Great importance for the culture of speech has the concept of norm. Language norms are generally recognized and generally accepted in speech practice at a certain stage of language development, rules for the use of words and phrases.
Characteristics literary norm:
sustainability,
prevalence,
common usage,
universality,
variation
compliance with the use, tradition and capabilities of the language system.
Distinguish different types norms:
· orthoepic,
· spelling,
· word-forming,
· lexical,
· grammatical
· stylistic
Language norms are a historical phenomenon. The change in literary norms is due to constant development language. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-20 years ago may become a deviation from it today. Sources of norm change literary language different: Speaking, local dialects, vernacular, professional jargon, other languages. Changes in norms are preceded by the appearance of their variants, which actually exist in the language at a certain stage of development and are actively used by its speakers. The historical change in the norms of literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desires of individual language speakers. According to scientists, the process of changing language norms has become especially intensified in recent decades.
Language norms are not invented by scientists. The norms reflect natural processes, occurring in the language, and supported language practice. In every society, attempts are made to define and fix linguistic norms in the form of a set of rules for the selection and use of all means of language. Sources of norm: works of classical writers and modern writers, analysis of the language of means mass media, generally accepted modern usage, living data and questionnaire surveys, Scientific research linguistic scientists.
Norms help a literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility, therefore a language norm determines how to correctly (or permissibly) structure speech in a given language and what is incorrect and unacceptable. This allows the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.
Language norms may change over time. These changes in developed literary languages occur rather slowly, and the norm remains stable for decades.
Language norms are recorded in philological dictionaries. For example, spelling dictionaries contain information about the correct pronunciation of words.
Modern literary language allows for variation in norms. It focuses not on inviolability and universality, but rather on communicative expediency. Therefore, the norm today is often not so much a ban on something as an opportunity to choose. Variants of norms are reflected in dictionaries of modern literary language. For example, in the “Dictionary of the Russian Literary Language”, accented variants of such words as normalize and normalize, thinking and thinking are recorded as equal. Some variants of words are given with the corresponding markings: cottage cheese and (colloquial) cottage cheese, agreement and (simple) agreement. If you turn to the Orthoepic Dictionary, you can follow the fate of these options. Thus, the words normalize and thinking become preferred, and normalize and thinking are labeled “additional.” (acceptable). Regarding cottage cheese and cottage cheese, the norm has not changed. But the variant “Agreement” has moved from a colloquial form into a colloquial form, and is marked “additional” in the dictionary.
The concept of a norm does not exist without its violation. But the specificity of the cultural-speech norm is that it does not provide for any sanctions as opposed to, say, legal norms or norms social behavior. Meanwhile, only actual knowledge of cultural and speech norms, their approval and dissemination in society contributes to the adequate development of language.
Orthoepic norms
Pronunciation standards are studied by orthoepy. Orthoepia (from the Greek orthos direct, correct and epos speech) –
1) a system of uniform pronunciation standards in the literary language;
2) science (section of phonetics), dealing with pronunciation standards, their justification and establishment.
Orthoepic norms are also called literary pronunciation norms, since they serve the literary language, i.e. language spoken and written cultured people. Literary language unites all Russian speakers; it is needed to overcome linguistic differences between them. And this means that he must have strict standards: not only lexical - norms for the use of words, not only grammatical, but also spelling norms. Differences in pronunciation, like others language differences, interfere with people’s communication by shifting their attention from what is being said to how it is being said.
Pronunciation rules in the Russian literary language may refer to the pronunciation individual sounds in certain phonetic positions, as part of certain combinations of sounds, in different grammatical forms ah, k phonetic word and rhythmic structure ( correct positioning accents).
Pronunciation norms, for one reason or another, may begin to “lose”: fluctuations in pronunciation norms arise, which, if they become widespread, lead to the emergence of variants of the literary norm, and then to the emergence and strengthening of a new pronunciation norm. Orthoepy, along with obligatory pronunciation norms, primarily studies variants of pronunciation norms that coexist in the language at some point in time, when the old (due to history) pronunciation variant is still actively used along with the new variant. Thus, the combination chn is pronounced as [chn] in the words floral, colorful, as [shn] in the words scrambled eggs, boring, and variable pronunciation is allowed (both options - [chn] and [shn] - are correct) in the words bakery, laundry, gingerbread . At the same time, the option of pronouncing this combination as [sh] is currently perceived as outdated.
LECTURE 2. LANGUAGE NORM AND ITS SIGNS. OPTIONS, TYPES OF STANDARDS
Plan:
The concept of language norm
Variants of norms.
Types of norms.
4. Orthoepy as a science
5. Accentological options
1. The Russian language unites the nation and is at the same time an integral and the most important part our national culture, reflecting the history of the people and their spiritual quest. Modern Russianists, and in particular, specialists in the culture of speech, rightly say that the Russian language, while reflecting our national virtues, no less clearly shows all our troubles. The problem of the correctness of Russian speech and compliance with the norms of the literary language are widely discussed in newspapers and magazines, and in radio broadcasts. Deviations from norms in the public speech of politicians, radio and television announcers, and a decrease in general level literacy of the population, and especially youth. However, there is not a single area of human knowledge human activity, for whom the poor, confused, illiterate professional or everyday speech of the performer would be a blessing. A graduate of any university - technical or humanitarian - must be literate and have a good command of speech culture.
The most important quality of speech culture is its correctness, in other words, its compliance with linguistic norms.
What is included in this concept? Let's offer a definition.
The norm of a language (literary norm) is the rules for the use of linguistic means, the uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of elements of a literary language in a certain period of its development.
Language norm- a complex and rather contradictory phenomenon: it dialectically combines a number of opposing features. Let us list the most important of them and give the necessary comment.
1. Relative sustainability And stability linguistic norms are necessary conditions for ensuring the balance of the language system over a long period of time. At the same time, the norm is a historical phenomenon, which is explained by the social nature of language, which is constantly developing together with the creator and speaker of the language - society itself.
The historical nature of the norm is due to its dynamism, variability. What was the norm in the last century and even 10-15 years ago may become a deviation from it today. If you turn to dictionaries and literary sources from 100 years ago, you can see how the norms of stress, pronunciation, grammatical forms of words, their (words) meaning and use have changed. For example, in the 19th century they said: cabinet(instead of closet), fat(instead of heat), strict(instead of strict), quiet(instead of quiet), Alexandrinsky theater (instead of Alexandrinsky), returned(instead of returning); at the ball, weather, trains, this beautiful paleto(t) (coat); certainly(instead of Necessarily), necessary(instead of necessary) and so on.
2. On the one hand, the norm is characterized by widespread And universality compliance with certain rules, without which it would be impossible to “control” the element of speech. On the other hand, we can talk about “linguistic pluralism” – the simultaneous existence of several options (doublets) that are recognized as normative. This is a consequence of the interaction of traditions and innovations, stability and variability, subjective (author of speech) and objective (language).
3. Basic sources of language norms- these are primarily works of classical literature, exemplary speech of highly educated native speakers, generally accepted, widespread modern usage, as well as scientific research. However, recognizing the importance literary tradition And authority of sources, you should also remember author's individuality, capable of violating norms, which is certainly justified in certain communication situations.
In conclusion, we emphasize that the literary norm is objective: it is not invented by scientists, but reflects the natural processes and phenomena occurring in the language. Language standards are mandatory for both oral and writing. It is necessary to understand that the norm does not divide linguistic means into “good” and “bad”. It indicates the appropriateness of their use in a specific communicative situation.
In general, the literary norm enshrines all the best that has been created in speech behavior representatives of this society. It is necessary because it helps preserve the integrity and general intelligibility of the literary language, protects it from colloquialisms, dialectisms, and jargon.
Modern literary language, not without the influence of the media, noticeably changes its status: the norm becomes less rigid, variation is allowed; it is focused not on inviolability and universality, but rather on communicative expediency. Therefore, the norm today is often not so much a ban on something as an opportunity to choose.
The concept of a norm does not exist without its violation. But the specificity of the cultural speech norm is that it does not provide for any sanctions as opposed to, say, legal norms or norms of social behavior. Meanwhile, only actual knowledge of cultural and speech norms, their approval and dissemination in society contributes to the adequate development of language.
2. Changes in language norms are preceded by the appearance of their variants (doublets), which actually already exist in speech and are used by native speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in special dictionaries, such as the “Spelling Dictionary”, “Dictionary of Difficulties of the Russian Language”, “Dictionary of Word Compatibility”, etc.
Exist 3 degrees of normativity:
– 1st degree norm– strict, tough, not allowing options (for example, put, but not lay down; T, call but not rings; socks, but not sock);
– norm 2nd degree– less strict, allowing equal options, united in a dictionary entry by the conjunction “and” (for example, right And , are right blinds(Wed And pl.), immoral And immoral);
– norm 3rd degree– the most flexible, where one option is the main (preferred), and the second, although acceptable, is less desirable. In such cases, the second option is preceded by the mark "additional"(permissible), sometimes in combination with stylistic marks or just a stylistic mark: "colloquial"(colloquial), "poetic"(poetic), "prof."(professional), etc. For example: bank sprat(add. sprats),cup tea(additional colloquial tea), compass(prof. compass).
The 1st degree norm is called imperative norm, norms of the 2nd and 3rd degrees – dispositive norms.
Currently, the process of changing language norms has become especially active and noticeable against the backdrop of events of historical and political significance, economic reforms, changes in the social sphere, science, and technology. It should be remembered that a language norm is not a dogma: depending on the conditions, goals and objectives of communication, and on the characteristics of a particular style, deviations from the norm are possible. However, these deviations should reflect the variants of norms that exist in the literary language.
3. In accordance with the main levels of language and areas of use of linguistic means, the following are distinguished: types of norms.
1. Orthoepic norms(Greek correct speech) – norms for stress and pronunciation. Spelling errors make it difficult to perceive the speaker’s speech. Social role correct pronunciation is very great, since knowledge of spelling norms greatly facilitates the communication process.
In order not to make mistakes in speech, you need to use special dictionaries, such as “Dictionary of Stresses of the Russian Language”, “Spelling Dictionary”, “Dictionary of Difficulties in Oral Speech”, etc.
Options that are outside the literary norm are accompanied by prohibitive notes: “ not rec."(Not recommended), "not right."(wrong), "rude."(rough), "bran."(expletive language), etc.
2. Lexical norms or norms of word usage, are: a) the use of a word in the meanings that it has in modern language; b) knowledge of its lexical and grammatical compatibility; c) correct choice of word from synonymous series; d) the appropriateness of its use in a particular speech situation.
3. Morphological norms regulate the formation and use of grammatical forms of words. Note that to morphological norms primarily include: norms for determining the grammatical gender of some nouns, norms of education plural nouns, norms of formation and use of case forms of nouns, adjectives, numerals and pronouns; norms for the formation of comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives and adverbs; norms for the formation and use of verb forms, etc.
4. Syntactic norms are associated with the rules for the construction and use of phrases and various sentence models. When constructing a phrase, you must first of all remember about management; When constructing a sentence, you should take into account the role of word order, follow the rules for using participial phrases, the laws of constructing a complex sentence, etc.
Morphological and syntactic norms often united under common name – grammatical norms.
5. Spelling norms (spelling norms) And punctuation norms do not allow distortion of the visual image of a word, sentence or text. To write correctly, you need to know the generally accepted rules of spelling (the spelling of a word or its grammatical form) and punctuation (the placement of punctuation marks).
4 . Each literary language exists in two forms - oral and written - and is characterized by the presence of mandatory norms - lexical, grammatical and stylistic. At the same time, the written form of the language is also subject to spelling and punctuation norms (i.e., spelling rules), and the oral form is subject to pronunciation, or orthoepic, norms.
Word orthoepy- Greek origin: orthos - correct, epos - speech. It denotes both a set of pronunciation rules and the science that studies these rules. Orthoepy is the study of the norms of oral speech: the rules of pronunciation of individual sounds and their combinations, the patterns of stress placement.
Good literary pronunciation is one of the important indicators of the general cultural level of a modern person. "The correct pronunciation of a word is no less important than the correct spelling. It is known that incorrect pronunciation distracts the listener's attention from the content of the statement, thereby complicating the exchange of information... The role of correct pronunciation has especially increased in our time, when oral public speech at meetings and conferences, on radio and television, has become a means of communication between thousands and millions of people."
It is especially important to disseminate correct Russian literary pronunciation, since the Russian language is not only the language of the Russian people, but also a means of interethnic communication of all peoples of Russia and one of the international languages of our time.
This is facilitated by special reference and teaching aids, scientific and popular science publications, and regular radio and television broadcasts.
5. Accentological variations within the literary norm are an inevitable consequence of the evolution of language. Usually, they do not differ in either semantic or grammatical meaning. For example: m s wandering - thinking e, b A rust - barge A, born - born, flooded - flooded, faithful - faithful, to the hut - to the hut, to the bridge - to the bridge, etc. There are a lot of such equivalent (in meaning, but not in use) accentological doublets in the modern Russian language - more than 5000 common words." Variability of stress ensures a less abrupt and painful transition from the old literary norm to the new. For example, emphasis graveyard And was still generally accepted in the literary language of the 19th century, new option The cemetery gradually came into use at the end of the 19th century. Old version and is still used in poetry today. In the XVIII - XIX centuries. the norm was stress A ry. Oscillations (turner and turner) began at the end of the 19th century. and continued until the 30s. XX century Now everyone says t O kar, but you can still find b O ndar and bond A ry.
The reasons for the change in stress are various. Sometimes with literary competes with dialect stress (cf. lit. chum salmon and Far Eastern chum salmon). The stress in some little-known, exotic words fluctuates (pima - pima, unty - unty).
Stress variations in many borrowed words are common, which is associated with the influence of different source languages, and in some cases, “intermediary” languages . So, in the 30s. the variants revolver and revolver (later - only revolver) were normative, since this word was raised to different source languages- French and English. Borrowed in the 18th century. from German language the word alcohol was pronounced alcohol, but subsequently under the influence French alcohol began to be pronounced. Under the influence of the Polish language, which was an intermediary in borrowing, the emphasis in the words document, department, heretic, climate fluctuated (now only document, heretic, climate).
Some accentological variants originate or persist in the professional environment : agony (among doctors), atom, atomic (among physicists), spark (among drivers), complex numbers (among mathematicians), report (among sailors), chassis (among pilots), mania (among doctors). In the speech of miners, the obsolete emphasis in modern literary language is preserved: mining, in the speech of sailors - compass. Many obsolete accents are preserved in poetry. From professional speech the accents wind, text, cutter, boy came to the literary language. The accentological features of borrowed words are often ignored if the borrowing is carried out using an intermediary language. So, through Latin in the 16th-18th centuries. such dissimilar names as England, France, Nor-ge were borrowed, which in Russian received the same type of structural and accentological design: England, France, Norway. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. through the French language, many words were borrowed from various Western European languages, which in Russian received an emphasis on the last syllable, characteristic of the French language, including the English Liverpool, Milton; Hamlet, Shakespeare, Newton, etc.
Words borrowed through Turkic media usually have an emphasis on last syllable, even if this emphasis does not correspond to the original: Mohammed, Ahmet (cf. Arabic Ahmad, Muhammad).
For the Russian language, the stress on the last two syllables is most typical, therefore, most often the stress of the source language remains unchanged in words of French, Polish and Turkic languages. Words borrowed from Germanic, Baltic and Finno-Ugric languages, in which the stress on the first syllable predominates, are perceived as borrowed longer, and in the process of mastering the Russian language they often experience fluctuations in stress. In some borrowed words, fluctuations in stress last for centuries, as they are supported by dictionary tradition and poetic speech.
In the 20th century the number of fluctuations in stress in borrowed words compared to the 19th century. decreased, which indicates their mastery of the Russian language.
Currently, new fluctuations arise in previously borrowed words, caused by the desire to bring the stress of a foreign word closer to the stress in the source language (cf.: Hamlet -> - Hamlet, Los Angeles - Los Angeles, Peru - Peru, Newton-Newton, Bacon -Bacon, etc.).
“Newly borrowed words, as a rule, follow the stress of the source language, because in most cases the time for vibrations to arise in them has not yet come. This must be preceded by a certain period, during which the words must “take root” in the language and become known to the majority of speakers language and “find” an analogy among the words included in the vocabulary system.”
The influence of territorial and social dialects, interlingual contacts, etc. are extra-linguistic factors of change and fluctuation of stress. However, more important are the reasons of an intralingual nature: the influence of analogy, the tendency towards dissimilarity of grammatical forms and an increase in the distinctive role of word stress.
Under the influence of analogy, the stress in the short forms of passive participles is equalized: forms female are increasingly pronounced with an emphasis on the base, like all other forms, and not on the ending, as they were pronounced before: sold, taken, inclined (instead of the only previously acceptable sold, taken, inclined).
The emphasis in derived stems is increasingly moving away from the emphasis in producing ones: whirlwind - whirlwind (in dictionaries it is also indicated to whirlwind), luxury - luxurious, tiger - tiger, brake - brake (old accents luxurious, tiger, brake), think - thinker, rid - deliverer, console - comforter (in the XVIII - early XIX c.: thinker, deliverer, comforter). The emphasis has been shifted to the suffix -enie in the words calculation, straightening, appointment, melting (in 18th century dictionaries: calculation, straightening, purpose, melting). The original emphasis of the words intention, provision, concentration is retained, although violations of the literary norm are common: provision, concentration, intention. The emphasis in the words thinking, discovery, vulgarization, simplification fluctuates within the literary norm ( linguistic term) and simplification.
A very important pattern of stress changes has been established: Russian accent in polysyllabic words it gravitates towards the center of the word, and the most common words do not have more than three unstressed syllables in a row.
Outdated accentological options are consolidated in stable phrases, in phraseological units: run your hand over your forehead (some on the forehead, some on the forehead), hang it on the wall (climb the wall), your lip is not a fool (but underlip), the onset of morning (from morning until morning), twelve languages (twelve languages), about versts (two versts), worried about the destinies of his sons (what destinies!), cooks porridge (head cooks), to the horses (command: on the horses !), bought a goose (like water off a goose), didn’t know the need (no need).
At the same time, securing accentological options for different meanings polysemous words often turn out to be unstable. Increasingly, the distinction between options such as rolling a barrel and rolling on a bicycle, knocking down and snowing, breaking through the door and striking the hour, etc. is being lost, and the more productive option (rolling, knocking, punching) is expanding the scope of use.
Pronunciation of the combinations -CHN- and -SHN-
The combination chn, as a rule, is pronounced in accordance with the spelling, i.e. [chn]: precise, durable. However, in some words chn is pronounced [shn]: of course - kone[sh]o, boring - skuk[sh]o. In some cases, pronunciation options are acceptable: bulo[shn]aya – bulo[chn]and I. In new words chn pronounced like [ chn]: removable[chn]oh, then[chn]th etc. In some words the pronunciation [ shn] is deprecated: creamy - plum[shn]y, brown - measles[shn]left(*):
Combinations with unpronounceable consonants.
When several consonants coincide between vowels in some combinations, one of the consonants is not pronounced. Such cases are accompanied by corresponding marks in the dictionary.
1. In combinations stn, zdn And stl consonants are not pronounced [ T] And [ d]: charming - lovely[sn]y, reed - tr[sn]ik, private owner - cha[sn]ik, staircase - l[sn]itsa, regional - regional, sixteen - six[sn]teen, peer - sparkling, starry - starry, late - late, idle - right, happy - happy[sl]envious, envious - jealous[sl]willowy, compassionate - sting[sl]willowy, conscientious - owl[sl]willow In a number of words belonging to the book style, in combinations stn, zdn And stl consonants [ T] And [ d] are not completely lost: acT ma, glisT ny, composT ny, hollyT ny, withoutd on, free of charged ny, braidT Lyavy, pos.T bark.
2. Combinations stsk, ntsk And ndsk pronounced with the consonant [ ts With] in place of combinations ts And ds: tourist - turi[ts With ]cue, racist – rasi[ts With ]cue, amateurish - amateur[ts With ]cue, Irish – Irish[ts With ]cue, Icelandic – Islan[ts With ]cue, Scottish – Scotlan[ts With ]cue
3. In combinations stk, zdk And ntk pronunciation of the consonant [ T] is saved: zhesT cue, weighedT ka, no weightT ka, hangmanT ka, trip - eat[WithT To]ah, bulky - thunderous[WithT To]y, graduate studentT ka, laboratory technicianT ka, waiterT ka, coldT ka. Consonant [ T] is not pronounced in a loanword that has long been mastered in colloquial speech Dutch oven (oven) – golla[NK]A.
4. In combinations rdc And rdch consonant [ d] not pronounced: heart - behold[rc]e, core – se[rc]Evina, little heart - behold[RF]Ishko.
5. In combinations vstv And lvv first sound [ V] is not pronounced in words feeling, hello And remain silent as well as their derivatives: feeling - chu[st]in, feel - chu[st]howl, sensitive – chu[st]attentive, sensual – sensitive[st]vein; hello - hello[st]wow, hello - hello[st]howl; to remain silent - silent[st]in-vat.
In other cases, in place of the first V in combination vstv pronounced [ f]: clear - I[f]national
6. Combined lnc consonant not pronounced [ l]: sun - with[nc]e.
4. IN words foreign language origin , which are not widely used, have specific pronunciation features. for example, in words from different areas science, technology, politics, culture, as well as proper names, there may be a lack of qualitative reduction of unstressed vowels.
1. In the first and second pre-stressed syllable, at the absolute beginning of a word, as well as in post-stressed syllables at the absolute end of a word after consonants or vowels in place of a letter O pronounced vowel [ O] without the reduction characteristic of Russian words: b[O]a, b[O]rdo, with[O]no, G[O]gen, B[O]dler, b[O]lero, r[O]To[O]ko, M[O]nparnas, M[O]Passan,[O]nore,[O]tello,[O]ttava, t[O]rnad[O], vet[O], credit[O], Karuz[O], Castres[O], Mexico[O], adázhi[O], true[O], how[O], for the sake of[O], Toki[O], Fideli[O].
2. In some less common proper names in pre-stressed syllables, combinations of letters ao, oa, oo, oh And woah pronounced as they are written, i.e. without reduction: Aogasuma Island –[O]Gasuma, Oaxaca City –[oa]Háka, Moorea Island – M[oo]rea, Lawrival – L[OU]rival, luoravetlany – l[woah]ravetlany.
3. In non-Russified borrowed words in place of letters e And I unreduced vowels can be pronounced in all pre-stressed syllables: legáto –[l'e]gáto, Vespucci –[v'e]spuchchi, Nero –[n'e]ron, gyaur –[g'a]Ur, Lyashko –[l'a]school, genocide –[g'e]notsud, Benvenuto –[b'env'e]no, lambiasis –[l'a]mbioz, Lyatoshunsky –[l'a]Toshunsky.
4. After [ and], [w] And [ ts] in some borrowed words there is an unstressed letter e can be pronounced without reduction: masterpiece – w[uh]dévre, Chéné – Ш[uh]nyé, ginseng – well[uh]Nishén, Gerard – F[uh]rár, time pressure - ts[uh]ytnot, centuria – c[uh]nturia, Ceres – C[uh]rera, myelut – mi[uh]lút, pitet – pi[uh]tet, chevrolet – sh[uh]vrolé, Sheri-dan – Sh[uh]Ridan, Gerardin – F[uh]rarden.
5. At the beginning of words of foreign origin, as well as after a vowel in place of a letter uh sound is pronounced [ uh]: ek-ran –[uh]faucet, efur –[uh]fur, eucalyptus –[uh]vkalupt, Evry-duka –[uh]vriduka, dielectric – di[uh]lecturer, coefficient –co[uh]fficient, Buenventura – Boo[uh]nventura. The pronunciation in these cases of the sound [ And] is incorrect, as it gives the speech a reduced stylistic coloring.
6. In most words of foreign origin, consonants before e soften. However, in many non-Russianized loanwords, the consonants before e do not soften. Labial consonants can be pronounced firmly [ p, b, c, f, m] and dental consonants [ t, d, s, z, n, r]. A special mark is given next to such words in the dictionary. Recently, there has been a tendency to preserve the hardness of the consonant, if that is the pronunciation in the source language. In the console de- There is a tendency towards soft pronunciation. Some words allow two options for pronunciation of a consonant. However, there are no unambiguous rules for the pronunciation of hard-soft consonants before e It is impossible to give, each case should be checked in the dictionary and memorized.
Questions for self-control:
1. What is a language norm and what are its features?
2. How is the inconsistency of the norm manifested?
A person is manifested, first of all, in its correctness. It covers not just one side of the language, but concerns absolutely everyone, necessarily both for oral and oral language.
Linguistic norms are the rules on the basis of which certain means of language are used at a certain stage of its development. It is also the generally accepted, exemplary use of phrases, sentences and words in speech.
The following languages are distinguished:
Word formation (norms for the formation of new words);
Orthoepic (or pronunciation norms);
Morphological;
Spelling;
Lexical;
Syntactic;
Punctuation;
Intonation.
Some of them are typical for both and some are only for oral or only for written.
Language norms are a historically formed phenomenon. Some of them appeared a long time ago and have remained unchanged to this day, while others have disappeared. Some even come into conflict. For example, german word“entrant” comes from a Middle Latin word meaning “one who is going to leave”, and today it is used to describe someone who, on the contrary, is going to enroll to study. That is, over time the norm of using this word has changed.
Orthoepic language norms are also not stable. For example, the borrowed word “bankrupt” was written as “bankrupt” before the 18th century. Until the end of the 19th century, both forms were used, and then it won and became the norm after all. new form its use.
The pronunciation of the combination -chn- has also undergone changes. Thus, explanatory dictionaries of the 1935-1940s present different norms than those that exist today. For example, in the words “toy, snack bar” the combination -chn- was pronounced as -shn-, which is now completely unacceptable. Some words have retained a double variant: bakery, decently.
Morphological language norms also change. This can be clearly seen in the example of the endings of nouns. male in the plural and nominative case. The fact is that some have the ending -s, while others have the ending -a. This is due to the existence before the 13th century in Old Russian language form of the dual number, which was used when it was necessary to indicate two objects. Thus, there were three possible endings: zero for nouns in singular, the ending -a to indicate two items and the ending -ы to indicate the number of items greater than two. At first, the ending -a was preserved in those words that denoted paired objects: eye, side, etc. Gradually it almost replaced the ending -ы in other words as well.
But at animate nouns in the plural, the ending -ы has mainly been preserved: accountants, drivers, engineers, lecturers, inspectors and inspectors, but professors.
Sometimes you also need to take into account For example, the word “teacher” with the meaning “teacher” has the ending -i in the nominative plural, and with the meaning “head of teaching” - the ending -i; the word “leaf” (of paper) has the ending -ы, and the word “leaf” (of wood) has the ending -я.
The multivariance of norms testifies to the incredible richness of the Russian language. But at the same time, this creates certain difficulties, since it becomes necessary to choose the right option from this number. This can be done correctly only if the characteristics of each option and its syntactic coloring are known. As a result of a detailed study of the use in and written) different options created by linguistic scientists special dictionaries and explanatory dictionaries, which record language norms characteristic of the modern literary language.
language norm literary codification
The concept of norm is usually associated with the idea of correct, literary competent speech, and herself literary speech is one of the parties general culture person.
The norm, as a socio-historical and deeply national phenomenon, characterizes primarily the literary language - recognized as an exemplary form of the national language. Therefore, the terms “linguistic norm” and “literary norm” are often combined, especially when applied to the modern Russian language, although historically they are not the same thing.
Language norm develops in real practice verbal communication, is worked out and consolidated in public use as usus (lat. usus - use, use, custom); The literary norm is undoubtedly based on usage, but it is also specially protected, codified, i.e. is legitimized by special regulations (dictionaries, sets of rules, textbooks).
Literary norm - these are the rules of pronunciation, word usage, and the use of grammatical and stylistic linguistic means accepted in social and linguistic practice. The norm is historically mobile, but at the same time stable and traditional, it has such qualities as familiarity and universal obligatory nature. The stability and traditionality of the norm explain a certain degree of retrospectiveness of the norm. Despite its fundamental mobility and variability, the norm extremely carefully opens its borders to innovation, leaving them for the time being on the periphery of the language. A.M. said this convincingly and simply. Peshkovsky: “The norm recognizes what was, and partly what is, but not what will be.”
The nature of a norm is two-sided: on the one hand, it contains the objective properties of an evolving language (a norm is a realized possibility of language), and on the other, public taste assessments (a norm is enshrined in best examples literature stable way of expression and preferred educated part society). It is this combination of the objective and the subjective in the norm that creates the somewhat contradictory nature of the norm: for example, the obvious prevalence and common use language sign does not always (or, at least, not immediately) receive approval from the codifiers of the norm. This is how the living forces that direct the natural course of language development (and the consolidation of the results of this development in the norm) and the traditions of linguistic taste collide. An objective norm is created on the basis of competition of options linguistic signs. For the recent past, classical fiction was considered the most authoritative source of literary norms. Currently, the center of norm formation has moved to the media (television, radio, periodicals). In accordance with this, the tongue taste era, due to which the very status of the literary language is changing, the norm is democratizing, becoming more permeable to former non-literary linguistic means.
The main reason for the change in norms is the evolution of the language itself, the presence of variation, which ensures the choice of the most appropriate variants of linguistic expression. Into the concept of exemplary, standard normative linguistic means The importance of expediency and convenience is becoming more and more noticeable.
The norm has a certain set of characteristics that must be present in it in its entirety. K.S. writes in detail about the signs of the norm. Gorbachevich in the book “Word Variation and Language Norms.” He identifies three main features: 1) stability of the norm, conservatism; 2) the prevalence of the linguistic phenomenon; 3) authority of the source. Each of the signs individually may be present in one or another linguistic phenomenon, but that's not enough. In order for a linguistic device to be recognized as normative, a combination of features is necessary. So, for example, in highest degree errors may be common, and they may remain persistent throughout long period time. Finally, the language practice of a fairly authoritative publication may be far from ideal. As for the authority of literary artists, there are special difficulties in assessing, since the language fiction- phenomenon special plan and high artistry is often achieved precisely as a result of the free, not according to strict rules, use of language.
The quality (sign) of the stability of a norm manifests itself differently at different language levels. Moreover, this sign of the norm is directly related to the systemic nature of the language as a whole, therefore, at each language level the relationship between “norm and system” manifests itself to varying degrees, for example, in the field of pronunciation, the norm depends entirely on the system (cf. the laws of alternation of sounds, assimilation, pronunciation of groups of consonants, etc.); in the field of grammar, the system produces schemes, models, samples, and the norm - speech implementations of these schemes, models; in the field of vocabulary, the norm is less dependent on the system - the content plan dominates the expression plane, moreover, the systemic relationships of lexemes can be adjusted under the influence of a new content plan. In any case, the sign of stability of the norm is projected onto the linguistic systematicity (a non-systematic linguistic means cannot be stable, sustainable).
Thus, the norm, having the listed characteristics, implements following criteria its assessments: systemic criterion (sustainability), functional criterion (prevalence), aesthetic criterion (authority of the source).
An objective linguistic norm develops spontaneously by choosing the most convenient, expedient version of a linguistic device, which becomes widespread and widely used. A strictly observed rule in this choice is compliance with the language system. However, such a spontaneously formed norm will not necessarily be officially recognized. There is a need for codification of the norm, its legitimation through official regulations (recording in normative dictionaries, codes of rules, etc.). This is where some difficulties arise in the form of resistance to the new norms on the part of codifiers or the public, and finally, some group of professionals or “lovers of literature.” As a rule, this looks like a ban on everything new. Purism is the desire, from conservative motives, to preserve something (for example, in a language) unchanged, to protect it from innovations (purism - French purisme, from Latin purus - pure).
Purism comes in different forms. In the history of Russian literature, for example, ideological purism is known, associated with the name of A.S. Shishkov, Russian writer, president Russian Academy from 1813, later minister public education, who acted as an archaist who did not tolerate any innovations in the language, especially borrowed ones. In our time, one can encounter taste purism, when linguistic facts are assessed from the everyday standpoint of “whether it hurts or not the ear” (it is clear that the ear can have different sensitivity), as well as with scientific purism, which deserves more attention, since it is capable of influencing the development of recommendations. Most often these are the emotions of a bibliophile who is captive to tradition. This is revealed in prohibitive recommendations placed in dictionaries, manuals, etc. In part, such purism can be useful; it has the quality of a restraining principle.
The norm is based on usage, custom of use, codified norm officially legitimizes the usage (or in some particular cases rejects it); in any case, codification is a conscious activity. Since codifiers, both individual scientists and creative teams, can have different views and installations, varying degrees manifestations of prohibitive intentions, often recommendations in officially published documents do not coincide, especially with regard to stylistic notes in dictionaries, fixation of a number of grammatical forms, etc. Such disagreements indicate not so much that when lighting linguistic facts, when establishing a norm, different criteria can be used, depending on the inconsistency of the linguistic material itself: language is rich in variant forms and structures, and the problem of choice sometimes turns out to be difficult. In addition, it is taken into account “ language policy» moment. On different stages in the life of society it expresses itself in different ways. This term arose in the 20-30s of the 20th century. and means conscious interference in speech practice, taking protective measures against it. Currently, the state of our statehood and the state of society are such that no one even thinks about protective measures in relation to social and speech practices. The literary norm is clearly being undermined, especially by the media. The phrase “linguistic chaos” began to be used along with others where it is actively manifested internal form this ex slang word(lack of measure in something that is assessed negatively) - administrative lawlessness, legal lawlessness, lawlessness of power, army lawlessness, etc. This word has become so widely used (in different contexts) that even in dictionaries it has acquired new marks, in in particular, in the Dictionary of S.I. Ozhegova, N.Yu. Shvedova, published in the 90s, the word is presented with the mark “colloquial”, although before this period the word was not included in this dictionary at all as belonging to criminal jargon. The modern popularity of the word could not go unnoticed in the linguistic environment: articles and many pages in monographs are devoted to it.
So, the codification of a norm is the result of normalization activity, and codifiers, observing speech practice, fix the norm that has developed in the language itself, giving preference to the option that turns out to be the most relevant for a given time.
LANGUAGE NORM, ITS ROLE IN THE FUNCTIONING OF LITERARY LANGUAGE. TYPES OF NORM.
The concept of "speech culture"
Our discipline is called "Russian language and culture of speech." We have been speaking Russian since childhood. What is speech culture?
The concept of “speech culture” is capacious and multifaceted. IN in general terms it can be defined as the ability to express one’s thoughts clearly and clearly, to speak competently, the ability not only to attract attention with one’s speech, but also to influence listeners. Proficiency in speech culture is a unique characteristic of professional suitability for people involved in the most various types activities: diplomats, lawyers, politicians, school and university teachers, radio and television workers, managers, journalists, etc.
Speech culture as special linguistic discipline has its own scientific definition: This is the quality of speech that provides maximum effective communication subject to linguistic, communication And ethical normal As follows from this definition, speech culture includes three components: linguistic, communicative and ethical. Let's look at them.
Linguistic component of speech culture
The linguistic component of speech culture involves, first of all, its normativity, i.e. compliance with the norms of the literary language, which are perceived by its speakers as an “ideal” or correct sample. Linguistic norm is a central concept speech culture, and the linguistic component of speech culture is considered the main one. The question of a norm arises when there are two or more contenders for it, for example: normative keel é tr or profanity keel ó meter, normative Great Danes ó R and profanity d ó talk etc.
The concept of language norm
Language norm- these are traditionally established rules of use speech means, i.e. rules of exemplary and generally accepted pronunciation, use of words, phrases and sentences.
The norm is mandatory and covers all aspects of the language. There are written and oral norms.
Written language norms- These are, first of all, spelling and punctuation standards. For example, writing N in a word hard worker, And NN in a word birthday boy obeys certain spelling rules. And placing a dash in a sentence Moscow is capital of Russia explained punctuation standards modern Russian language.
Oral norms are divided into grammatical, lexical and orthoepic.
Grammar rules - these are the rules for using forms different parts speech, as well as the rules for constructing sentences.
Most common grammatical errors associated with the use of gender of nouns: railway rail, French shampoo, big callus, registered parcel post, patent leather shoes. However rail, shampoo - it is a masculine noun and callus, parcel, shoe - feminine, so you should say: railway rail, French shampoo And big callus, custom parcel, patent leather shoe.
Lexical norms - these are the rules for using words in speech. An error is, for example, the use of the verb lay down instead of put. Even though the verbs lay down And put have the same meaning put - this is a normative literary word, and lay down- colloquial. The error is the following expressions: I put the book back in its place He puts the folder on the table etc. In these sentences you need to use the verb put: I put the books in their place, He puts the folder on the table.
Orthoepic norms - This pronunciation norms oral speech. They are studied by a special section of linguistics - or-phoepia (from the Greek. orthos- "correct" and epos- "speech").
Compliance with pronunciation standards has important for the quality of our speech. Spelling errors cat á log, sound ó nit, means á etc. always interfere with the perception of the content of speech: the listener’s attention is distracted and the statement is not perceived in its entirety
You should consult about stress in words in " Spelling dictionary". The pronunciation of a word is also recorded in spelling and explanatory dictionaries. Pronunciation that corresponds to orthoepic norms facilitates and speeds up the communication process, therefore social role correct pronunciation is very great, especially nowadays in our society, where oral speech has become a means of widest communication at various meetings, conferences, and forums.
The diagram below shows Various types normal