet (German: Helmbrünne, English: Aventail). The chainmail aventail covered the neck and shoulders, and perhaps sometimes the face.
Pecs Helmet, late 10th Century: "In the lower part of the dome there are still remains of chain mail fastenings." (4),
Helmet from Lake Lednicke (Helm von Ostrow Lednicki), 11th-12th century: “On the edge of the helmet there are holes that served to attach the neck protection.” (4)
Helm of St. Wenceslas (Helm des heiligen Wenzel), 10th century: "An iron strip was riveted to the lower part of the helmet to which (...) the neck protection was attached." (4)
The Gjermundbu helm still has remains of chainmail inserted into holes in the lower part of the helmet. (3)
All these signs together prove that a small piece of chain mail was also attached to the helmet.
Separate chainmail hoods and necklaces that are not even connected to the chainmail shirt or attached to the bottom of the helmet are difficult to confirm. However, most of the visual sources showing knights in chain mail and helmet cannot be interpreted unambiguously. For example, it is possible that Figure M shows a knight in a helmet with a chain mail aventail, and it is possible that a chain mail hood is attached to his chain mail; there is an opinion that he is not wearing chain mail at all. Some knights may also have worn separate hoods. Due to the sketchiness of the visual sources and the scarcity of artifacts, one can make assumptions. That is, suppose that the helmet is put on a chain mail hood, then the chin straps or laces should be visible above the knight’s cheeks covered with chain mail, but the artists of that time (and often of later times) did not bother themselves too much with small details. In the case of using a chain mail aventail, the straps are hidden under the chain mail, but even if a separate chain mail weir or chain mail hood was used, then artists and sculptors in many cases did not bother to remove the joint.
I have found so far only two pictorial sources showing separate chainmail hoods, see below figure K, and in another section figure T.
It would be surprising to assume that the commander-in-chief lacked armor. You will say: why, he should lead the battle? But at that time the commander-in-chief had to attack in the front ranks, so he had to be protected very reliably.
It is also a little strange to imagine at that time a helmet without a chain mail aventail and not wearing a chain mail hood, that is, without chain mail at all. It would seem so simple, but there are very few such images. From chronicle sources it is known that at the height of the Battle of Hastings the news was spread that William had died, and he opened his face and showed his soldiers that he was alive. This means that during the battle his face was covered with something, probably neither a mask nor a visor, but the flap of a chain mail hood.
(G2) Seal of William the Conqueror. It seems that he is without chain mail at all and his neck is bare. The helmet is very unusual - similar to the helmet of antiquity. Norman helmet
Helmets of conical and spheroconic shapes with a nosepiece of the Ausburg type spread throughout Europe from the beginning of the 11th century and maintained their popularity throughout the 12th century. From the end of the 12th century they were gradually replaced by pot-shaped helmets, but were also used in the 13th century. (6)
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| (P2) Helmet from the Meuse River, (territory of Belgium), 11-12 centuries. Stored in Mainz, in the Roman-Germanic Central Museum, exhibition "Das Reich Salier" Most helmets of this type are distinguished by the absence of a stiffening rib in the center of the helmet, as for example on the helmet from Olmutz and the like. Also interesting is the presence of a pommel with a ring, which may have served as a place for attaching a yalovets or similar decoration. Also forged from one piece. |
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| (B2 + W1 + CC1) helmet from Lake Lednice (Ostrow lednicki) Gniezno district in the province of Poznan in Poland. 11th/12th century. Forged from a piece of wood. Slightly trapezoidal crown. There is a hook on the nosepiece. |
These helmets are very similar; the St. Wenceslas helmet is also a representative of this type of helmet. Their heights are 27.5 cm, 26.5 cm, 24.2 cm, 24.4 cm, 27.9 19.5 cm, probably measured from the tip to the tip of the nasal. They are all forged from one piece of iron, and with nozzles. Also very interesting to consider is a helmet published at the beginning of the 20th century in the German journal "Historical Expertise" from Awarenwall,
(I2) A helmet found either in the Thames or in northern France. The nosepiece has been restored. Seams on the front right and left and rear right and left. If you look at the helmet from the top of the nose and the face up, the resulting seams form an X. On the forum tax from shares, Pictorial sources show for the most part only one type of helmet: Norman. That is, a helmet of a conical or spheroconic shape, flattened on the sides so that when viewed from above it resembles an oval, most often with a nosepiece. They are solid or welded from segments so that the joints are not visible. In drawings, the helmet often looks as if it was assembled from segments. The segments were riveted to each other directly (for example, from the Thames and a series of Eastern European helmets). Helmets fastened with stripes (Gjermundby, Baldenhem) can be found, but are already outdated - not a single copy has survived in Western and Central Europe dating from the 11th-12th centuries. But many pictorial sources and finds of such helmets from earlier eras speak in favor of this assumption.
A special form of conical helmet is the “Phrygian cap,” so named by analogy with woolen caps from Phrygia (a region in the west of modern Turkey). They are distinguished by the forward curved top of the crown, see Fig. N. Apparently this form of helmet came into fashion after the 11th century and lasted throughout the 12th century.
The Chamoson helmet, very similar to the helmet from Niederrealta Castle, circa 1961, now allows us to initially trace the origins of the Cherepniks in Northern Italy, in the 12th century. They were made in accordance with the tradition of Gjermundby and other segmented helmets, to comply with this, segments were installed on the Chamoson helmet, which do not add defensive properties (9).
Skeleton helmets and “Phrygian caps” were used very limitedly in the 11th - first half of the 12th centuries; they are relevant only for the end of the period we are considering. In principle, chess pieces from Lewes Abbey in Scotland, made in the 12th century, are used for reconstruction of the 11th century (and some of the figures there have skullcaps), but it is still limited.
It is possible that the helmets could have been brightly colored. The illustrations show colorful helmets. But it is impossible to confirm this materially. No paint has been preserved on any helmet from the period of interest to us.
About the nasalizer
In the 10th century, most helmets did not have a nosepiece. But there are some exceptions, and from the end of the 10th century, nasals appear more and more often.
(S1) Helmets from the Saint Gallen manuscript from the University Library of Leiden (St. Gallen um 925. Leiden, Universitätsbibliothek, Ms. Periz. F17, fol. 22r (1.v.l.), 9r (2.v.l.). The top line shows the helmet with nosepieces.The bottom row shows the same helmets without nosepieces. In Fig. S1 clearly distinguishable nasals, sometimes even with a typical hook at the tip. Only those helmets flying off their heads are depicted with nose guards. Perhaps the artist depicted this in such a way as not to cover the faces of the warriors.
(DD) Phillips Middleton, Ryedale, North Yorkshire, England, 10th century (Jellingstil). Viking in a helmet with a bowman with a sword, saxophone, spear and shield. Before and after the period we are studying, there are many examples of helmets with nosepieces. This continuity and the drawings presented here: S1, DD, N1 prove the existence of alluvials in the 10th century and naturally in the 11th and 12th centuries.