SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Representatives of the human race appear before us in all their diversity of properties - biological, psychological and social nature, which already creates certain preconditions for the existence of inequality. Inequality itself has existed for a long time and objectively, and it is the most characteristic feature human society.
First of all, we will be interested in the problem social inequality.
This problem has troubled the minds of people for many centuries (and, above all, from the point of view social justice); an atmosphere for mass riots formed around her, social movements and even revolutions. But all attempts to eliminate this inequality led to the fact that on the basis of one destroyed inequality, a new one was invariably created, based on other characteristics. At the same time, people resisted with great tenacity the formation of complete social equality.
Social inequality – this is a specific form of social differentiation in which individuals, social groups, layers, classes are at different levels of the social hierarchy, and at the same time have unequal life chances and opportunities to meet their needs .
Social differentiation(from Latin differentia - difference, difference) is a broader concept meaning the difference between individuals or groups on many grounds.
Social inequality results from complex processes division of labor and corresponding social stratification, it may be associated with the concentration of a number of life advantages in individuals or groups, and can even lead to deprivation of the rest of the population (a condition in which people feel deprived, lacking what they need). In this case, relations of inequality may have one or another degree of rigidity in their consolidation in special social institutions and the corresponding regulatory framework.
On the one hand, as practice has shown, social inequality is objectively necessary for society (for more effective development). On the other hand, when most of The population finds itself on the threshold (or beyond the threshold) of poverty and, in essence, has no opportunity for its development - this can lead to the destruction and even death of society. Where should be that line, that measure of social inequality that can ensure social development?
How global philosophical problem– the problem of inequality has worried thinkers since ancient times. Scientists and public figures in attempts to comprehend it, first of all, they asked questions about what could be considered the source of social inequality, and how this inequality should be assessed.
Within sociology, the explanation of the causes of inequality is reflected in two directions:
· FUNCTIONALISM- differentiation of functions performed by groups and the existence of different types of activities, valued differently in society.
· MARXISM- unequal treatment of property and means of production.
The first model of social inequality was created M. Weber, which explained the nature of inequality using three criteria (generators of inequality): wealth(income, property ownership), prestige(a person’s authority, determined by his professional activity, level of education), power(ability to implement policies and influence social processes). It is these criteria that participate in the vertical stratification of society, creating a hierarchy.
And, indeed, they are the types of public goods that are most important to people. Material goods necessary not only to satisfy elementary, universal vital needs, but also due to the culture of consumption (you can buy almost everything!). Possession power gives people a feeling of strength, advantages over others, as well as the opportunity to receive greater material benefits. Prestige evokes respect from the environment and allows a person to establish himself in self-importance, increase self-esteem. It is easy to see that all three criteria are often combined.
The idea of the nature of social inequality was subsequently developed by P. Sorokin, who created harmonious theories of social stratification (stratum - layer) and social mobility. Here he is already talking about the existence of not one, but several “social spaces”, structured in a certain way: economic, political And professional. At the same time, he notes that an individual can occupy different positions(statuses) in various social spaces, i.e., for example, having a high economic status (wealth), he may have a rather low official status.
Subsequently, this theory is developed within the framework of functionalism and in particular, T. Parsons hierarchical structure society explains the existing value system in it, which forms an understanding of the significance of a particular function performed. In various societies and in different eras different criteria could be significant: in primitive societies strength and dexterity were valued, in medieval Europe the status of the clergy and aristocracy was high; in bourgeois society, status began to be determined primarily by capital, etc.
The modern most influential theory of social stratification developed within the framework of functionalism is the theory K. Davis and W. Moore, in which inequality and status distribution in society are justified by the functional significance of statuses. In order to ensure social order, it defines the requirements for the performance of roles corresponding to statuses, and also proposes to identify difficult-to-fill, but socially significant statuses, for which society should develop higher rewards.
A certain contribution to understanding the nature of inequality was made by Marxism and, above all, by K. Marx, who created the theory of class construction of society, where the class itself was considered as a large social group. Class relations, according to Marx, are conflicting in nature, since they are determined by the appropriation of property, resources, surplus value by one of the classes. He builds a fairly coherent theory of socio-economic formations, where he shows that in different times existed different kinds property (slaves, land, capital). At the same time, he assesses the conflict itself as in a positive way- as a source of social development.
In sociology, the analysis of the vertical stratification of society is reflected in the formation of two classical theories:
1) theories of social stratification (functionalism)
2) theories of class construction of society (Marxism).
Theory of social stratification. Its author is P. Sorokin.
Social stratification – it is a hierarchically organized structure of social inequality in society.
In his work “Social stratification and mobility” (Man. Civilization. Society. - M., 1992, P. 302) P. Sorokin suggests following definition social stratification – this is the differentiation of a certain set of people into classes in a hierarchical rank, which finds expression in the existence of higher and lower strata. Its essence lies in the unequal distribution of rights and privileges, duties and responsibilities, the presence or absence of power and influence among members of the community. Those. the upper strata (minority of the population) have greater resources and opportunities to satisfy their interests and needs.
Sorokin points out that there can be three main forms of stratification in society:
Ø ECONOMIC- generated by property inequality.
Ø POLITICAL- caused by inequality in the possession of power.
Ø PROFESSIONAL- associated with division by type of activity and its prestige.
Based on the theory of social stratification, P. Sorokin develops his second theory social mobility, by which he means “any transition of an individual, social object or value created or modified through an activity from one social position to another."
Social mobility – it is the movement of an individual or group in a system of social hierarchy.
Sorokin highlights:
Ø horizontal mobility, in which the movement occurs from one position to another, but lying on the same level (moving to another family, to a different faith, moving to another city). Those. the status remains the same.
Ø vertical mobility– with the transition of an individual or group from one social layer to another (with a change in status), within which the following may exist:
- ascending And
- descending social mobility.
Channels of social mobility for an individual in an open society can be:
Ø School ( educational establishments)
Ø Church
Ø Political organizations
The availability of pathways for social mobility is defined as characteristics of society, so the ability of the individual himself.
The main obstacle to social mobility in stratified societies are specific “sieves”, as a mechanism of social testing, with the help of which selection and provision of opportunities for people for vertical movements are carried out.
If we talk about individual abilities individual, then subjective obstacles may arise on his way - in the form of some sociocultural barrier. A new status level may require the individual to master certain status characteristics (a new material standard of living, the assimilation of a typical status behavior, changing your social environment).
Vertical mobility can serve as an indicator of the openness of a society. Depending on the characteristics of society and the extent to which vertical movements are possible in them, the following are distinguished:
- closed societies, These include those where movement from lower to higher strata is prohibited or significantly difficult. This should include societies with such historical types social stratification, such as: slavery, castes, estates;
- open societies(with class or stratification division), where movements from one stratum to another are not officially limited.
It should be noted that in modern societies, where in to a large extent are interested in ensuring vertical mobility, in qualified and competent performers, in updating the intellectual elite, however, even in them there are social groups of a “closed” type (elite), getting into which can be extremely difficult.
The theory of class construction of society. The author is K. Marx.
Another approach to structuring society is its class construction. The first picture of the class structure of society was developed by K. Marx, who considered classes as large and conflict social groups divided along economic lines.
Within Marxist approach
- Class- this is a large social group of people, whose position in society (in the system of division of labor) is determined by its attitude to property, to the means of production, as well as by the method of obtaining income
It should be noted that Marx’s forecasts for the establishment as a result of the class struggle of the communist system on a global scale (as the highest stage primitive society) – did not come true. The basis of communist ideology was the principle of material equality (while maintaining other types of inequality), which was supposed to create the basis for ensuring social justice.
But... on the one hand, in particular - in our country the so-called. “equalization” led to a sharp decrease in labor motivation and economic recession, which required strengthening state power. On the other hand, rich people invariably began to appear, only in the context of the growth of the shadow economy, who partly found themselves fused with the authorities. Kudos mental work turned out to be associated with the fact that the intelligentsia did not even deserve to be defined as a class, but only a layer between the class of workers and peasants.
Humanity chose to take a different path, preserving social inequality itself, but ensuring greater degree his justice and at the same time - sustainability society itself.
In foreign practice, this issue began to be resolved through the formation of the so-called middle class, quite numerous, with a high level of education, and stable economic situation and prestigious professions. The very idea of the importance of the middle class was put forward by one of the classics of sociology - G. Simmel, and to this day it successfully works in society.
Within the framework of the concept rule of law, in particular, an approach was formulated to create more equitable social inequality - providing people with equal starting opportunities so that the most deserving ones reach the finish line. Moreover, on this basis the concept was formed social state, allowing to more fully ensure the principle of social justice.
Currently, class theories are leaning towards social stratification, i.e. In addition to property remaining as the main feature, the basic class differences also include: official status (power), prestige. And the class itself is considered as enlarged social status, which has its own subculture and privileges.
In a modern interpretation Class - is a group of people who consider themselves to have a certain position in a system of social hierarchy.
The position of an individual or group in the system of social stratification is determined by such concepts as:
§ social status - this is the relative position of an individual or group in the social structure of society, determined by certain social characteristics;
§ social role - behavior expected from a person occupying a certain status and implemented through a system of norms.
Each person can have a whole set of such statuses (with different ranks in different areas).
The status is determined by the following parameters :
· responsibilities
· functions
Statuses can be classified:
According to the degree of formalization
Ø formalized – (depending on the degree of formalization social system) - Doctor of Science, accountant;
Ø informal - yard captain football team, the most popular singer.
According to the form of purchase.
Ø prescribed (obtained at birth) - citizenship, nationality, social origin...
Ø achieved - profession, title, academic degree...
Also distinguished main (integral) status – it is often caused by a person’s professional activity (president, plant director)
The social structure of modern Western society can be represented in the following form:
· Top class (10%)
· Middle class (60-70%)
· Low class (20-30%)
Top class not numerous, and its role in the life of society is ambiguous. On the one hand, he has powerful means of influencing political power, and on the other hand, his interests (preserving and increasing wealth and power) begin to go beyond public interest. Therefore, it cannot serve as a guarantor of the sustainability of society.
Lower class, as a rule, has small incomes, not very prestigious professions, a low level of education and little power. His forces are aimed at survival and maintaining his position, so he is also unable to ensure social stability.
And finally middle class It is not only the most numerous, but also has a stable position, which it will strive to maintain in the future. It is his interests that largely coincide with public interests.
Signs Middle class members include the following:
· Availability of property (as property or as a source of income)
· High level education ( intellectual property)
· Income (at the rate of the national average)
· Professional activity(having high prestige)
In modern Russian society Attempts were also made to build social stratification, although this was done in conditions transitional society quite difficult, since the layers themselves, the classes, have not yet been established.
It should be noted that the construction of social stratification in itself is a labor-intensive task, since it is associated with difficulties in determining the criteria for this division, their significance, as well as assigning people to one or another stratum. It requires collecting statistical data, conducting social surveys, analysis of what is happening in society, economic, political and social processes. But at the same time social stratification is extremely necessary - without it it is difficult to implement social transformations, build public policy and generally ensure the stability of society.
One such model is social structure modern Russian society (proposed by T.I. Zaslavskaya).
1. Upper layer(elite - 7%)
2. Middle layer (20%)
3. Base layer (61%)
4. Lower layer (7%)
5. Social bottom (5%)
It should be noted that Zaslavskaya does not use the concept of class, but only “layer”, thereby showing the unformed nature of classes.
Upper layer– elite and sub-elite, they occupy important positions in the system government controlled, in economic and security forces. They are united by the fact of being in power and the ability to directly influence the reform process. In fact, this is the main subject of Russian reforms.
Middle layer- the embryo of the middle class in the Western sense, since its representatives do not yet have sufficient capital to ensure the sustainability of their position, nor the level of professionalism, nor prestige. This includes entrepreneurs of medium-sized businesses, managers of small enterprises, middle levels of the bureaucracy, senior officers, and the most qualified specialists.
Base layer– this includes most of the intelligentsia (specialists), office workers, technical personnel, workers in mass professions, and the peasantry. Despite all the differences in their statuses and mentality, they are united by the desire to adapt to changing conditions and survive and, if possible, maintain their status.
Lower layer characterized by rather low activity potential and poor adaptation to changing conditions. It's not too healthy and strong people, often elderly, pensioners, unemployed, refugees, etc. What they have in common is very low level income, education, unskilled labor and/or lack of permanent work.
Main feature social bottom and the difference from the lower layer is isolation from the institutions of society, inclusion in criminal and semi-criminal institutions (alcoholics, drug addicts, homeless people...)
In modern Russian society, social polarization continues to develop based on property and other types of stratification, which creates serious threats to the preservation of the integrity of society. The most pressing problem is income inequality: the so-called decile coefficient (the ratio of the income of the richest 10% to the income of the poorest 10%) is approaching 17, while, according to world practice, its excess of 10 can give rise to social unrest. And even in the oil and gas industry, which is relatively prosperous in terms of earnings, gas industry, according to Forbes experts, the difference in the level of income of top managers of Rosneft and Gazprom companies and the minimum tariff rate for a first-class worker is 8 thousand times.
In more later years A certain contribution to understanding the problem of social inequality from the point of view of social justice was made by the American scientist P. Blau, who proposed for use the system of parameters he developed that relate to both the individual and the social group: nominal and ranking parameters.
TO nominal parameters included: gender, race, ethnicity, religion, language, place of residence, area of activity, political orientation. They characterize social differentiation and do not provide for ranking into higher and lower positions in society. If this happens, it should be assessed from the point of view of injustice and oppression.
TO ranked parameters: education, prestige, power, wealth (inheritance or accumulation), income (salary), origin, age, administrative position, intelligence. They are the ones who assume ranging and reflect social inequality.
Relationships between components social structure may contain elements of social equality and social inequality. However, social equality is a rather shaky concept. Even within the same social groups elements of the hierarchy caused by different ways life individual societies, their activity and participation in public life. Moreover, social relations themselves are, in fact, politically relations of social inequality. The desire to portray a socially equal society in scientific and philosophical works were a fantasy, a utopia. The attempt to build communism as a society of socially equal individuals led to the tragedies of millions.
The first attempts to analyze social inequality in society, its causes and nature, and to measure its parameters were made back in the era of antiquity, in particular. Plato and Aristotle. However, such theoretical developments were unsystematic, random and had no empirical basis. These theories were partly scientific. And only with education industrial society, as well as the establishment of sociology as a science, attempts to understand the essence and degree of social inequality were no longer random, but conceptual.
Class theory
The first researcher to create scientific concept social inequality, was. Charles. Marx, who developed famous theory classes and class struggle
In Marxism classes are This large groups people who differ in their place in a historically determined system social production, in their relation to the means of production, in their role in public organization labor, but also according to the methods of obtaining and the size of the share of social wealth that they control.
Based on Marxist-Leninist theory, classes are a historical phenomenon. They arose during the collapse of the primitive communal system and changed as much as the means of production changed. Each social economic the formation corresponds to its class. Thus, in slavery the antagonist classes were slave owners and slaves, in feudalism - feudal lords and serfs, in capitalism - the bourgeoisie and the working class. D. Voma classes, workers and peasants are not antagonists in a socialist society. As for communism, there will be no classes at all, because classes, being a historical phenomenon, arose at a certain stage in the development of civilization, therefore the day and time will come when they must disappear, and society will become classless.
The main criteria by which Marxism divided society into classes were:
· organization of social production;
· ownership of means of production;
· use of hired labor
Based on these criteria, the level of income is distributed between classes, as a result of which in capitalism there are such classes as the bourgeoisie, the proletariat (working class) and the peasantry
Besides classes, as I thought. K. Marx, there are other social layers in society, in particular, the interclass layer - the intelligentsia, declassed elements and marginal groups of the intelligentsia. Marx calls c a social group consisting of professionally employed persons creative work, requiring special education(doctors, scientists, cultural and artistic figures, teachers, etc.). The intelligentsia has nothing to do with production, therefore it is not a class, but is called upon to serve the interests of classes. Declassed elements are social strata of the population that do not have any property or a stable source of income. Marginalized strata are at the very “bottom” of society, outside the boundaries characteristic of a given society social norms and values. Marginal strata cause contempt in all other members of society.
In today's Ukrainian society, to one degree or another, all of the above social groups exist
Classical theory. K. Marx and. V. Lenin, was malfunctioning already in Soviet times, where, despite the adopted model 2 1 (two classes - the peasantry and workers, and the stratum - the intelligentsia, everyone is approximately equal in working conditions and income levels) there was tangible social inequality. And if we remember that the bourgeoisie also... Lenin, was divided into large, medium and small, there was a so-called group of middle peasants, which, among other things, was numerous, it was extremely difficult to discern clear boundaries between classes, because the petty bourgeoisie in terms of income could often be equal not to the bourgeoisie, but to to the middle peasants, and sometimes even to the proletariat. Therefore, for a clearer understanding of class theory, one should use the concept of “social strata”, which make up internal structure classes and large social groups (for example, the above-mentioned big and petty bourgeoisie; workers of high, medium and low qualifications).
. Social layer- a set of individuals engaged in economically and socially equivalent types of labor who receive approximately equal material and moral remuneration
Thus, it is more expedient to talk not just about the class structure, but about the class-religious structure of society
In any case, class theory interprets social inequality one-sidedly. One of the main shortcomings that can be found in class theory is the recognition of social inequality as a historical phenomenon, i.e. one way or another, with an attempt to see a socially homogeneous society in the future. Another problem of class theory is the deviation in the explanation of social inequality by all other factors except economic ones. It was already June, several decades after the theory appeared. Marx. M. Weber proved that in addition to wealth, a person’s status in society is also influenced by power and prestige. Therefore, the theory of class structure as a single factor in explaining social inequality began to fail. What was needed was another concept that used the variety of factors influencing the formation of social inequality and whose theoretical provisions would be supported by empirical data. The theory of social stratification became such a concept.
Structural functionalism as sociological paradigm
Structural functionalism - direction sociological thought,
sociological paradigm, the essence of which is to highlight
elements social interaction, determining their role and place in
larger social system or society as a whole, as well as their social
Founders:
I. Alfred Radcliffe-Brown
Key ideas:
· Social order supported by social institutions Social institutions- norms of behavior are supported constant practices. Practices should not interfere with each other. In some cases they support each other. A process of “co-adaptation” arises.
· Functionalism is a way of organizing practices to maintain stability in society.
· Social structure is a set of stable social relations. There is a “total social structure” that is reproduced by sustainable practices. Evolutionism vs. Diffusionism. How to study society?
Comparison of practices across societies is necessary different types
II. Bronislaw Malinowski
Key ideas:
v Participant surveillance
· It is necessary to study the worldview and culture of people in order to understand how society is possible
v Reciprocity, principle of reciprocity:
· -General
· -Symmetrical
· -Negative
v Social action can only be explained by means
· understanding people's needs. It is necessary to understand their culture,
· their values and the way to satisfy the needs in this
· culture.
III. Talcott Parsons
· The world is systemic, so you need to study it systematically
· The system is a holistic formation. Its aspects are structure and process.
· Systems exist in interaction with the environment with which they are in exchange relations.
· Structure is a set of standardized relationships between system elements.
· Element of the social system – active person(actor)
· Role is the expected behavior corresponding to the status and social position of the individual
Quantitative and qualitative methods in modern sociology
Methodology sociological research is a set of methods
sociological research, methods and approaches to their application.
All methods of sociological research can be divided into two:
1) data collection methods
2) methods of processing sociological data
Data collection methods in sociological research are divided into two
1) quantitative methods
2) qualitative methods of sociological research.
Therefore, there are such types of sociological research as
quantitative and qualitative.
Qualitative methods sociology allows the sociologist to understand the essence
any social phenomenon, and quantitative ones - to understand how much
massively (often found) this social phenomenon and how important it is
for society.
TO quantitative methods studies include:
· - content analysis of documents
· - interview method
· - observation
· - experiment
Qualitative methods of sociology:
· - focus group
· - case study (“case study”)
· - ethnographic research
· - unstructured interviews.
K. Marx on the origin of inequality
According to Marx, classes arise and confront on the basis of different
provisions and various roles performed by individuals in production
structure of society, that is, the basis for the formation of classes is
social division of labor.
In turn, the struggle between antagonistic social classes
acts as a source social development.
1. The emergence of classes becomes possible only when growth
labor productivity leads to the emergence of a surplus product, and
common ownership of the means of production is replaced by private ownership
property.
2. With the advent private property becomes inevitable
wealth inequality within the community: individual clans and families
get rich, others become poor and end up in economic dependence from
first. Elders, military leaders, priests and other persons forming
the clan nobility, using their position, enrich themselves at the expense of the community.
3. Development of production, growth of trade, increase in population destroy
the former unity of the clan and tribe. Thanks to the division of labor they grow
cities are centers of crafts and trade. On the ruins of the old, tribal system
arises class society, the characteristic feature of which is
antagonism between the exploiting and exploited classes.
4. Ruling classes being the owners of everyone or at least
least essential means production, get the opportunity to appropriate
the labor of the oppressed classes wholly or partially deprived of means
production.
5. Slavery, serfdom, hired labor form three alternating
another method of exploitation, characterizing the three stages of class-
antagonistic society. With the first two methods of class
exploitation, the direct producer (slave, serf) was
legally powerless or lacking rights, personally dependent on the owner
means of production. In these societies “... class differences were recorded and
in the class division of the population, was accompanied by the establishment of a special
legal place in the state for each class... Division of society into
classes are inherent in slave, feudal, and bourgeois societies, but in
the first two there were classes-estates, and in the last there were classes
classless"
Thus, the basis of the inequality of society according to Marx is
economic development society. The more developed a society is economically
The more class inequality is felt.
When considering the class-stratification theory, which reveals the process of stratification of society into social classes and layers, we see that at the heart of this stratification lies people’s unequal access to material benefits, power, education, prestige, which contributes to the hierarchical structure of society, that is, the placement of some layers above or below others. Thus, the problem of equality and inequality characterizes the process of stratification.
Social inequality- these are the conditions under which people have unequal access to social benefits such as money, power, prestige, education, etc.
There is no single answer to the question of what causes inequality in sociology. Representatives of philosophical and sociological directions They are trying to explain this process from their own positions.
Thus, Marxism explains the social inequality existing in society by its economic organization. From a Marxist perspective, inequality results from the fact that the people under whose control are public values(mainly the means of production, wealth and power), benefit for themselves. This situation can give rise to dissatisfaction and lead to class struggle. This is the so-called conflict theory.
Proponents of the theory of functionalism do not agree with the Marxist theory. They consider social inequality as a condition for the existence of society, which makes it possible to encourage the most useful species labor and the best representatives of society. Thus, M. Durkheim in his work “On the Separation social labor is one of the first to explain inequality by saying that in all societies some activities are considered more important than others. All functions of society - law, religion, family, work, etc. - form a hierarchy according to how highly they are valued. And people themselves are talented to varying degrees. During the learning process, these differences intensify. To attract the best and gifted, society must promote social reward for their merits.
M. Weber bases his theory of inequality on the concept status groups who enjoy honor and respect and have unequal social prestige.
According to P. Sorokin, the causes of social inequality are property, power, and profession.
A unique approach to explaining social inequality - in reputation theory of L. Warner. He determined the belonging of people to a particular stratum based on the assessment of their status by other members of society, i.e. reputation. While conducting research, he came to the conclusion that people themselves are accustomed to dividing each other into superiors and inferiors. Thus, the cause of inequality is the psyche of people. (See: Ryazanov, Yu. B. Social inequality / Yu. B. Ryazanov, A. A. Malykhin // Sociology: textbook. - M., 1999. - P. 13).
By stating the fact of social inequality in society and revealing its causes, many sociologists, and not only functionalists, justify it. Thus, P. Sorokin noted that inequality is not only an objective reality social life, but also an important source of social development. Equalization in income, in relation to property, and power deprives individuals of an important internal incentive to action, self-realization, self-affirmation, and society - the only energy source of development. But life proves that there is various inequalities when one works, to put it mildly, has everything and even more, and the other, working, barely ekes out a miserable existence. Such inequality cannot be calmly justified.