Livonian War causes and results briefly. “The Livonian War, its political meaning and consequences

The course of the Livonian War can be divided into three stages, each of which differs slightly in the composition of the participants, duration and nature of the actions. The reason for the outbreak of hostilities in the Baltic states was the fact that the Bishop of Dorpat did not pay the “Yuryev tribute” from the possessions ceded to him by the Russian princes. In addition to the oppression of Russian people in the Baltic states, the Livonian authorities violated another point of the agreement with Russia - in September 1554 they entered into an alliance with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, directed against Moscow. The Russian government sent Master Furstenberg a letter declaring war. However, hostilities did not begin then - Ivan IV hoped to achieve his goals through diplomatic means until June 1558.

M.V. Glinsky entered the land of the Order. During the winter campaign, Russian and Tatar troops, numbering 40 thousand soldiers, reached the Baltic coast, ravaging the surroundings of many Livonian cities and castles. During this campaign, Russian military leaders twice, on the direct orders of the tsar, sent letters to the master to resume peace negotiations. The Livonian authorities made concessions: they began collecting tribute, agreed with the Russian side on a temporary cessation of hostilities and sent their representatives to Moscow, who, during difficult negotiations, were forced to agree to the transfer of Narva to Russia.

But the established truce was soon violated by supporters of the military party of the Order. In March 1558 Narva Vogt E. von Schlennenberg ordered the shelling of the Russian fortress of Ivangorod, provoking a new invasion of Moscow troops into Livonia.

During the second campaign to the Baltic states in May-July 1558. The Russians captured more than 20 fortresses, including the most important - Narva, Neuschloss, Neuhaus, Kiripe and Dorpat. During the summer campaign of 1558. The troops of the Moscow Tsar came close to Revel and Riga, ravaging their surroundings.

The decisive battle of the winter campaign of 1558/1559. happened near the city of Tiersen, where on January 17, 1559. met a large Livonian detachment of the Riga domprost F. Felkerzam and the Russian Advanced Regiment led by the governor, Prince. V.S. Silver. In a stubborn battle, the Germans were defeated.

In March 1559 The Russian government, considering its position quite strong, through the mediation of the Danes, agreed to conclude a six-month truce with Master W. Furstenberg - from May to November 1559.

Having received in 1559 an extremely necessary respite, the order authorities, led by G. Ketler, became on September 17, 1559. new master, secured the support of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Sweden. Ketler in October 1559 broke the truce with Moscow. The new master managed to defeat the detachment of governor Z.I. with an unexpected attack near Dorpat. Ochina-Pleshcheeva. Nevertheless, the head of the Yuryevsky (Derpt) garrison, Voivode Katyrev-Rostovsky, managed to take measures to defend the city. For ten days, the Livonians unsuccessfully stormed Yuriev and, not deciding on a winter siege, were forced to retreat. The siege of Lais in November 1559 was equally unsuccessful. Ketler, having lost 400 soldiers in the battles for the fortress, retreated to Wenden.

The result of the new large offensive of the Russian troops was the capture of one of the strongest fortresses of Livonia - Fellin - on August 30, 1560. A few months earlier, Russian troops led by governors Prince I.F. Mstislavsky and Prince P.I. Shuisky occupied Marienburg.

resisted, counting on the help of Sweden, Lithuania and Poland. Hostile relations between these states allowed Russia, for the time being, to conduct successful military operations in the Baltic states.

Federal Agency for Education

State educational institution

higher professional education

“Khakass State University named after N.F. Katanova"

Institute of History and Law

Department of Russian History

Livonian War: causes, course, results.

(Course work)

Performed:

1st year student, group Iz-071

Bazarova Rano Makhmudovna

Scientific adviser:

Ph.D., Art. teacher

Drozdov Alexey Ilyich

Abakan 2008

INTRODUCTION

1. CAUSES OF THE LIVONIAN WAR

2. PROGRESS AND RESULTS OF THE LIVONIAN WAR

2.1 First stage

2.2. Second phase

2.3 Third stage

2.4 Results of the war

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST

INTRODUCTION

Relevance of the topic. The history of the Livonian War, despite the knowledge of the goals of the conflict, the nature of the actions of the warring parties, and the results of the clash, remains among the key problems of Russian history. Evidence of this is the diversity of opinions of researchers who tried to determine the significance of this war among other foreign policy actions of Russia in the second half of the 16th century. One can rightfully detect problems similar to the reign of Ivan the Terrible in the foreign policy of modern Russia. Having thrown off the Horde yoke, the young state needed an urgent reorientation to the West and restoration of interrupted contacts. The Soviet Union was also in long-term isolation from most of the Western world for many reasons, so the first priority of the new, democratic government was to actively search for partners and raise the international prestige of the country. It is the search for the right ways to establish contacts that determines the relevance of the topic under study in social reality.

Object of study. Russian foreign policy in the 16th century.

Subject of study. Livonian War causes, course, results.

Goal of the work. Describe the influence of the Livonian War of 1558 - 1583. on Russia's international position; as well as the domestic politics and economy of the country.

1. Determine the causes of the Livonian War of 1558 - 1583.

2. Identify the main stages in the course of military operations with the characteristics of each of them. Pay attention to the reasons for changes in the nature of war.

3. Summarize the results of the Livonian War, based on the terms of the peace treaty.

Chronological framework. It began in 1558 and ended in 1583.

Geographical framework. Baltic territory, western and northwestern regions of Russia.

Sources.

“The Capture of Polotsk by Ivan the Terrible” depicts the situation in Polotsk during its siege by Russian troops, the panic of the Lithuanian governors who were forced to surrender the city. The source provides interesting information about the superiority of Russian artillery and the defection of the Polotsk peasants to the side of the Russians. The chronicler shows the tsar as a zealous owner of his “fatherland” - Polotsk: after the capture of the city, Ivan the Terrible conducts a population census.

“Correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and Andrei Kurbsky” is polemical in nature. In it, Kurbsky accuses the tsar of striving for autocracy and mercilessly terrorizing talented commanders. The fugitive sees this as one of the reasons for military failures, in particular, the surrender of Polotsk. In his response letters, Grozny, despite the rude epithets addressed to the former governor, justifies his actions to him. In the first message, for example, Ivan IV justifies his territorial claims to the Livonian land as his “patrimony.”

The “Tale of the Coming of Stefan Batory to the City of Pskov” reflects one of the events of the Livonian War: the defense of Pskov. The author very picturesquely describes the “unquenchable fierce beast” of King Stephen, his inexorable “lawless” desire to take Pskov and, in contrast, the decision of all participants in the defense to stand “firmly.” The source shows in sufficient detail the location of the Lithuanian troops, the course of the first attack, and the firepower of both sides.

A prominent representative of the psychological-economic school, V. O. Klyuchevsky, saw the defining beginning of the turbulent history of the 16th century in the claim of princes to absolute power. Briefly, but clearly examining the foreign policy tasks of the Russian state, he noted that at the heart of the complex diplomatic relations that had begun with the countries of Western Europe was the “national idea” of further struggle for the unification of all ancient Russian lands.

In “Russian History in Descriptions of Its Main Figures” by N. I. Kostomarov, published over a period of fifteen years from 1873, the character of each figure is presented in accordance with the historical situation. He attached great importance to the subjective factor in history. He sees the cause of the conflict between Ivan the Terrible and Sigismund in personal hostility due to an unsuccessful matchmaking. According to Kostomarov, the choice of means to achieve the well-being of the human race was made by Ivan the Terrible unsuccessfully, and for this reason he does not fit the concept of a “great man.”

The monograph by V.D. Korolyuk, the only one for the Soviet period, is entirely devoted to the Livonian War. It accurately highlights the fundamentally different visions of Ivan the Terrible and the Elected Rada of the foreign policy tasks facing Russia at that time. The author describes in detail the international situation that was favorable for the Russian state before the start of the war; the course of military operations itself is poorly covered.

According to A.A. Zimin and A.L. Khoroshkevich, the war acted as a continuation of domestic policy by other means for both warring parties. The outcome of the conflict for Russia was predetermined for a number of objective reasons: the complete ruin of the country, the oprichnina terror that destroyed the best military personnel, the presence of fronts in both the West and the East. The monograph emphasizes the idea of the national liberation struggle of the Baltic peoples against the Livonian feudal lords.

R. G. Skrynnikov in his “Russian History” paid very little attention to the Livonian War, believing that Ivan the Terrible did not need to resort to military action to gain access to the Baltic. The Livonian War is covered in overview; much more attention is paid to the internal politics of the Russian state.

Among the kaleidoscope of views on the history of the Livonian War, two main directions can be distinguished, based on the advisability of choosing the country’s foreign policy course in specific historical conditions. Representatives of the first believe that among many foreign policy tasks, resolving the Baltic issue was a priority. These include historians of the Soviet school: V. D. Korolyuk, A. A. Zimin and A. L. Khoroshkevich. Characteristic of them is the use of a socio-economic approach to history. Another group of researchers considers the choice in favor of war with Livonia to be erroneous. This was first noted by the 19th century historian N.I. Kostomarov. R. G. Skrynnikov, professor at St. Petersburg University, in his new book “Russian History of the 9th – 17th centuries” believes that the Russian government could have peacefully established itself on the Baltic coast, but failed to cope with the task and brought to the fore the military seizure of the harbors of Livonia. The pre-revolutionary historian E.F. Shmurlo took an intermediate position, considering the “Crimea” and “Livonia” programs to be equally urgent. The choice of one of them at the time described, in his opinion, was influenced by secondary factors.

1. CAUSES OF THE LIVONIAN WAR

The main directions of the foreign policy of the Russian centralized state emerged in the second half of the 15th century, under Grand Duke Ivan III. They boiled down, firstly, to the struggle on the eastern and southern borders with the Tatar khanates that arose on the ruins of the Golden Horde; secondly, to the struggle with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland associated with it by the bonds of the union for the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian lands captured by Lithuanian and partly Polish feudal lords; thirdly, to the struggle on the northwestern borders with the aggression of the Swedish feudal lords and the Livonian Order, who sought to isolate the Russian state from the natural and convenient access it needed to the Baltic Sea.

For centuries, the struggle on the southern and eastern outskirts was a common and constant thing. After the collapse of the Golden Horde, the Tatar khans continued to raid the southern borders of Russia. And only in the first half of the 16th century, a long war between the Great Horde and the Crimea absorbed the forces of the Tatar world. Moscow's protege has established itself in Kazan. The alliance between Russia and Crimea lasted for several decades, until the Crimeans destroyed the remnants of the Great Horde. The Ottoman Turks, having subjugated the Crimean Khanate, became a new military force that the Russian state faced in this region. After the Crimean Khan attacked Moscow in 1521, the Kazan people broke vassal relations with Russia. The struggle for Kazan began. Only the third campaign of Ivan IV was successful: Kazan and Astrakhan were taken. Thus, by the mid-50s of the 16th century, a zone of its political influence had formed to the east and south of the Russian state. In her person a strength grew that could resist the Crimea and the Ottoman Sultan. The Nogai horde actually submitted to Moscow, and its influence in the North Caucasus increased. Following the Nogai Murzas, the Siberian Khan Ediger recognized the power of the tsar. The Crimean Khan was the most active force holding back Russia's advance to the south and east.

The foreign policy question that has arisen seems natural: should we continue the onslaught on the Tatar world, should we finish the struggle, the roots of which go back to the distant past? Is the attempt to conquer Crimea timely? Two different programs collided in Russian foreign policy. The formation of these particular programs was determined by international circumstances and the balance of political forces within the country. The elected Rada considered a decisive fight against Crimea timely and necessary. But she did not take into account the difficulties of implementing this plan. Vast expanses of the “wild field” separated what was then Russia from Crimea. Moscow did not yet have any strongholds along this path. The situation spoke more in favor of defense than offensive. In addition to military difficulties, there were also great political difficulties. Entering into conflict with Crimea and Turkey, Russia could count on an alliance with Persia and the German Empire. The latter was under constant threat of Turkish invasion and lost a significant part of Hungary. But at the moment, the position of Poland and Lithuania, which saw in the Ottoman Empire a serious counterweight to Russia, was much more important. The joint struggle of Russia, Poland and Lithuania against Turkish aggression was associated with serious territorial concessions in favor of the latter. Russia could not abandon one of the main directions in foreign policy: reunification with the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands. The program of struggle for the Baltic states seemed more realistic. Ivan the Terrible disagreed with his parliament, deciding to go to war against the Livonian Order and try to advance to the Baltic Sea. In principle, both programs suffered from the same flaw - impracticability at the moment, but at the same time both were equally urgent and timely. However, before the start of hostilities in the western direction, Ivan IV stabilized the situation on the lands of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, suppressing the rebellion of the Kazan Murzas in 1558 and thereby forcing the Astrakhan ones to submit.

Even during the existence of the Novgorod Republic, Sweden began to penetrate the region from the west. The first serious skirmish dates back to the 12th century. At the same time, the German knights began to implement their political doctrine - the “March to the East”, a crusade against the Slavic and Baltic peoples with the aim of converting them to Catholicism. In 1201 Riga was founded as a stronghold. In 1202, the Order of the Sword Bearers was founded specifically for actions in the Baltic states, which conquered Yuryev in 1224. Having suffered a series of defeats from Russian forces and the Baltic tribes, the Swordsmen and Teutons formed the Livonian Order. The intensified advance of the knights was stopped during 1240 - 1242. In general, peace with the order in 1242 did not protect against hostilities with the crusaders and Swedes in the future. The knights, relying on the help of the Roman Catholic Church, captured a significant part of the Baltic lands at the end of the 13th century.

Sweden, having its interests in the Baltic states, was able to intervene in Livonian affairs. The Russian-Swedish war lasted from 1554 to 1557. Attempts by Gustav I Vasa to involve Denmark, Lithuania, Poland and the Livonian Order in the war against Russia did not yield results, although initially it was the order that pushed the Swedish king to fight the Russian state. Sweden lost the war. After the defeat, the Swedish king was forced to pursue an extremely cautious policy towards his eastern neighbor. True, the sons of Gustav Vasa did not share their father’s wait-and-see attitude. Crown Prince Eric hoped to establish complete Swedish dominance in Northern Europe. It was obvious that after the death of Gustav, Sweden would again take an active part in Livonian affairs. To some extent, Sweden's hands were tied by the aggravation of Swedish-Danish relations.

The territorial dispute with Lithuania had a long history. Before the death of Prince Gediminas (1316 - 1341), Russian regions accounted for more than two-thirds of the entire territory of the Lithuanian state. Over the next hundred years, under Olgerd and Vytautas, the Chernigov-Seversk region (the cities of Chernigov, Novgorod - Seversk, Bryansk), the Kiev region, Podolia (the northern part of the lands between the Bug and the Dniester), Volyn, and the Smolensk region were conquered.

Under Vasily III, Russia laid claim to the throne of the Principality of Lithuania after the death in 1506 of Alexander, whose widow was the Russian sovereign’s sister. In Lithuania, a struggle began between the Lithuanian-Russian and Lithuanian Catholic groups. After the latter's victory, Alexander's brother Sigismund ascended the Lithuanian throne. The latter saw in Vasily a personal enemy who laid claim to the Lithuanian throne. This exacerbated already strained Russian-Lithuanian relations. In such a situation, the Lithuanian Sejm in February 1507 decided to start a war with its eastern neighbor. Lithuanian ambassadors in the form of an ultimatum raised the question of the return of lands that passed to Russia during the last wars with Lithuania. It was not possible to achieve positive results in the negotiation process, and military operations began in March 1507. In 1508, in the Principality of Lithuania itself, the uprising of Prince Mikhail Glinsky, another contender for the throne of Lithuania, began. The rebellion received active support in Moscow: Glinsky was accepted into Russian citizenship, in addition, he was given an army under the command of Vasily Shemyachich. Glinsky conducted military operations with varying success. One of the reasons for the failures was the fear of the popular movement of Ukrainians and Belarusians who wanted to reunite with Russia. Not having sufficient funds to successfully continue the war, Sigismund decided to begin peace negotiations. On October 8, 1508, the “eternal peace” was signed. According to it, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for the first time officially recognized the transfer to Russia of the Seversky cities annexed to the Russian state during the wars of the late 15th – early 16th centuries. But, despite some success, the government of Vasily III did not consider the war of 1508 to be a solution to the issue of Western Russian lands and considered the “eternal peace” as a respite, preparing to continue the struggle. The ruling circles of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were also not inclined to come to terms with the loss of the Seversky lands.

But in the specific conditions of the mid-16th century, a direct clash with Poland and Lithuania was not envisaged. The Russian state could not count on the help of reliable and strong allies. Moreover, the war with Poland and Lithuania would have to be waged in difficult conditions of hostile actions both from the Crimea and Turkey, and from Sweden and even the Livonian Order. Therefore, the Russian government did not consider this foreign policy option at the moment.

One of the important factors that determined the tsar’s choice in favor of the fight for the Baltic states was the low military potential of the Livonian Order. The main military force in the country was the knightly Order of the Swordsmen. Over 50 castles scattered throughout the country were in the hands of the order authorities. Half of the city of Riga was subordinate to the supreme authority of the master. The Archbishop of Riga (the other part of Riga was subordinate to him) and the bishops of Dorpat, Revel, Ezel and Courland were completely independent. The knights of the order owned estates on fief rights. Large cities, such as Riga, Revel, Dorpat, Narva, etc., were actually an independent political force, although they were under the supreme authority of the master or bishops. Clashes constantly occurred between the Order and the spiritual princes. The Reformation spread rapidly in the cities, while chivalry remained largely Catholic. The only body of central legislative power was the Landtags, convened by the masters in the city of Wolmar. The meetings were attended by representatives of four classes: the Order, the clergy, the knighthood and the cities. The resolutions of the Landtags usually had no real significance in the absence of a unified executive power. Close ties have long existed between the local Baltic population and the Russian lands. Ruthlessly suppressed economically, politically and culturally, the Estonian and Latvian populations were ready to support the military actions of the Russian army in the hope of liberation from national oppression.

The Russian state itself by the end of the 50s. XVI century was a powerful military power in Europe. As a result of the reforms, Russia became significantly stronger and achieved a much higher degree of political centralization than ever before. Permanent infantry units were created - the Streltsy army. Russian artillery also achieved great success. Russia had not only large enterprises for the production of cannons, cannonballs and gunpowder, but also well-trained numerous personnel. In addition, the introduction of an important technical improvement - the carriage - made it possible to use artillery in the field. Russian military engineers developed a new effective system of engineering support for attacking fortresses.

In the 16th century, Russia became the largest trading power at the junction of Europe and Asia, whose craft was still suffocated by the lack of non-ferrous and precious metals. The only channel for the supply of metals is trade with the West through the intermediary of Livonian cities. The Livonian cities - Dorpat, Riga, Revel and Narva - were part of the Hansa, a trade association of German cities. Their main source of income was intermediary trade with Russia. For this reason, attempts by the English and Dutch merchants to establish direct trade relations with the Russian state were stubbornly suppressed by Livonia. Back at the end of the 15th century, Russia tried to influence the trade policy of the Hanseatic League. In 1492, opposite Narva, the Russian Ivangorod was founded. A little later the Hanseatic court in Novgorod was closed. The economic growth of Ivangorod could not help but frighten the trade elite of the Livonian cities, which were losing huge profits. In response, Livonia was ready to organize an economic blockade, the supporters of which were also Sweden, Lithuania and Poland. In order to eliminate the organized economic blockade of Russia, a clause on freedom of communications with European countries through Swedish possessions was included in the peace treaty of 1557 with Sweden. Another channel of Russian-European trade passed through the cities of the Gulf of Finland, in particular Vyborg. The further growth of this trade was hampered by contradictions between Sweden and Russia on border issues.

Trade on the White Sea, although of great importance, could not solve the problems of Russian-Northern European contacts for many reasons: navigation on the White Sea is impossible for most of the year; the path there was difficult and long; contacts were one-sided with a complete monopoly of the British, etc. The development of the Russian economy, which needed constant and unimpeded trade relations with European countries, posed the task of gaining access to the Baltic.

The roots of the war for Livonia should be sought not only in the described economic situation of the Moscow state, they also lay in the distant past. Even under the first princes, Rus' was in close communication with many foreign countries. Russian merchants traded in the markets of Constantinople, and marriage alliances linked the princely family with European dynasties. In addition to overseas merchants, ambassadors of other states and missionaries often came to Kyiv. One of the consequences of the Tatar-Mongol yoke for Rus' was a forced reorientation of foreign policy to the East. The War for Livonia was the first serious attempt to bring Russian life back on track and restore the broken connection with the West.

International life posed the same dilemma for every European state: to ensure an independent, independent position in the sphere of international relations or to serve as a simple object of the interests of other powers. The future of the Moscow state largely depended on the outcome of the struggle for the Baltic states: whether it would join the family of European nations, having the opportunity to independently communicate with the states of Western Europe.

In addition to trade and international prestige, the territorial claims of the Russian Tsar played an important role among the causes of the war. In the first message of Ivan the Terrible, it is not without reason that he declares: “... The city of Vladimir, located in our patrimony, the Livonian land...”. Many Baltic lands have long belonged to the Novgorod land, as well as the banks of the Neva River and the Gulf of Finland, which were subsequently captured by the Livonian Order.

One should not discount such a factor as social. The program of the struggle for the Baltic states met the interests of the nobility and the upper classes of the townspeople. The nobility counted on local distributions of land in the Baltic states, as opposed to the boyar nobility, which was more satisfied with the option of annexing the southern lands. Due to the remoteness of the “wild field” and the impossibility of establishing a strong central government there, at least at first, landowners - boyars had the opportunity to occupy the position of almost independent sovereigns in the southern regions. Ivan the Terrible sought to weaken the influence of the titled Russian boyars, and, naturally, took into account primarily the interests of the noble and merchant classes.

Given the complex balance of power in Europe, it was extremely important to choose a favorable moment to begin military operations against Livonia. It came for Russia at the end of 1557 - beginning of 1558. The defeat of Sweden in the Russian-Swedish war temporarily neutralized this fairly strong enemy, which had the status of a naval power. Denmark at this moment was distracted by the deterioration of its relations with Sweden. Lithuania and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were not bound by serious complications of the international order, but were not ready for a military clash with Russia due to unresolved internal issues: social conflicts within each state and disagreements over the union. Proof of this is the fact that in 1556 the expiring truce between Lithuania and the Russian state was extended for six years. And finally, as a result of military operations against the Crimean Tatars, there was no need to fear for the southern borders for some time. The raids resumed only in 1564 during a period of complications on the Lithuanian front.

During this period, relations with Livonia were quite tense. In 1554, Alexei Adashev and clerk Viskovaty announced to the Livonian embassy their reluctance to extend the truce due to:

Failure of the Bishop of Dorpat to pay tribute from the possessions ceded to him by the Russian princes;

The oppression of Russian merchants in Livonia and the destruction of Russian settlements in the Baltic states.

The establishment of peaceful relations between Russia and Sweden contributed to a temporary settlement of Russian-Livonian relations. After Russia lifted the ban on the export of wax and lard, Livonia was presented with the terms of a new truce:

Unimpeded transportation of weapons to Russia;

Guarantee of payment of tribute by the Bishop of Dorpat;

Restoration of all Russian churches in Livonian cities;

Refusal to enter into an alliance with Sweden, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania;

Providing conditions for free trade.

Livonia did not intend to fulfill its obligations under the truce concluded for fifteen years.

Thus, the choice was made in favor of resolving the Baltic issue. This was facilitated by a number of reasons: economic, territorial, social and ideological. Russia, being in a favorable international situation, had high military potential and was ready for a military conflict with Livonia for possession of the Baltic states.

2. PROGRESS AND RESULTS OF THE LIVONIAN WAR

2.1 First stage of the war

The main goal of the first campaign of the Russian army in Livonia, which took place in the winter of 1558, was the desire to achieve a voluntary concession of Narva from the Order. Military operations began in January 1558. Moscow horse armies led by Kasimov’s “Tsar” Shah Ali and Prince. M.V. Glinsky entered the land of the Order. During the winter campaign, Russian and Tatar troops, numbering 40 thousand soldiers, reached the Baltic coast, ravaging the surroundings of many Livonian cities and castles. During this campaign, Russian military leaders twice, on the direct orders of the tsar, sent letters to the master to resume peace negotiations. The Livonian authorities made concessions: they began collecting tribute, agreed with the Russian side on a temporary cessation of hostilities and sent their representatives to Moscow, who, during difficult negotiations, were forced to agree to the transfer of Narva to Russia.

Thus, the first stage of the Livonian War lasted from 1558 to 1561. It was conceived as a punitive demonstration campaign given the obvious military superiority of the Russian army. Livonia stubbornly resisted, counting on the help of Sweden, Lithuania and Poland. Hostile relations between these states allowed Russia, for the time being, to conduct successful military operations in the Baltic states.

2.2 Second stage of the war

Despite the defeat of the Order, the government of Ivan the Terrible faced a difficult choice: either to cede the Baltic states in response to the ultimatum statement of Poland and Lithuania (1560), or to prepare for war against the anti-Russian coalition (Sweden, Denmark, the Polish-Lithuanian state and the Holy Roman Empire) . Ivan the Terrible attempted to avoid conflict through a dynastic marriage with a relative of the Polish king. The matchmaking turned out to be unsuccessful, as Sigismund demanded territorial concessions as a condition of marriage.

The successes of Russian weapons accelerated the beginning of the collapse of the “Cavalier Teutonic Order in Livonia.” In June 1561, the cities of Northern Estonia, including Revel, swore allegiance to the Swedish king Eric XIV. The Livonian state ceased to exist, transferring its cities, castles and lands under the joint authority of Lithuania and Poland. Master Ketler became a vassal of the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund II Augustus. In December, Lithuanian troops were sent to Livonia and occupied more than ten cities. The Moscow side initially managed to reach an agreement with the Kingdom of Sweden (on August 20, 1561, a truce was concluded in Novgorod with representatives of the Swedish king Eric XIV for 20 years).

In March 1562, immediately after the end of the truce with Lithuania, Moscow governors ravaged the outskirts of Lithuanian Orsha, Mogilev and Vitebsk. In Livonia, troops of I.F. Mstislavsky and P.I. Shuisky captured the cities of Tarvast (Taurus) and Verpel (Polchev).

In the spring of 1562 Lithuanian troops carried out retaliatory raids on Smolensk places and Pskov volosts, after which battles unfolded along the entire line of the Russian-Lithuanian border. Summer - autumn 1562 Lithuanian troops continued to attack border fortresses in Russia (Nevel) and on the territory of Livonia (Tarvast).

In December 1562 Ivan IV himself set out on a campaign against Lithuania with an army of 80,000. Russian regiments in January 1563 moved to Polotsk, which had an advantageous strategic position at the junction of the Russian, Lithuanian and Livonian borders. The siege of Polotsk began on January 31, 1563. Thanks to the actions of Russian artillery, the well-fortified city was taken on February 15. An attempt to make peace with Lithuania (with the condition of consolidating the achieved successes) failed.

Soon after the victory at Polotsk, the Russian army began to suffer defeats. The Lithuanians, alarmed by the loss of the city, sent all available forces to the Moscow border under the command of Hetman Nikolai Radziwill.

Battle on the river Ulle January 26, 1564 turned into a heavy defeat for the Russian army due to the betrayal of the prince. A.M. Kurbsky, a Lithuanian intelligence agent who transmitted information about the movements of Russian regiments.

1564 brought not only the flight of Kurbsky to Lithuania, but also another defeat from the Lithuanians - near Orsha. The war became protracted. In the autumn of 1564 The government of Ivan the Terrible, not having the strength to fight several states at once, concluded a seven-year peace with Sweden at the cost of recognizing Swedish power over Revel, Pernov (Pärnu) and other cities of Northern Estonia.

In the autumn of 1564 The Lithuanian army, which included Kurbsky, launched a successful counter-offensive. In agreement with Sigismund II, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey also approached Ryazan, whose raid led the king into panic.

In 1568, the enemy of Ivan IV, Johan III, sat on the Swedish throne. In addition, the rude actions of Russian diplomats contributed to the further deterioration of relations with Sweden. In 1569 Under the Union of Lublin, Lithuania and Poland merged into a single state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1570, the Russian Tsar accepted the peace terms of the Polish king in order to be able to oust the Swedes from the Baltic states by force of arms. A vassal kingdom was created on the lands of Livonia occupied by Moscow, the ruler of which was the Danish prince Magnus of Holstein. The siege of Swedish Revel by Russian-Livonian troops for almost 30 weeks ended in complete failure. In 1572, a struggle began in Europe for the Polish throne, which had become empty after the death of Sigismund. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was on the verge of civil war and foreign invasion. Russia hastened to turn the course of the war in its favor. In 1577, a victorious campaign of the Russian army to the Baltic States took place, as a result of which Russia controlled the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland, excluding Riga and Revel.

At the second stage, the war became protracted. The fight was waged on several fronts with varying success. The situation was complicated by unsuccessful diplomatic actions and the incompetence of the military command. Failures in foreign policy led to a sharp change in domestic political course. The many years of war led to an economic crisis. The military successes achieved by 1577 could not subsequently be consolidated.

2.3 Third stage of the war

A decisive turning point in the course of hostilities was associated with the emergence at the head of the Polish-Lithuanian state of the experienced military leader Stefan Batory, whose candidacy for the Polish throne was nominated and supported by Turkey and Crimea. He deliberately did not interfere with the advance of Russian troops, delaying peace negotiations with Moscow. His first concern was solving internal problems: suppressing the rebellious gentry and restoring the combat effectiveness of the army.

In 1578 The counter-offensive of Polish and Swedish troops began. The stubborn struggle for Verdun Castle ended on October 21, 1578. heavy defeat of the Russian infantry. Russia lost one city after another. Duke Magnus went over to Bathory's side. The difficult situation forced the Russian Tsar to seek peace with Batory in order to gather forces and strike in the summer of 1579. a decisive blow to the Swedes.

But Batory did not want peace on Russian terms and was preparing to continue the war with Russia. In this he was fully supported by his allies: the Swedish king Johan III, the Saxon Elector Augustus and the Brandenburg Elector Johann Georg.

Batory determined the direction of the main attack not on devastated Livonia, where there were still many Russian troops, but on Russian territory in the region of Polotsk, a key point on the Dvina.

Alarmed by the invasion of the Polish army into the Moscow state, Ivan the Terrible tried to strengthen the garrison of Polotsk and its combat capabilities. However, these actions are clearly too late. The siege of Polotsk by the Poles lasted three weeks. The defenders of the city put up fierce resistance, but, suffering huge losses and losing faith in the help of Russian troops, they surrendered to Batory on September 1.

After the capture of Polotsk, the Lithuanian army invaded the Smolensk and Seversk lands. After this success, Batory returned to the capital of Lithuania - Vilna, from where he sent a message to Ivan the Terrible reporting victories and demanding the concession of Livonia and recognition of the rights of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to Courland.

Preparing to resume hostilities next year, Stefan Batory again intended to advance not in Livonia, but in the northeastern direction. This time he was going to take possession of the Velikiye Luki fortress, which covered the Novgorod lands from the south. And again, Batory’s plans turned out to be unsolved by the Moscow command. Russian regiments found themselves stretched along the entire front line from the Livonian city of Kokenhausen to Smolensk. This mistake had the most negative consequences.

At the end of August 1580 The army of the Polish king (48-50 thousand people, of which 21 thousand were infantry) crossed the Russian border. The royal army that set out on the campaign had first-class artillery, which included 30 siege cannons.

The siege of Velikiye Luki began on August 26, 1580. Alarmed by the enemy’s successes, Ivan the Terrible offered him peace, agreeing to very significant territorial concessions, most notably the transfer of 24 cities to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in Livonia. The tsar also expressed his readiness to renounce claims to Polotsk and the Polotsk land. However, Batory considered Moscow's proposals insufficient, demanding all of Livonia. Apparently, even then, plans were being developed in his circle to conquer the Seversk land, Smolensk, Veliky Novgorod and Pskov. The interrupted siege of the city continued, and on September 5, the defenders of the dilapidated fortress agreed to surrender.

Soon after this victory, the Poles captured the fortresses of Narva (September 29), Ozerishche (October 12) and Zavolochye (October 23).

In the battle of Toropets, the army of the prince was defeated. V.D. Khilkov, and this deprived the southern borders of Novgorod of protection.

Polish-Lithuanian detachments continued military operations in this area even in winter. The Swedes, having taken the Padis fortress with great difficulty, put an end to the Russian presence in Western Estonia.

The main target of Batory's third strike was Pskov. June 20, 1581 The Polish army set out on a campaign. This time the king was unable to hide his preparations and the direction of the main attack. The Russian governors managed to get ahead of the enemy and deliver a warning strike in the area of Dubrovna, Orsha, Shklov and Mogilev. This attack not only slowed down the advance of the Polish army, but also weakened its strength. Thanks to the temporary stop of the Polish offensive, the Russian command was able to transfer additional military contingents from Livonian castles to Pskov and strengthen fortifications. Polish-Lithuanian troops in the fall and winter of 1581. stormed the city 31 times. All attacks were repulsed. Batory abandoned the winter siege and on December 1, 1581. left the camp. The moment has come for negotiations. The Russian Tsar understood that the war was lost, and for the Poles, further presence on Russian territory was fraught with heavy losses.

The third stage is largely Russia's defensive actions. Many factors played a role in this: the military talent of Stefan Batory, the inept actions of Russian diplomats and commanders, and a significant decline in Russia's military potential. Over the course of 5 years, Ivan the Terrible repeatedly offered peace to his opponents on terms unfavorable for Russia.

2.4 Results

Russia needed peace. In the Baltic states, the Swedes went on the offensive, the Crimeans resumed raids on the southern borders. The mediator in the peace negotiations was Pope Gregory XIII, who dreamed of expanding the influence of the papal curia in Eastern Europe. Negotiations began in mid-December 1581 in the small village of Yam Zapolsky. The congresses of ambassadors ended on January 5, 1582 with the conclusion of a ten-year truce. The Polish commissars agreed to cede to the Moscow state Velikiye Luki, Zavolochye, Nevel, Kholm, Rzhev Pustaya and the Pskov suburbs of Ostrov, Krasny, Voronech, Velyu, which had previously been captured by their army. It was specifically stipulated that the Russian fortresses that were besieged at that time by the troops of the Polish king were subject to return if they were captured by the enemy: Vrev, Vladimerets, Dubkov, Vyshgorod, Vyborets, Izborsk, Opochka, Gdov, Kobylye fortification and Sebezh. The foresight of the Russian ambassadors turned out to be useful: according to this point, the Poles returned the captured city of Sebezh. For its part, the Moscow state agreed to the transfer to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth of all cities and castles in Livonia occupied by Russian troops, of which there were 41. Yam - the Polish truce did not apply to Sweden.

Thus, Stefan Batory secured most of the Baltic states for his kingdom. He also managed to achieve recognition of his rights to the Polotsk land, to the cities of Velizh, Usvyat, Ozerische, and Sokol. In June 1582, the terms of the Yam-Zapolsky truce were confirmed at negotiations in Moscow, which were conducted by Polish ambassadors Janusz Zbarazhsky, Nikolai Tavlosh and clerk Mikhail Garaburda. The parties agreed that the end date of the truce concluded in Yama Zapolsky should be considered St. Peter and Paul (29 June) 1592

On February 4, 1582, a month after the conclusion of the Yam-Zapolsky Truce, the last Polish troops left Pskov.

However, the Yam-Zapolsky and “Peter and Paul” peace agreements of 1582 did not end the Livonian War. The final blow to Russian plans to preserve part of the cities conquered in the Baltic states was dealt by the Swedish army under the command of Field Marshal P. Delagardie. In September 1581, his troops captured Narva and Ivangorod, the defense of which was led by governor A. Belsky, who surrendered the fortress to the enemy.

Having gained a foothold in Ivangorod, the Swedes soon went on the offensive again and soon occupied the border Yam (September 28, 1581) and Koporye (October 14) with their districts. On August 10, 1583, Russia concluded a truce with Sweden in Plus, according to which the Swedes retained the Russian cities and Northern Estonia they occupied.

The Livonian War, which lasted almost 25 years, ended. Russia suffered a heavy defeat, losing not only all its conquests in the Baltic states, but also part of its own territories with three important border fortress cities. On the coast of the Gulf of Finland, only the small fortress of Oreshek on the river remained behind the Moscow state. Neva and a narrow corridor along this water artery from the river. Arrows to the river Sisters, with a total length of 31.5 km.

The three stages in the course of military operations are of a different nature: the first is a local war with a clear advantage of the Russians; at the second stage, the war has become protracted, an anti-Russian coalition is taking shape, battles are taking place on the border of the Russian state; the third stage is characterized primarily by Russia’s defensive actions on its territory; Russian soldiers demonstrate unprecedented heroism in the defense of cities. The main goal of the war - the solution of the Baltic issue - was not achieved.

CONCLUSION

Thus, based on the above material, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. It is quite difficult to say whether the choice in favor of war with Livonia was timely and correct. The need to solve this problem for the Russian state seems clear. The importance of unhindered trade with the West dictated the need for the Livonian War in the first place. Russia under Ivan the Terrible considered itself the heir to the Rus of Novgorod, Kyiv, etc., and therefore had every right to lay claim to the lands occupied by the Livonian Order. At a certain period, completely isolated from Europe, having strengthened, Russia needed to restore interrupted political and cultural contacts with Western Europe. It seemed possible to restore them only by ensuring high international prestige. The most accessible route, unfortunately, was through war. The reasons that caused the Livonian War turned out to be relevant subsequently. All the successors of Ivan the Terrible tried to strengthen themselves on the Baltic coast and raise the international status of Russia, until Peter the Great managed to do this.

2. Livonian War 1558 – 1583 has three stages. From a punitive expedition it turned for Russia into a war on several fronts. Despite the initial defeat of the Livonian Order, it was not possible to consolidate the success. A strong Russia did not suit its neighbors, and former rivals in Europe joined forces against it (Lithuania and Poland, Sweden and the Crimean Khanate). Russia found itself isolated. The protracted hostilities led to the depletion of human and financial resources, which, in turn, did not contribute to further successes on the battlefield. It is impossible not to take into account the influence of many subjective factors on the course of the war: the leadership and political talent of Stefan Batory, cases of treason by prominent military leaders, the low level of commanders in general, diplomatic miscalculations, etc. At the third stage, the threat of capture loomed over Russia itself. The key point at this stage can be confidently considered the defense of Pskov. Only the heroism of its participants and the timely actions of the authorities to strengthen the defense saved the country from final defeat.

3. Ultimately, the historical task of obtaining free access to the Baltic Sea could not be solved. Russia was forced to make territorial concessions under the terms of peace treaties with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden. But despite the unsuccessful end of the war for Russia, some positive results can be identified: the Livonian Order was finally defeated, in addition, the Russian state managed to avoid irreparable land losses. It was the Livonian War of 1558 - 1583. for the first time loudly voiced one of the priority directions in Russian foreign policy for the next hundred and fifty years.

The consequences of the Livonian War affected many areas of Russian life. Years of tension in the economy led to an economic crisis. Heavy taxes led to the desolation of many lands: Novgorod, Volokolamsk district, etc. Failures in military operations, political dissent of the Rada, the betrayal of some boyars and numerous attempts to discredit them by the enemy, the need to mobilize society became the reasons for the introduction of the oprichnina. The foreign policy crisis, thus, directly affected the domestic policy of the state. The social upheavals of the 17th century have their roots in the era of Ivan the Terrible.

The defeat in the Livonian War seriously damaged the prestige of the Tsar and, in general, of Russia. In the peace treaty, Ivan IV is referred to only as the “Grand Duke”; he is no longer “the Tsar of Kazan and the Tsar of Astrakhan.” A completely new political situation developed in the area of the Baltic coast, in particular, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was ousted from Livonia by the Swedes.

The Livonian War rightfully occupies a prominent place in the history of the Russian state.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST

Sources

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4. Yu. D. Rykov. – M.: Nauka, 1993. – 429 p.

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Literature

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Right there. – P. 140.

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Livonian War (briefly)

Livonian War - brief description

After the conquest of the rebellious Kazan, Russia sent forces to take Livonia. Researchers identify two main reasons for the Livonian War: the need for trade by the Russian state in the Baltic, as well as the expansion of its possessions. The struggle for dominance over the Baltic waters was between Russia and Denmark, Sweden, as well as Poland and Lithuania.

The reason for the outbreak of hostilities (Livonian War)

The main reason for the outbreak of hostilities was the fact that the Livonian Order did not pay the tribute that it was supposed to pay under the peace treaty of fifty-four. The Russian army invaded Livonia in 1558. At first (1558-1561), several castles and cities were taken (Yuryev, Narva, Dorpat).

However, instead of continuing the successful offensive, the Moscow government grants a truce to the order, while at the same time equipping a military expedition against Crimea. The Livonian knights, taking advantage of the support, gathered forces and defeated the Moscow troops a month before the end of the truce.

Russia did not achieve a positive result from military actions against Crimea. The favorable moment for victory in Livonia was also missed. Master Ketler in 1561 signed an agreement according to which the order came under the protectorate of Poland and Lithuania.

After making peace with the Crimean Khanate, Moscow concentrated its forces on Livonia, but now, instead of a weak order, it had to face several powerful contenders at once. And if at first it was possible to avoid a war with Denmark and Sweden, then a war with the Polish-Lithuanian king was inevitable.

The greatest achievement of the Russian troops in the second stage of the Livonian War was the capture of Polotsk in 1563, after which there were many fruitless negotiations and unsuccessful battles, as a result of which even the Crimean Khan decided to abandon the alliance with the Moscow government.

The final stage of the Livonian War

The final stage of the Livonian War (1679-1683)- the military invasion of the Polish king Batory into Russia, which was simultaneously at war with Sweden. In August, Stefan Batory took Polotsk, and a year later Velikiye Luki and small towns were taken. On September 9, 1581, Sweden took Narva, Koporye, Yam, Ivangorod, after which the struggle for Livonia ceased to be relevant for Grozny. Since it was impossible to wage war with two enemies, the king concluded a truce with Batory.

The result of this war it was a complete conclusion two treaties that were not beneficial for Russia, as well as the loss of many cities.

Main events and chronology of the Livonian War

After the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates to the Russian state, the threat of invasion from the east and southeast was eliminated. Ivan the Terrible is faced with new tasks - to return the Russian lands once captured by the Livonian Order, Lithuania and Sweden.

In general, formal reasons were found for the start of the war. The real reasons were Russia’s geopolitical need to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as the most convenient for direct connections with the centers of European civilizations, as well as the desire to take an active part in the division of the territory of the Livonian Order, the progressive collapse of which was becoming obvious, but which, unwilling strengthening Russia, hindered its external contacts. For example, the Livonian authorities did not allow more than a hundred specialists from Europe invited by Ivan IV to pass through their lands. Some of them were imprisoned and executed.

The formal reason for the start of the Livonian War was the question of the “Yuriev tribute.” According to the treaty of 1503, an annual tribute had to be paid for it and the surrounding territory, which, however, was not done. In addition, the Order concluded a military alliance with the Lithuanian-Polish king in 1557.

Stages of war.

First stage. In January 1558, Ivan the Terrible moved his troops to Livonia. The beginning of the war brought him victories: Narva and Yuriev were taken. In the summer and autumn of 1558 and at the beginning of 1559, Russian troops marched throughout Livonia (as far as Revel and Riga) and advanced in Courland to the borders of East Prussia and Lithuania. However, in 1559, under the influence of political figures grouped around A.F. Adashev, who prevented the expansion of the scope of the military conflict, Ivan the Terrible was forced to conclude a truce. In March 1559 it was concluded for a period of six months.

The feudal lords took advantage of the truce to conclude an agreement with the Polish king Sigismund II Augustus in 1559, according to which the order, lands and possessions of the Archbishop of Riga came under the protectorate of the Polish crown. In an atmosphere of acute political disagreements in the leadership of the Livonian Order, its master W. Fürstenberg was removed and G. Ketler, who adhered to a pro-Polish orientation, became the new master. In the same year, Denmark took possession of the island of Ösel (Saaremaa).

The military operations that began in 1560 brought new defeats to the Order: the large fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin were taken, the order army blocking the path to Viljandi was defeated near Ermes, and the Master of the Order Fürstenberg himself was captured. The successes of the Russian army were facilitated by the peasant uprisings that broke out in the country against the German feudal lords. The result of the campaign of 1560 was the virtual defeat of the Livonian Order as a state. The German feudal lords of Northern Estonia became Swedish citizens. According to the Treaty of Vilna of 1561, the possessions of the Livonian Order came under the authority of Poland, Denmark and Sweden, and its last master, Ketler, received only Courland, and even then it was dependent on Poland. Thus, instead of weak Livonia, Russia now had three strong opponents.

Second phase. While Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, Ivan IV led successful actions against Sigismund II Augustus. In 1563, the Russian army took Plock, a fortress that opened the way to the capital of Lithuania, Vilna, and Riga. But already at the beginning of 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats on the Ulla River and near Orsha; in the same year, a boyar and a major military leader, Prince A.M., fled to Lithuania. Kurbsky.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to military failures and escapes to Lithuania with repressions against the boyars. In 1565, the oprichnina was introduced. Ivan IV tried to restore the Livonian Order, but under the protectorate of Russia, and negotiated with Poland. In 1566, a Lithuanian embassy arrived in Moscow, proposing to divide Livonia on the basis of the situation existing at that time. The Zemstvo Sobor, convened at this time, supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to fight in the Baltic states until the capture of Riga: “It is unsuitable for our sovereign to give up those cities of Livonia, which the king took for protection, but it is better for the sovereign to stand for those cities.” The council's decision also emphasized that abandoning Livonia would harm trade interests.

Third stage. The Union of Lublin, which in 1569 united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into one state - the Republic of Both Nations, had serious consequences. A difficult situation has developed in the north of Russia, where relations with Sweden have again become strained, and in the south (the campaign of the Turkish army near Astrakhan in 1569 and the war with Crimea, during which the army of Devlet I Giray burned Moscow in 1571 and devastated the southern Russian lands). However, the onset of a long-term “kinglessness” in the Republic of Both Nations, the creation in Livonia of the vassal “kingdom” of Magnus, which at first had an attractive force in the eyes of the population of Livonia, again made it possible to tip the scales in favor of Russia. In 1572, the army of Devlet-Girey was destroyed and the threat of large raids by the Crimean Tatars was eliminated (Battle of Molodi). In 1573, the Russians stormed the Weissenstein (Paide) fortress. In the spring, Moscow troops under the command of Prince Mstislavsky (16,000) met near Lode Castle in western Estland with a Swedish army of two thousand. Despite the overwhelming numerical advantage, the Russian troops suffered a crushing defeat. They had to leave all their guns, banners and convoys.

In 1575, the Saga fortress surrendered to the army of Magnus, and Pernov to the Russians. After the campaign of 1576, Russia captured the entire coast except Riga and Kolyvan.

However, the unfavorable international situation, the distribution of land in the Baltic states to Russian nobles, which alienated the local peasant population from Russia, and serious internal difficulties negatively affected the further course of the war for Russia.

Fourth stage. In 1575, the period of “kinglessness” (1572-1575) ended in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Stefan Batory was elected king. Stefan Batory, Prince of Semigrad, was supported by the Turkish Sultan Murad III. After the flight of King Henry of Valois from Poland in 1574, the Sultan sent a letter to the Polish lords demanding that the Poles not choose Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II as king, but choose one of the Polish nobles, for example Jan Kostka, or, if the king is from others powers, then Bathory or the Swedish prince Sigismund Vasa. Ivan the Terrible, in a letter to Stefan Batory, more than once hinted that he was a vassal of the Turkish Sultan, which caused a sharp response from Batory: “How dare you remind us so often of the lack of antimony, you, who prevented your blood from being with us, whose venerable mare’s milk, what had sunk into the manes of the Tatar scales was licked...” The election of Stefan Batory as king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth meant the resumption of the war with Poland. However, back in 1577, Russian troops occupied almost all of Livonia, except for Riga and Revel, which were besieged in 1576-1577. But this year was the last year of Russian success in the Livonian War.

In 1579, Batory began a war against Russia. In 1579, Sweden also resumed hostilities, and Batory returned Polotsk and took Velikiye Luki, and in 1581 he besieged Pskov, intending, if successful, to go to Novgorod the Great and Moscow. The Pskovites swore “to fight for the city of Pskov with Lithuania to the death without any cunning.” They kept their oath, fighting off 31 attacks. After five months of unsuccessful attempts, the Poles were forced to lift the siege of Pskov. Heroic defense of Pskov in 1581 -1582. garrison and population of the city determined a more favorable outcome of the Livonian War for Russia: failure near Pskov forced Stefan Batory to enter into peace negotiations.

Taking advantage of the fact that Batory had actually cut off Livonia from Russia, the Swedish commander Baron Pontus Delagardie launched an operation to destroy isolated Russian garrisons in Livonia. By the end of 1581, the Swedes, having crossed the frozen Gulf of Finland on ice, captured the entire coast of Northern Estonia, Narva, Wesenberg (Rakovor, Rakvere), and then moved to Riga, along the way taking Haapsalu, Pärnu, and then the entire Southern (Russian) ) Estonia - Fellin (Viljandi), Dorpat (Tartu). In total, Swedish troops in a relatively short period captured 9 cities in Livonia and 4 in Novgorod land, nullifying all the many years of conquest of the Russian state in the Baltic states. In Ingermanland Ivan-Gorod, Yam, Koporye were taken, and in the Ladoga region - Korela.

Results and consequences of the war.

In January 1582, a ten-year truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky (near Pskov). Under this agreement, Russia renounced Livonia and Belarusian lands, but some border Russian lands seized by the Polish king during hostilities were returned to her.

The defeat of the Russian troops in the simultaneous war with Poland, where the tsar was faced with the need to decide even to cede Pskov if the city was taken by storm, forced Ivan IV and his diplomats to negotiate with Sweden on the conclusion of the Treaty of Plus, humiliating for the Russian state. . Negotiations at Plus took place from May to August 1583. Under this agreement:

1. The Russian state lost all its acquisitions in Livonia. It retained only a narrow section of access to the Baltic Sea in the Gulf of Finland.
2. Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye passed to the Swedes.
3. Also, the Kexholm fortress in Karelia, along with a vast county and the coast of Lake Ladoga, went to the Swedes.
4. The Russian state found itself cut off from the sea, ruined and devastated. Russia lost a significant part of its territory.

Thus, the Livonian War had very difficult consequences for the Russian state, and defeat in it greatly affected its further development. However, one can agree with N.M. Karamzin, who noted that the Livonian War was “unfortunate, but not inglorious for Russia.”

Federal Agency for Education

State educational institution

higher professional education

RUSSIAN STATE HUMANITIES UNIVERSITY

Institute of Economics, Management and Law

FACULTY OF ECONOMICS

Bubble Kristina Radievna

“The Livonian War, its political meaning and consequences”

Abstract on the history of Russia

1st year student of distance learning.

2009-Moscow.

INTRODUCTION -2-

1. Prerequisites for the Livonian War -3-

2. Progress of the war -4-

2.1. War with the Livonian Confederation -5-

2.2. Truce of 1559 -8-

2.3. War with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania -10-

2.4. Third period of the war -11-

2.5. Fourth period of the war -12-

3. Results and consequences of the Livonian War -12-

CONCLUSION -14-
REFERENCES -15-

INTRODUCTION

The history of the Livonian War, despite the knowledge of the goals of the conflict, the nature of the actions of the warring parties, and the results of the military clash, remains among the key problems of Russian history. Evidence of this is the kaleidoscope of opinions of researchers who tried to determine the significance of this war among other major foreign policy actions of the Moscow state in the second half of the 16th century.

At the beginning of the 16th century, the formation of a strong centralized state, Muscovite Rus', was completed on Russian lands, which sought to expand its territory at the expense of lands that belonged to other peoples. To successfully implement its political aspirations and economic goals, this state needed to establish close ties with Western Europe, which could only be achieved after gaining free access to the Baltic Sea.

By the middle of the 16th century. Russia owned a small section of coastline on the Baltic Sea from Ivangorod to the area around the mouth of the Neva, where there were no good harbors. This slowed down the development of the Russian economy. To participate in the profitable maritime trade and intensify political and cultural ties with Western Europe, the country needed to expand its access to the Baltic, gaining such convenient ports as Revel (Tallinn) and Riga. The Livonian Order prevented Russian transit trade through the Eastern Baltic, trying to create an economic blockade of Muscovy. But united Russia became much more powerful than the Livonian Order and finally decided to conquer these lands by force of arms.

The main goal of the Livonian War, which was waged by Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible with the Livonian Confederation of States (Livonian Order, Riga Archbishopric, Dorpat, Ezel-Vik and Courland bishoprics) was to gain access to the Baltic Sea.

The purpose of this work is to study the political meaning of the Livonian War and its consequences.

Background of the Livonian War

Reforms of the state apparatus, which strengthened the Russian armed forces, and the successful resolution of the Kazan issue allowed the Russian state to begin the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea. The Russian nobility sought to acquire new lands in the Baltic states, and the merchants hoped to gain free access to European markets.

The Livonian feudal lords, as well as the rulers of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Sweden, pursued a policy of economic blockade of Russia.

The Livonian Confederation was interested in controlling the transit of Russian trade and significantly limited the opportunities of Russian merchants. In particular, all trade exchanges with Europe could only be carried out through the Livonian ports of Riga, Lindanise (Revel), Narva, and goods could only be transported on ships of the Hanseatic League. At the same time, fearing the military and economic strengthening of Russia, the Livonian Confederation prevented the transport of strategic raw materials and specialists to Russia (see the Schlitte Affair), receiving the assistance of the Hanseatic League, Poland, Sweden and the German imperial authorities.

In 1503, Ivan III concluded a truce with the Livonian Confederation for 50 years, under the terms of which it had to annually pay tribute (the so-called “Yuriev tribute”) for the city of Yuryev (Dorpat), which previously belonged to Novgorod. Treaties between Moscow and Dorpat in the 16th century. Traditionally, the “Yuriev tribute” was mentioned, but in fact it was long forgotten. When the truce expired, during negotiations in 1554, Ivan IV demanded the return of arrears, the renunciation of the Livonian Confederation from military alliances with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Sweden, and the continuation of the truce.

The first payment of the debt for Dorpat was supposed to take place in 1557, but the Livonian Confederation did not fulfill its obligation.

In the spring of 1557, Tsar Ivan IV established a port on the banks of Narva ( “The same year, July, a city was built from the German Ust-Narova River Rozsene by the sea as a shelter for sea ships.”). However, Livonia and the Hanseatic League do not allow European merchants to enter the new Russian port, and they are forced to go, as before, to Livonian ports.

The Estonian and Latvian peoples have been connected with the Russian people since the times of the ancient Russian state. This connection was interrupted as a result of the conquest of the Baltic states by the German crusaders and the creation of the Livonian Order there.

While fighting the German feudal lords, the working masses of Estonia and Latvia saw their ally in the Russian people, and the annexation of the Baltic states to Russia as an opportunity for their further economic and cultural development.

By the middle of the 16th century. The Baltic issue began to occupy a prominent place in the international relations of European powers. Along with Russia, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania showed particular interest in access to the Baltic Sea, in whose economies trade with Western European countries was of significant importance. Sweden and Denmark took an active part in the struggle for the Baltic states, striving to strengthen their economic and political positions in the area. During this struggle, Denmark usually acted as an ally of Ivan IV, and Denmark's enemy was Sweden in 1554-1557. waged an inconclusive three-year war with Russia. Finally, England and Spain, which competed with each other, were also interested in Eastern European sales markets. Thanks to friendly diplomatic and trade relations with Russia, England already from the late 50s of the 16th century. greatly displaced the Hanseatic traders of Flemish cloth in the Baltic markets.

Thus, the Livonian War began in difficult international conditions, when its progress was closely monitored or the largest European powers took part in it.

Progress of the war

By the beginning of the war, the Livonian Confederation had been weakened by a series of military defeats and the Reformation. On the other hand, Russia was gaining strength after the victories over the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and the annexation of Kabarda.

War with the Livonian Confederation

The invasion of Russian troops in January-February 1558 into the Livonian lands was a reconnaissance raid. 40 thousand people took part in it under the command of Khan Shig-Aley (Shah-Ali), governor Glinsky and Zakharyin-Yuryev. They walked through the eastern part of Estonia and returned back by the beginning of March. The Russian side motivated this campaign solely by the desire to receive due tribute from Livonia. The Livonian Landtag decided to collect 60 thousand thalers for settlements with Moscow in order to end the war that had begun. However, by May only half of the declared amount had been collected. In addition, the Narva garrison fired at the Ivangorod border outpost, thereby violating the armistice agreement.

This time a more powerful army moved to Livonia. The Livonian Confederation at that time could put no more than 10 thousand in the field, not counting the fortress garrisons. Thus, its main military asset was the powerful stone walls of the fortresses, which by this time could no longer effectively withstand the power of heavy siege weapons.

Voivodes Alexey Basmanov and Danila Adashev arrived in Ivangorod. In April 1558, Russian troops besieged Narva. The fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of the knight Vocht Schnellenberg. On May 11, a fire broke out in the city, accompanied by a storm (according to the Nikon Chronicle, the fire occurred due to the fact that drunken Livonians threw an Orthodox icon of the Mother of God into the fire). Taking advantage of the fact that the guards had left the city walls, the Russians rushed to storm. They broke through the gates and took possession of the lower city. Having captured the guns located there, the warriors turned them around and opened fire on the upper castle, preparing the stairs for the attack. However, by the evening the defenders of the castle themselves surrendered, on the condition of free exit from the city.

The defense of the Neuhausen fortress was particularly tenacious. It was defended by several hundred warriors led by the knight von Padenorm, who repelled the onslaught of the governor Peter Shuisky for almost a month. On June 30, 1558, after the destruction of the fortress walls and towers by Russian artillery, the Germans retreated to the upper castle. Von Padenorm expressed a desire to hold the defense here too, but the surviving defenders of the fortress refused to continue their pointless resistance. As a sign of respect for their courage, Pyotr Shuisky allowed them to leave the fortress with honor.

In July, P. Shuisky besieged Dorpat. The city was defended by a garrison of 2,000 men under the command of Bishop Weyland. Having built a rampart at the level of the fortress walls and installed guns on it, on July 11, Russian artillery began shelling the city. The cannonballs pierced the tiles of the roofs of houses, drowning the residents taking refuge there. On July 15, P. Shuisky invited Weiland to surrender. While he was thinking, the bombing continued. Some towers and loopholes were destroyed. Having lost hope of outside help, the besieged decided to enter into negotiations with the Russians. P. Shuisky promised not to destroy the city to the ground and to preserve the previous administration for its residents. On July 18, 1558 Dorpat capitulated. The troops settled in houses abandoned by residents. In one of them, warriors found 80 thousand thalers in a cache. The Livonian historian bitterly tells that the people of Dorpat, because of their greed, lost more than the Russian Tsar demanded from them. The funds found would be enough not only for the Yuryev tribute, but also for hiring troops to defend the Livonian Confederation.

During May-October 1558, Russian troops took 20 fortified cities, including those that voluntarily surrendered and entered into the citizenship of the Russian Tsar, after which they went into winter quarters within their borders, leaving small garrisons in the cities. The new energetic master Gotthard Ketler took advantage of this. Having collected 10 thousand. army, he decided to return what was lost. At the end of 1558, Ketler approached the Ringen fortress, which was defended by a garrison of several hundred archers under the command of the governor Rusin-Ignatiev. A detachment of governor Repnin (2 thousand people) went to help the besieged, but he was defeated by Ketler. However, the Russian garrison continued to defend the fortress for five weeks, and only when the defenders ran out of gunpowder were the Germans able to storm the fortress. The entire garrison was killed. Having lost a fifth of his army (2 thousand people) near Ringen and having spent more than a month besieging one fortress, Ketler was unable to build on his success. At the end of October 1558, his army retreated to Riga. This small victory turned into a big disaster for the Livonians.

In response to the actions of the Livonian Confederation, two months after the fall of the Ringen fortress, Russian troops carried out a winter raid, which was a punitive operation. In January 1559, Prince-voivode Serebryany at the head of his army entered Livonia. The Livonian army under the command of the knight Felkensam came out to meet him. On January 17, at the Battle of Terzen, the Germans suffered a complete defeat. Felkensam and 400 knights (not counting ordinary warriors) died in this battle, the rest were captured or fled. This victory opened the gates to Livonia wide for the Russians. They passed unhindered through the lands of the Livonian Confederation, captured 11 cities and reached Riga, where they burned the Riga fleet at the Dunamun raid. Then Courland passed along the path of the Russian army and, having passed through it, they reached the Prussian border. In February, the army returned home with huge booty and a large number of prisoners.

After the winter raid of 1559, Ivan IV granted the Livonian Confederation a truce (the third in a row) from March to November, without consolidating his success. This miscalculation was due to a number of reasons. Moscow was under serious pressure from Lithuania, Poland, Sweden and Denmark, who had their own plans for the Livonian lands. Since March 1559, Lithuanian ambassadors urgently demanded that Ivan IV stop hostilities in Livonia, threatening, otherwise, to take the side of the Livonian Confederation. Soon the Swedish and Danish ambassadors made requests to end the war.

With its invasion of Livonia, Russia also affected the trade interests of a number of European states. Trade on the Baltic Sea was then growing from year to year and the question of who would control it was relevant. Revel merchants, having lost the most important source of their profits - income from Russian transit, complained to the Swedish king: “ We stand on the walls and watch with tears as merchant ships sail past our city to the Russians in Narva».

In addition, the Russian presence in Livonia affected complex and confusing pan-European politics, upsetting the balance of power on the continent. So, for example, the Polish king Sigismund II Augustus wrote to the English Queen Elizabeth I about the importance of the Russians in Livonia: “ The Moscow sovereign daily increases his power by acquiring goods that are brought to Narva, because, among other things, weapons are brought here that are still unknown to him... military specialists arrive, through whom he acquires the means to defeat everyone...».

The truce was also due to disagreements over foreign strategy within the Russian leadership itself. There, in addition to supporters of access to the Baltic Sea, there were those who advocated continuing the struggle in the south, against the Crimean Khanate. In fact, the main initiator of the truce of 1559 was the okolnichy Alexey Adashev. This group reflected the sentiments of those circles of the nobility who, in addition to eliminating the threat from the steppes, wanted to receive a large additional land fund in the steppe zone. During this truce, the Russians attacked the Crimean Khanate, which, however, did not have significant consequences. The truce with Livonia had more global consequences.

The region was annexed to Russia and immediately received special benefits. The cities of Dorpat and Narva were given: complete amnesty for residents, free practice of their faith, city self-government, judicial autonomy and duty-free trade with Russia. Narva, destroyed after the assault, began to be restored and even provided loans to local landowners at the expense of the royal treasury. All this seemed so tempting to the rest of the Livonians, who had not yet been conquered by the “hellish Tatars”, that by the fall 20 more cities voluntarily came under the rule of the “bloody despot”.

Truce of 1559

Already in the first year of the war, in addition to Narva, Yuryev (July 18), Neishloss, Neuhaus were occupied, the troops of the Livonian Confederation were defeated at Thiersen near Riga, Russian troops reached Kolyvan. The raids of the Crimean Tatar hordes on the southern borders of Rus', which occurred already in January 1558, could not fetter the initiative of Russian troops in the Baltic states.

However, in March 1559, under the influence of Denmark and representatives of the large boyars, who prevented the expansion of the scope of the military conflict, a truce was concluded with the Livonian Confederation, which lasted until November. Historian R. G. Skrynnikov emphasizes that the Russian government, represented by Adashev and Viskovaty, “had to conclude a truce on the western borders,” as it was preparing for a “decisive clash on the southern border.”

During the truce (August 31), the Livonian Landmaster of the Teutonic Order, Gothard Ketler, concluded an agreement in Vilna with the Lithuanian Grand Duke Sigismund II, according to which the lands of the order and the possessions of the Riga Archbishop passed under “clientella and protection,” that is, under the protectorate of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the same 1559, Revel went to Sweden, and the Bishop of Ezel ceded the island of Ezel (Saaremaa) to Duke Magnus, brother of the Danish king, for 30 thousand thalers.

Taking advantage of the delay, the Livonian Confederation gathered reinforcements, and a month before the end of the truce in the vicinity of Yuriev, its troops attacked Russian troops. Russian governors lost more than 1000 people killed.

In 1560, the Russians resumed hostilities and won a number of victories: Marienburg (now Aluksne in Latvia) was taken; German forces were defeated at Ermes, after which Fellin (now Viljandi in Estonia) was taken. The Livonian Confederation collapsed.

During the capture of Fellin, the former Livonian landmaster of the Teutonic Order, Wilhelm von Furstenberg, was captured. In 1575, he sent his brother a letter from Yaroslavl, where the former landmaster had been granted land. He told a relative that he “has no reason to complain about his fate.”

Sweden and Lithuania, who acquired the Livonian lands, demanded that Moscow remove troops from their territory. Ivan the Terrible refused and Russia found itself in conflict with the coalition of Lithuania and Sweden.

War with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

On November 26, 1561, the German Emperor Ferdinand I banned supplies to the Russians through the port of Narva. Eric XIV, King of Sweden, blocked the port of Narva and sent Swedish privateers to intercept merchant ships sailing to Narva.

In 1562, there was a raid by Lithuanian troops on the Smolensk and Velizh regions. In the summer of the same year, the situation on the southern borders of the Moscow state worsened, which moved the timing of the Russian offensive in Livonia to the fall.

The path to the Lithuanian capital Vilna was closed by Polotsk. In January 1563, the Russian army, which included “almost all the armed forces of the country,” set out to capture this border fortress from Velikiye Luki. At the beginning of February, the Russian army began the siege of Polotsk, and on February 15 the city surrendered.

Mercy towards the vanquished was typical for the army of Grozny: when Polotsk was recaptured from the Poles in 1563, Ivan released the garrison in peace, giving each Pole a sable fur coat, and preserving the city's legal proceedings according to local laws.

Nevertheless, Ivan the Terrible was cruel towards Jews. As the Pskov Chronicle reports, during the capture of Polotsk, Ivan the Terrible ordered all Jews to be baptized on the spot, and ordered those who refused (300 people) to be drowned in the Dvina. Karamzin mentions that after the capture of Polotsk, John ordered “all Jews to be baptized, and the disobedient to be drowned in Dvina.”

After the capture of Polotsk, there was a decline in Russia's successes in the Livonian War. Already in 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats (Battle of Chashniki). A boyar and a major military leader, who actually commanded the Russian troops in the West, Prince A. M. Kurbsky, went over to the side of Lithuania; he betrayed the king’s agents in the Baltic states to the king and participated in the Lithuanian raid on Velikiye Luki.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to military failures and the reluctance of eminent boyars to fight against Lithuania with repressions against the boyars. In 1565 the oprichnina was introduced. In 1566, a Lithuanian embassy arrived in Moscow, proposing to divide Livonia on the basis of the situation existing at that time. The Zemsky Sobor, convened at this time, supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to fight in the Baltic states until the capture of Riga.

Third period of the war

The Union of Lublin, which in 1569 united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into one state - the Republic of Both Nations, had serious consequences. A difficult situation has developed in the north of Russia, where relations with Sweden have again become strained, and in the south (the campaign of the Turkish army near Astrakhan in 1569 and the war with Crimea, during which the army of Devlet I Giray burned Moscow in 1571 and devastated the southern Russian lands). However, the onset of a long-term “kinglessness” in the Republic of Both Nations, the creation in Livonia of the vassal “kingdom” of Magnus, which at first had an attractive force in the eyes of the population of Livonia, again made it possible to tip the scales in favor of Russia. In 1572, the army of Devlet-Girey was destroyed and the threat of large raids by the Crimean Tatars was eliminated (Battle of Molodi). In 1573, the Russians stormed the Weissenstein (Paide) fortress. In the spring, Moscow troops under the command of Prince Mstislavsky (16,000) met near Lode Castle in western Estland with a Swedish army of two thousand. Despite the overwhelming numerical advantage, the Russian troops suffered a crushing defeat. They had to leave all their guns, banners and convoys.

In 1575, the Saga fortress surrendered to the army of Magnus, and Pernov to the Russians. After the campaign of 1576, Russia captured the entire coast except Riga and Kolyvan.

Fourth period of the war

Stefan Batory, who ascended the Polish throne with the active support of the Turks (1576), went on the offensive and occupied Wenden (1578), Polotsk (1579), Sokol, Velizh, Usvyat, and Velikiye Luki. In the captured fortresses, the Poles and Lithuanians completely destroyed the Russian garrisons. In Velikiye Luki, the Poles exterminated the entire population, about 7 thousand people. Polish and Lithuanian troops ravaged the Smolensk region, the Seversk land, the Ryazan region, the southwest of the Novgorod region, and plundered Russian lands right up to the upper reaches of the Volga. The devastation they caused was reminiscent of the worst Tatar raids. The Lithuanian governor Philon Kmita from Orsha burned 2,000 villages in the western Russian lands and captured a huge town. In February 1581, the Lithuanians burned Staraya Russa.

In 1581, the Polish-Lithuanian army, which included mercenaries from almost all of Europe, besieged Pskov, intending, if successful, to march on Novgorod the Great and Moscow. In November 1580, the Swedes took Korela, where 2 thousand Russians were exterminated, and in 1581 they occupied Narva, which was also accompanied by massacres - 7 thousand Russians died; the victors did not take prisoners and did not spare civilians.

The heroic defense of Pskov in 1581-1582 determined a more favorable outcome of the war for Russia: it forced the Polish king to abandon his further plans and conclude a truce with the Russian government in Zapolsky Yam in 1582 for 10 years. Under the terms of this truce, the old state border was preserved. For the Russian state, this meant the loss of Livonia. The following year, 1583, a truce was concluded on the Plussa River with the Swedes, who retained the Russian cities of Koporye, Yam, Ivangorod and the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland, except for a small outlet to the Baltic Sea near the mouth of the Neva.

Results and consequences of the Livonian War

In January 1582, in Yam-Zapolsky (near Pskov) a 10-year truce was concluded with the Republic of Both Nations (the so-called Yam-Zapolsky Peace). Russia renounced Livonia and Belarusian lands, but some border lands were returned to it.

In May 1583, the 3-year Truce of Plyus with Sweden was concluded, according to which Koporye, Yam, Ivangorod and the adjacent territory of the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland were ceded. The Russian state again found itself cut off from the sea. The country was devastated, the northwestern regions were depopulated. The war was lost on all counts. The result of the war and the repressions of Ivan the Terrible was a population decline (decreased by 25%) and the economic ruin of the country. It should also be noted that the course of the war and its results were influenced by the Crimean raids: only 3 years out of 25 years of the war there were no significant raids.

The Livonian War, which lasted a quarter of a century (1558-1583) and cost enormous victims to the Russian state, did not solve the historical problem of Russia's access to the Baltic Sea.

As a result of the Livonian War, Livonia was divided between Poland, which received Vidzeme, Latgale, Southern Estonia, the Duchy of Courland, and Sweden, which received Northern Estonia with Tallinn and Russian territory near the Gulf of Finland; Denmark received the island of Saaremaa and certain areas in the former Bishopric of Kurzeme. Thus, the Latvian and Estonian peoples remained politically fragmented under the yoke of the new conquerors.

But the Livonian War was not inconclusive for the Russian state. Its significance was that Russian troops defeated and finally destroyed the Livonian Order, which was a cruel enemy of the Russian, Latvian, Estonian and Lithuanian peoples. During the Livonian War, the friendship of the Estonian and Latvian peoples with the Russian people strengthened.

CONCLUSION

In 1558, Moscow troops entered Livonia. The Livonian Order was unable to fight and disintegrated. Estland surrendered to Sweden, Livonia to Poland, the order retained only Courland. By 1561, Russian troops finally defeated the Livonian Order. The first period of the war turned out to be very successful for Russia. Russian troops occupied the cities of Narva, Dorpat, Polotsk, and Revel was besieged.

In addition, the Russian presence in Livonia affected complex and confusing pan-European politics, upsetting the balance of power on the continent.

Military operations were victorious for Moscow until Stefan Batory, who had undoubted military talent, was elected to the Polish-Lithuanian throne.

The following periods of the war were unsuccessful for Russia. Since 1579, it switched to defensive actions. Batory, having become king, immediately launched a decisive offensive against Ivan the Terrible. Under the pressure of united troops, the Russians abandoned Polotsk and the strategically important fortress of Velikiye Luki. In 1581, Batory besieged Pskov, intending to march on Novgorod and Moscow after capturing the city. Russia faced a real threat of losing significant territories. The heroic defense of Pskov (1581-1582), in which the entire population of the city participated, predetermined the outcome of the war that was relatively favorable for Russia.

The results of the Livonian War, which lasted twenty-five years, were very difficult for Russia. Russia suffered territorial losses, hostilities devastated the country, the treasury was emptied, and the central and northwestern districts were depopulated. The main goal of the Livonian War - access to the Baltic Sea coast - was not achieved.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Volkov V.A. Wars and troops of the Moscow state. - M. - 2004.

Danilevsky I.N., Andreev I.L., Kirillov V.V. Russian history. From ancient times to the beginning of the 20th century. – M. - 2007.

Karamzin N. M. History of the Russian State. Volume 8. Volume 9.

Korolyuk V.D. Livonian War. - M. - 1954.

Platonov S. F. Complete course of lectures on Russian history

Solovyov S. M. History of Russia since ancient times, volume 6. - M., 2001

Skrynnikov R. G. Ivan the Terrible. - M. - 2006.

Shirokorad A. B. Northern wars of Russia. - M. - 2001.

Livonian War causes and results briefly. “The Livonian War, its political meaning and consequences

Livonian War (briefly)

Livonian War - brief description

The reason for the outbreak of hostilities (Livonian War)

The final stage of the Livonian War

Main events and chronology of the Livonian War

Stages of war.

Results and consequences of the war.

INTRODUCTION -2-

1. Prerequisites for the Livonian War -3-

2. Progress of the war -4-

2.1. War with the Livonian Confederation -5-

2.2. Truce of 1559 -8-

2.3. War with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania -10-

2.4. Third period of the war -11-

2.5. Fourth period of the war -12-

3. Results and consequences of the Livonian War -12-

Background of the Livonian War

Progress of the war

War with the Livonian Confederation

Truce of 1559

War with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

Third period of the war

Fourth period of the war

Results and consequences of the Livonian War