(1103 - 1120). On April 11, in the area of ​​​​the city of Suten (east of the Dnieper rapids), a battle took place between the army under the command of the Russian princes Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh with the Polovtsian army under the command of Khan Urusoba. At the beginning of the battle, the Russians surrounded the Polovtsian vanguard under the command of the hero Altunopa and completely destroyed it. Then, encouraged by success, they attacked the main Polovtsian forces and inflicted on them crushing defeat. According to the chronicler, never before have the Russians won such brilliant victory over the Polovtsy. Urusoba and 19 other khans fell in the battle. This victory marked the beginning of Russian offensive actions against the Polovtsians.

The Battle of Lipitsa 1176 - this year the Rostovites and their boyars, knowing about the imminent death of the sick Grand Duke. Vladimirsky Mikhail(Mikhalka) Yuryevich was sent to Novgorod the Great for the prince who was sitting there. Mstislav Rostislavich. He immediately arrived in Rostov and, having gathered an army, moved towards Vladimir, wanting to occupy the city and thereby preventing the election of other contenders for the great table. But the people of Vladimir were already kissing the cross for Mikhalko’s brother, Vsevolod. Big Nest, who moved his troops towards Mstislav. From Suzdal, Vsevolod made an attempt to reconcile with Mstislav. He invited everyone to stay in the city that chose him, but let Suzdal choose whoever he wants as prince. Having received a refusal, Vsevolod united with the Pereyaslavl people at Yuryev-Polsky. Meanwhile, Mstislav was already marching against Vsevolod. The battle took place on June 27 near Yuryev, between the Lipitsa and Gza rivers. Vsevolod completely smashed Mstislav's army, who fled to Rostov with great damage.

Cards:

Notes

Pereyaslavl-Zalessky- an ancient Russian city on the shore of Lake Pleshcheevo (now the regional center of the Yaroslavl region Pereslavl-Zalessky). Founded in 1152 by Yuri Dolgoruky as a fortress covering Rostov-Suzdal land. In 1175 -1302 - the capital of the Pereyaslavl principality. The Chronicle of Pereyaslavl-Suzdal was compiled here. In 1302 it became part of the Moscow Principality. It was destroyed several times: in 1238 by the Tatars of Batu Khan, in 1293 by Gorodets Prince Andrei Alexandrovich, in 1382 by Khan Tokhtamysh, in 1408 by Emir Edigei. The city is decorated with many temples and monasteries. The first temple was founded by the founder of the city (1152) and received the name Spas-Preobrazhensky. In 1585, the tented church of Metropolitan Peter was built. In the 16th century, the Goritsky and Danilov monasteries were erected. In the vicinity of the city, the earthen ramparts of the town of Kleshchino (12th century) have been preserved.

Dmitrov- Old Russian city ​​on the river Yakhroma. First mentioned. chronicles (c. 1154 in connection with the birth of the Suzdan prince Yuri Dolgoruky's son Vsevolod the Big Nest, who had the church name Dimitri, in whose honor Dmitrov was built. In 1180 it was burned by the Chernig prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodich. Twice ( 1238 and 1293) was burned and devastated by the Tatar-Mongols. In 1272, Dmitrov was owned by the Gal-Dmitrov prince Davyd Konstantinovich, then by his son Boris Davidovich and grandson Dmitry Ivanovich, who was expelled from Dmitrov by Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy. XIII - XIV centuries Dmitrov - the center of the prince. From the end of the XIV century until his death (1428), it was owned by the son of Dmitry Donskoy, after which Dmitrov was annexed to Moscow.

Salnitsa (Russian-Polovtsian wars, XI-XIII centuries). A river in the Don steppes, in the area of ​​which on March 26, 1111, a battle took place between the united army of Russian princes under the command of Prince Vladimir Monomakh (up to 30 thousand people) and the Polovtsian army. The outcome of this bloody and desperate, according to the chronicle, battle was decided by the timely strike of the regiments under the command of princes Vladimir Monomakh and Davyd Svyatoslavich. The Polovtsian cavalry tried to cut off the Russian army's path home, but during the battle they suffered a crushing defeat. According to legend, Russian soldiers were helped to defeat enemies sky Angels. The Battle of Salnitsa was the largest Russian victory over the Cumans. Never since the campaigns of Svyatoslav (10th century) have Russian warriors gone so far into the eastern steppe regions. This victory contributed to the growing popularity of Vladimir Monomakh, the main hero of the campaign, the news of which reached “even Rome.”

Instructions

Conditions for creation early feudal state at East Slavic peoples appeared back in the 9th century. At the head ancient Russian principalities there was a prince who controlled the lands with the help of the Boyar Duma. Peasant self-government represented the neighboring community. Important questions considered by the people's assembly (veche): here decisions were made on military campaigns and the conclusion of peace, laws were approved, measures were taken to combat pestilence and famine in lean years, and trials were held. Relations between the prince and people's assembly lined up on the basis of an agreement, an objectionable prince could be expelled. By the 11th century. such government is gradually weakening, veche republics are preserved only in Novgorod and Pskov.

Large private land holdings feudal estates, transmitted by inheritance, appear in Rus' in the 10th-11th centuries. Peasants, who made up the majority of the population, were engaged in agriculture and crafts, raised livestock, hunted, and fished. In Ancient Rus' there were many skilled craftsmen, whose products were in great demand even abroad. All free population was obliged to pay tribute (“”).

Political centers Kievan Rus had cities, the number of which was constantly increasing. They were also a place where trade flourished. Own gold and silver coins began to be minted at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century, and foreign money was also used alongside them.

As the story goes main chronicle“The Tale of Bygone Years”, the founder of the state in Ancient Rus' is the Varangian Rurik, who was invited by the strife-ridden Krivichi, Chud and Sloven tribes to reign in Novgorod. In 862, Rurik came to Rus' with his family and retinue, and after the death of his brothers, the grand-ducal power was in his hands. He is considered the founder royal dynasty Rurikovich.

In 882, Prince Oleg (called the Prophetic) with his southern campaign was able to unite the central East Slavic lands- Novgorod and Kyiv, adding to them huge territories from Baltic Sea to Cherny.

Oleg was replaced by Igor, who, like his predecessor, expanded the borders of Kievan Rus. Under Igor, a campaign was launched against the Pechenegs, who were constantly disturbing the Russian lands, which ended with the conclusion of a five-year truce. The prince died at the hands of the Drevlyans, who rebelled against the repeated collection of tribute.

Igor's wife Olga ruled the Russian lands under the infant Svyatoslav from 945. Distinguished by the abilities of a real ruler, Olga was able to maintain the independence of the formed ancient Russian state for almost two decades. The princess installed new system collection of tribute: introduced lessons (fixed norms of fees), which were collected from the population in certain time and in designated places (cemeteries). Princess Olga was one of the first in Rus' to become a Christian, and was later canonized.

The name of the next Russian prince is associated with the adoption of the Christian faith in Rus'. Vladimir chose Christianity as the most acceptable for the people and convenient for strengthening state power religion. After the baptism of Vladimir himself and his sons, Christianity in Rus' became the state religion. 988-989 are the years when the Russian people accepted the princely power out of their own free will or under threat. But also for a long time Christian faith and ancient paganism coexisted.

New religion quickly established itself in Kievan Rus: churches were built, which were filled with icons and various church utensils brought from Byzantium. With the appearance in Rus' Christian religion people begin. Vladimir ordered children of eminent parents to learn to read and write. The Russian Christian prince, following his faith, initially replaced criminal penalties with fines and showed concern for the poor, for which people began to call him the Red Sun.

Vladimir fought with many tribes, and under him the borders of the state expanded significantly. Grand Duke tried to protect Russian lands from attacks by steppe nomads: for defense, fortress walls and cities inhabited by the Slavs were erected.

His father's place was taken by Yaroslav, who was later called the Wise. Long years his reign was marked by the flourishing of the Russian land. Under Yaroslav, the name “Russian Truth” was approved, dynastic marriage his son Vsevolod and Byzantine princess(from the Monomakh family) contributed to ending the confrontation between Greece and Rus'.

Under Yaroslav the Wise, the Russian metropolitan became the main mentor of Christians, and not one sent from Byzantium. The capital Kyiv competed with the largest European cities in its majesty and beauty. New cities were built, church and secular construction reached a large scale.

Vladimir Monomakh took over the great table after prolonged strife between the heirs, the sons of Yaroslav the Wise. Educated and talented as a writer, the prince was a participant in numerous military campaigns across Europe and the inspirer of military actions against the Polovtsians. With the help of the Russian prince, he managed to win several victories over the nomadic steppe inhabitants, and the constant enemies of the Russian lands did not disturb the population for a long time.

Kievan Rus intensified during the reign of Vladimir Monomakh, three-quarters of the lands that were part of the state were united under him, thus feudalism was significantly overcome. With the death of the prince princely strife resumed.

12th century is considered the time of existence in Rus' appanage principalities, the most important of which were Kiev, Vladimir-Suzdal, Chernigovo-Seversk, Novgorod, Smolensk and other lands. Some southern territories fell under the rule of Lithuania and Poland, most of Russian lands actually represented independent states, where the princes were determined by the veche. The fragmentation of Kievan Rus weakened it and made it impossible to full force resist enemies: Polovtsians, Poles and Lithuanians.

For 37 years there was a fierce struggle for the great reign between the descendants of Monomakh, and in 1169 Andrei Bogolyubsky seized the Kiev throne. This prince is considered the founder monarchical form government of the state. He tried, relying on the common people and the church, to strengthen individual power, independent of the influence of the boyars and the veche. But Andrei Bogolyubsky’s aspirations to autocratic power caused discontent among the squad and other princes, so he was killed.

Bogolyubsky's brother Vsevolod the Big Nest ruled Russia, bringing it closer to an autocratic monarchy. The concept of “prince” was finally established during his reign. Vsevolod managed to unite the Rostov-Suzdal land. Order in the state was established with the help of careful wise policy Vsevolod: the instructive example of Andrei Bogolyubsky, who strived for sole power, told the prince to act in accordance with accepted customs and to honor noble boyar families.

Vsevolod the Big Nest took to heart the insults inflicted on the Russian land: in 1199 he committed big hike against his former allies the Polovtsians, who were disturbing Rus', and drove them far away.

The structure of Ancient Rus' according to sources

The emergence of the Old Russian state dates back to the end of the 9th century. The formation of the state is associated with the unification of two centers Eastern Slavs: Kyiv and Novgorod. The center of unification became Kyiv, and from the point of view of the tribes - the glade. The formation of the Old Russian state is associated with the name of Prince Oleg, who, according to the chronicle, in $882$ subjugated the surrounding tribes to his power. From the $X$ to the $12$ centuries the formation of the state took place.

Note 1

From sources that provide information about early history Few are known from Ancient Rus'. First of all, this is chronicle information, which can only be used taking into account the imperfection of their data, as well as the Treaties of Rus' with the Greeks and the description of Rus' in the work of Constantine Porphyrogenitus “On the Administration of the Empire”.

So, based on these sources, the Old Russian state consisted of three parts. The first was the “Russian Land” with its center in Kyiv, where the court of the Grand Duke, the head of the entire state, was located. The second part was a complex of lands in the north of Eastern Europe, tribes lived there who entered into an agreement with the Kyiv prince. Under this treaty, the tribes paid tribute for governance and military protection. The tribute was transferred to Kyiv through the governor. And finally, the third part – those subordinate to the Kyiv authorities tribal unions Eastern Slavs. In general, it may seem strange that the seemingly identical second and third parts are separated from each other. The fact is that in the north we are talking about the Novgorod land, which had its governor from Kyiv, as a rule, the son of the Kyiv prince, because Novgorod was the second most important city. As for other tribal unions, here the Kiev prince did not interfere with the internal structure; probably, local princes and the tribal elite continued to rule there.

The first rulers of the Old Russian state

Thus, as already mentioned, according to the chronicle, the beginning of the Old Russian state as a political union was laid by Prince Oleg. In $882, he left Novgorod, where he ruled, and moved south. Apparently, Oleg had an impressive army, ethnically quite diverse, there were Varangians, and Slavic warriors - representatives of the Krivichi, Ilmen Slovenian tribes, and Finno-Ugrians - Chud and Meri warriors.

Going south, Oleg occupied cities such as Smolensk and Lyubech, and installed his governors there as princes. However, his goal was Kyiv, which he captured, killing its rulers - Askold and Dir. Then Oleg declared Kyiv the capital of the state.

The power of the Kyiv prince was extended by military means in the territories of the Drevlyan and Northern tribes. The Radimichi tribe accepted the power of Kyiv voluntarily, since before that they were tributaries Khazar Khaganate. All tribes under the rule of the Kyiv prince had to pay an annual tribute.

Note 2

Oleg was a successful political and military figure, judging by the fact that he founded single state, he also undertook a number of campaigns against Byzantium. Thanks to these campaigns, we have access to the treaties between Rus' and the Greeks of $907$ and $911$. These agreements provided trade benefits to Russian merchants and resolved a number of other legal issues.

Based on their chronicle data, Oleg ruled for thirty years, and was succeeded by Igor in $912.

Prince Igor is best known for his death at the hands of the rebel Drevlyans and the subsequent revenge of his wife Olga. In fact, almost at the beginning of Igor’s reign, the Drevlyans rebelled, but their rebellion was suppressed. The Drevlyans were again obliged to pay tribute, and after the uprising it increased.

In $915, a Pecheneg tribe appeared near the borders of the young Old Russian state. These nomads destroyed the lands of the Khazars living in the steppes of the Black Sea region, and the Hungarians were forced to leave these lands altogether. The scope of the lands where the Pechenegs roamed at the beginning of the 10th century is amazing: this is the territory from the Volga to the Prut.

Like his predecessor, Igor also led several campaigns against Byzantium. However, the first campaign, in $941, was unsuccessful; Igor’s fleet was destroyed. In $944, Igor’s second campaign took place, in fact, the result was not particularly successful for Rus' - according to the treaty, the provisions of 907 and $911 were generally confirmed, but duty-free trade was abolished.

In $945, the prince participated in collecting tribute from the Drevlyans. According to chronicles, Igor tried twice to collect tribute, as a result, the prince’s warriors were killed by the indignant Drevlyans, and he himself was executed.

The death of Prince Igor was avenged by his wife Olga, who brutally dealt with the Drevlyans. Also, Olga, having apparently realized that the tax collection system was clearly imperfect, carried out a reform. So, in $947, Olga made an innovation in Novgorod: a system of quitrents and tribute appeared, residents had to send tribute to a certain territory - the graveyard, where it was collected by special persons - tiuns. Princess Olga is also known for becoming the first head of the Old Russian state to convert to Christianity, which helped strengthen ties with Byzantium. Olga’s son Svyatoslav Igorevich spent his reign on military campaigns, so his mother continued to deal with daily affairs until her death.

In $964, Svyatoslav expanded the territory of the ancient Russian state by subjugating the Vyatichi. Then he defeated Volga Bulgaria and crushed Khazaria. Rus' strengthened in the Black Sea region, as well as in the North Caucasus. After the death of Princess Olga, Svyatoslav divided the lands between his sons: Yaropolk - Kyiv, Oleg - the Drevlyan lands, and Vladimir - Novgorod. The prince was killed by the Pechenegs in $972 while trying to return home from a campaign against Byzantium.

The heyday of the Old Russian state under Vladimir I and Yaroslav the Wise

Picture 1.

Division of lands by Svyatoslav led to the first strife between the rulers of the Old Russian state. The winner was Vladimir, who became the baptist of Ancient Rus'. Under Prince Vladimir, Rus' completed the unification of territories, annexing Chervona and Carpathian Rus', finally subjugating the Vyatichi and Radimichi. An attempt to create a single pagan pantheon in Kyiv to strengthen the unity of the state failed, and then the prince decided to choose a new state religion that would strengthen the power of Kyiv. So in 988 Rus' was baptized. This brought the Old Russian state to world stage. Rus' received international equal recognition.

After the death of Vladimir, a new feud began between the princes. During heavy clashes between the sons of Vladimir, many died, and in the end Yaroslav won, who then received the nickname Wise. Under him, the first set of laws, the Russian Pravda, was drawn up. In foreign policy, the family of Russian princes became related to the most important European dynasties. Yaroslav paid great attention to the development of culture and urban planning. Yaroslav established the so-called “ladder” system of inheritance when younger brother was the heir of the eldest. This system called constant conflicts between relatives.

The beginning of fragmentation

In the middle of the 11th century, the Pechenegs were replaced by new nomads - the Polovtsians. The sons of Yaroslav the Wise, mired in resolving personal conflicts, were unable to protect the state from invasion.

Note 3

Around $1072$ the Russian Pravda was edited by the Yaroslavichs at the congress, the so-called “Yaroslavichs’ Pravda” appeared.

With the development of feudal relations came the growth of cities. In this regard, local centers emerged that sought to pursue independent policies. A confrontation with Kyiv began. This was an even more significant reason for the coming beginning feudal fragmentation, than the features of inheritance of the grand-ducal table. The Yaroslavich triumvirate was unable to overcome fragmentation. Active attempts to strengthen and unify the state at the beginning of the 12th century were carried out by Vladimir Monomakh, and then by his son Mstislav the Great, but they were also unsuccessful.

Specific Rus' in the XII–XV centuries

Since the 30s. XII century ancient Russian state splits into one and a half dozen principalities-states, the main of which gradually become Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn principalities and Novgorod land . Preserving a common language and culture, but having lost political unity, Rus' entered a period of feudal fragmentation, which lasted until the end of the 15th century. After hiking Batu (1237–1240) Vladimir-Suzdal and a number of other principalities North-Eastern Rus' are part of Golden Horde . The Novgorod land, while paying tribute to the Mongols, still retains its independence. Some of the Russian principalities became part of Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia , and part - in Galicia-Volyn Principality, which in the 14th century. was divided between Lithuania, Poland and Hungary. By the end of the 15th century. lands united around Moscow form an independent centralized state, called Russia.

What were the reasons for the collapse of Kievan Rus? By the 12th century. A large boyar landholding developed. The economy was subsistence in nature, economic ties The principalities were weak. The appanage princes and their patrimonial boyars needed independence to quickly solve local problems, for example, suppressing popular uprisings. The development of productive forces, the establishment of independent trade relations (in the Galician-Volyn principality with its western neighbors - the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary, in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality - with the eastern, in Novgorod - with the Baltic countries) supported the centrifugal trend. It was also facilitated by the decline in the role of the Principality of Kyiv, which was subject to raids by nomads and was a bone of contention between appanage princes who fought for the great reign.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion caused enormous damage to the Russian economy. Of the 74 cities, 49 were destroyed, and 15 were never able to recover. The human losses were also great. For 2.5 centuries, the Russian principalities paid tribute, trade duties, and taxes to the khans to “feed” the khan’s officials. Popular uprisings forced the Horde late XIII V. transfer the collection of tribute to the jurisdiction of the Russian princes, but it did not decrease.

Nevertheless development of productive forces didn't stop. The area of ​​arable land increased, the main type of land use became three-field (spring and winter fields, the third - fallow), although the slash-and-burn system was preserved (grain was sown in the ash from the cut down and burned forest) and fallow (plowing of new areas as old ones were depleted) . They began to cultivate the land with iron tools and fertilize it. The water engine began to be used (in house houses, mills, and mines). If in the XII century. there were about 60 crafts, and in the 13th century. – 90, then by the 16th century. there were more than 200 of them.

Although the main form of land ownership continued to be patrimony, in production relations from the 13th century. appears fundamentally new element– conditional, or local, land tenure . A prince or boyar allocated land to his warrior or servant (often a former slave) for service (usually military). At first, such ownership was not hereditary and was preserved only on condition of conscientious service to the master. A new one appears social layer landowners-nobles (the term “nobleman” has been known since the 12th century and meant “a man of the princely court”).

The vassalage system characteristic of all medieval European countries, including for Russia, is beginning to be replaced by the system citizenship . Relations between the lord and vassals were characterized by a certain democracy and, as a rule, were sealed by agreement. The relative independence of Western European feudal lords from their lords and the central royalty(plus the fairly free status of cities) became one of the prerequisites for the development of democratic institutions in Western Europe(the appearance of the English parliament in the 13th century, etc.). Relationships of citizenship characteristic of eastern despotism, starting with Ancient Egypt, demanded the unquestioning submission of a servant, a slave, to his master. Their development in Rus' was greatly facilitated by physical destruction large number warriors and boyars during Batu’s campaign, princely strife, the semi-occupation regime during the period of the yoke, partial borrowing of the Golden Horde order by Russian feudal lords.

Process enslavement of peasants , characteristic of feudalism, was reflected in the disappearance of old terms denoting forms of feudal dependence (smerds, purchases, etc.), and the appearance in the 14th century. a new term - “peasants” (“Christians”), which indicated that this category of the population had acquired common features, characteristic of the peasantry as a class of feudal society. Along with the dependent peasantry, there was also a “black-growing” peasantry, who lived on free (“black”) lands and paid taxes to the treasury.

In Western Europe, during a long struggle with the feudal lords (for example, the “communal revolutions” at the turn of the 11th–12th centuries in France), cities managed to achieve independence from their lords. In Rus', cities (and not feudal castles) have long been administrative centers. Their dependence on the princes increased many times under the Mongols, since the prince was the only protector from the khans punitive expeditions. Dependent urban population was divided into “black artisans” who bore in-kind and monetary duties in favor of the state, and artisans who belonged to the boyars, princes or monasteries.

The division of Rus' affected processes of ethnogenesis : living in different states, often at war with each other, climate differences and other factors led to the isolation of three groups of Eastern Slavs. Differences in language, rituals, traditions, lifestyle, cultural and psychological make-up accumulated. As a result, in the XIV–XVI centuries. on the base Old Russian people Three new ones are gradually being formed: Russian (“Great Russians”), Belarusian and Ukrainian.

« White Rus'“meant “free Rus'” - free from tribute to the Horde. Belarus was part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia, the majority of whose population was Russian. “Ukraine” meant both “outskirts” and “one’s own land,” i.e., “one’s own country.” Ukraine was divided between Lithuania, Poland and Hungary. At first, the differences between related nationalities were very insignificant, and the self-name “Rus” among Ukrainians and Belarusians remained for a very long time. Before late XIX V. Ukrainian language was considered the “Poltava dialect” of the Russian language.

Active ethnic processes occur in other territories of the future Russian Empire. So, at the same time, the formation of the Tatar people in the Golden Horde took place from the Mongol conquerors (they were a minority, the name “Tatars” was probably the name of one of the Mongol tribes), Bulgars, Kipchaks (Cumans) and conquered peoples Central Asia and Volga region. This was facilitated by the declaration of Islam as the state religion in 1312.

IN social psychology and social thought In Rus' there were quite contradictory tendencies struggling. On the one hand, there was a separatist tendency (to protect one’s farm, patrimony, princely inheritance at any cost), and on the other hand, a unifying tendency, especially noticeable from the second. half XIV V. On the one hand, there was a desire to preserve personal and group rights and privileges inherited from the times of military democracy (veche, community, vigilantes, etc.), on the other, to consolidate the relationship of citizenship (of the “master-serf” type). The latter, for example, is reflected in such literary monuments the turn of the 12th–13th centuries, like the “Word” and “Prayer” of Daniil Zatochnik, where the author almost deifies princely power. By the end of the 14th century. the idea of ​​liberation from the yoke and restoration of the unity of the Russian lands becomes leading. One of the spiritual leaders of the era made a significant contribution to its formation Sergius of Radonezh , who blessed the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich for the battle with the troops of Mamai in 1380. Artistic embodiment ideas of the revival of Rus' became frescoes and icons Andrey Rublev .

In the XIII–XV centuries. for Rus' the main domestic and foreign policy objectives steel: to survive and then achieve independence. Mongol Empire, founded by Genghis Khan (1201–1227), subjugated the peoples of Siberia, China, Korea, Central Asia, etc. Genghis Khan’s grandson Batu (1208–1255) undertook a campaign in Europe in 1236. The heroic resistance of the Russian principalities weakened the Mongol troops. Their westward advance was finally stopped in Bohemia and Hungary in 1242.

However main danger Rus' was threatened from the north-west - from the Swedish feudal lords and the German Livonian Order(formed in 1237 after the merger of the Orders of the Swordsmen and the Teutonic). Mongol conquest did not lead to the assimilation of Russians. Russian soldiers served in the Horde troops. Operated relatively freely Orthodox Church. The crusaders carried to the conquered lands serfdom, brutal exploitation and forced “Catholicization”. In addition, the order represented one of the best at that time military organization and it was very difficult to defeat him. Victory Alexander Nevsky over the Swedes in 1240 and the order in 1242 (battle of Lake Peipsi, or " Battle on the Ice"), as well as the victory of the Polish-Russian-Lithuanian troops in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410 stopped Western aggression.

Attempts by the Galician-Volyn princes to organize resistance to the Golden Horde ultimately ended in failure. In the XIV century. Three centers emerged that lay claim to the unification of Russian lands: Moscow, Tver and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia . The latter, having arisen in the 40s of the 13th century. as a federation of Russian and Lithuanian lands under supreme power Lithuanian dynasty, by the 14th century. unites a significant number of Russian principalities under its rule. Talented commander Prince Olgerd inflicts a major defeat on the Tatars at the Blue Waters in 1362, and then makes three campaigns against Moscow. However, he failed to take Moscow, and he had to abandon his claims to unify the lands of the former Kievan Rus.

In 1327, having suppressed the anti-Horde uprising in Tver, the Moscow prince Ivan Kalita receives from the khan a label for a great reign. By 1375, Tver, like other principalities, recognized Moscow's leadership in the unification of North-Eastern Rus'. The rise of Moscow was facilitated not so much by the relatively safe and profitable geographical position or economic forces(trade ties between fiefdoms and principalities were quite weak), as much as the desire to get rid of tribute and - most importantly - achieve national independence, plus a fairly consistent, flexible policy of the Moscow princes.

In 1378, on the Vozha River, Russian troops led by Moscow Prince Dmitry Ivanovich inflicted the first major defeat on the Horde. The triumph of Russian weapons was victory in 1380 on the Kulikovo field the united army of the majority of Russian principalities over the Horde military leader Mamai. For her, the Grand Duke of Moscow began to be called Dmitry Donskoy , and was subsequently canonized.

This victory raised the prestige of Moscow so high that former ally Mom, I Lithuanian prince Jagiello, for some reason late (?) to the Kulikovo Field, is considering a project for an alliance with Dmitry Donskoy. Such an alliance could probably lead to the restoration of the territorial integrity of the Russian state and the overthrow of Mongol yoke already in the 14th century. The Moscow-Lithuanian Union was prevented by the capture of Moscow in 1382 (with the help of betrayal) by Khan Tokhtamysh and the restoration of tribute. In 1385, Lithuania concluded a union (alliance) with Poland and thereby secured territorial division Rus'.

It took the Moscow principality another century to achieve independence. During this time, the cities of Murom were annexed to it, Nizhny Novgorod, Novgorod and other principalities and lands. This was facilitated by the entry of the Golden Horde into a period of feudal fragmentation. In the XIV century. Central Asian possessions were separated from it in the 15th century. – Crimean, Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian Khanate. IN 1480 Moscow refuses to pay tribute to the Horde. Khan Akhmat leads an army to Rus', but does not dare to engage in battle with the regiments of the Moscow Grand Duke Ivan III . After standing for several weeks on the Ugra River, Akhmat returns to the Horde. The yoke was over. Soon after this, as a reflection of the independence of the state, a new name for Muscovite Rus' appeared - Russia . The ancient Russian civilization is being replaced by a new one - Russian civilization .

Thus, in the XII–XV centuries. Rus', having survived feudal fragmentation, the Mongol-Tatar yoke and having lost part of its territory to Lithuania, Poland and Hungary, is being reborn again as a centralized state - Russia.

The history of Kievan Rus officially begins in 882 - as recorded in the chronicle, it was then that Oleg of Rurik, having killed Askold and Dir, began to rule the principality with its capital in Kyiv. His campaigns, as well as the wars of conquest of other princes, led to the fact that there were more and more lands under the hands of Kyiv. Kievan Rus in the 9th-12th centuries was a large and developed European state.

Foreign and domestic policy of the ancient Russian state

From the very beginning foreign policy had several directions at once: it was necessary to resist both Byzantium, which extended its expansion to the Northern Black Sea region, and the Khazars, who interfered with trade in east direction, and the nomadic Pechenegs - they simply devastated Rus' with their raids.

Byzantium repeatedly tried to subjugate Ancient Rus', but not all of her attempts were successful. So, after Oleg’s sea campaign to Constantinople, a deal was concluded between the countries that was beneficial for the East Slavic state trade agreement However, under the reign of Igor, after his less successful military actions, the conditions changed to less favorable for Rus'.

The most successful in terms of foreign policy was the reign of Svyatoslav - he not only defeated the army of the Khazar Kaganate and Volga Bulgaria (having previously captured the Vyatichi), but also conquered the North Caucasian tribes and founded the Tmutarakan principality.

Rice. 1. Svyatoslav Igorevich.

He also concluded an agreement with Byzantium, after which he turned his attention to the Balkans. However, the conquest of the Bulgarian kingdom in 967 turned a treacherous ally against him: Byzantine ruler supported the Pechenegs, they went to Kyiv, but were defeated by Svyatoslav. He returned to the Danube again and, with the support of the Bulgarians, went to Constantinople. The map of military operations was constantly changing, either Svyatoslav or the Byzantine side gained the upper hand, and at some point the Kiev prince decided to return to his capital, but on the way he was killed by the Pechenegs.

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It is believed that the Pechenegs were persuaded to kill Svyatoslav by Byzantine diplomats sent to them.

The most politically stable was the reign of his son Vladimir, but already in 1015 a struggle for power began that lasted more than 20 years - only in 1036 did Prince Yaroslav begin to rule in Kyiv, after whose death his sons only strengthened the power of Kievan Rus. But this did not save the state from feudal fragmentation, the beginning of which had already been laid: autocracy Kyiv princes fell. Vladimir Monomakh, who tried to resist it, achieved only a temporary increase in power, and under his son Yaropolk, the process of the collapse of the state was finally completed.

Rice. 2. Vladimir Monomakh.

Economy and culture of Kievan Rus

Rus' in the 9th and early 12th centuries was a state with feudal land ownership. The owners of the land were not only the princes, but also the boyars and warriors, and a little later the church was added to them. Labor force, on which it was based economic development Kievan Rus, there were serfs, smerdas and other categories of the population. They took food rent from them.

As for culture, it was largely formed under the influence of the Byzantine tradition - this applies not only to architecture, but also to painting. Our own literature was also formed under the influence of translated literature, but it was ideologically rich and perfect in artistically. The most famous works of that time are “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “Teachings” of Monomakh and, of course, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”.