Each language has not only territorial differences. The language is also heterogeneous in social terms. In this regard, it varies in a variety of directions. For example, there may be age-related characteristics of the language: the speech of a child will always differ from the speech of an adult, the speech of the older generation often differs from the speech of the younger generation, there are languages in which the language of women in the area of pronunciation differs to a certain extent from the language of men.
The variability of speech may depend on the general educational level. An educated person speaks differently than a poorly educated person. A certain imprint on the speech characteristics of people can be left by their occupation, range of interests, etc. Belonging to a certain class, social origin, and the environment in which a person constantly moves also contribute to the appearance of certain speech characteristics.
Within a given language, noted A. Meillet, determined by the unity of pronunciation and, in particular, the unity of grammatical forms, in reality there are as many special vocabularies as there are social groups that have autonomy within the society speaking this language.
The factors contributing to the emergence of speech variability in social terms are so diverse that it is impossible to give a complete and comprehensive description of them within the confines of this chapter. It is necessary, however, to characterize the main types of social variants of speech.
The main difficulty is that many researchers include in the concept of so-called social dialects of speech phenomena that, although outwardly similar, are completely different in nature. There is not even any stable classification of these phenomena. The nomenclature of the names of social variants of speech is also not orderly.
In Russian linguistic literature, the terms “argo” and “jargon” are used non-terminologically, often acting as synonyms. The term “jargon” is sometimes given a stylistically reduced meaning; there is a tendency to assign this term to the name of the closed speech system of some antisocial social group, cf. for example, "thieves' jargon".
To designate professional lexical systems, the following terms are used: “professional languages”, “professional dialects” and even “professional dialects”. The term “slang”, which exists in Western European linguistic literature to denote jargon with a broader social base, has not taken root in our country.
Of particular interest is the classification of social variants of speech recently proposed by V.D. Bondaletov. Depending on the nature, purpose of linguistic features and operating conditions, he distinguishes: 1) the actual professional “languages” (more precisely, lexical systems), for example, fishermen, hunters, potters, woodworkers, wool beaters, shoemakers, as well as representatives of other trades and occupations; 2) group, or corporate, jargon, for example, the jargon of pupils, students, athletes, soldiers and other, mainly youth, groups; conditionally professional languages (argot) of artisans-otkhodniks, traders and social groups close to them; 3) conventional languages (argot, jargons) of the declassed.
This classification does not, however, include one social variation of speech, which some researchers called class dialects. The problem of the existence of varieties of speech associated with class affiliation was of interest to many representatives of domestic and foreign sociolinguistics.
It has often been assumed, especially in relation to the era of modern capitalist society, that the single language of the ruling class is opposed by the territorially fragmented dialects of subordinate social groups (for example, the peasantry, the urban petty bourgeoisie, etc.). However, the factual illustrations of this position cited in the specialized literature find a different interpretation (in particular, the coincidence of territorial and class characteristics is a feature of only a certain era in the historical development of society).
Based on what has been said, in the subsequent presentation we are guided by the following classification; 1) professional lexical systems, 2) group, or corporate, jargons, 3) jargons of the declassed, 4) conventional languages.
Serebrennikov B.A. General linguistics - M., 1970.
The process of emergence of linguistic variants of a language (varieties of language, forms of existence of language, functional styles) as a result of its variation in different social and territorial conditions. Territorially determined D. I. (at the level of phonetics, vocabulary, syntax) underlies territorial linguistic formations within a given national language - adverbs, dialects, dialects. Socially conditioned Dia. is expressed in the emergence of such varieties of language as social dialects. Differentiation by gender is manifested in the presence of gender varieties of speech (language). The use of language for various communicative purposes in different spheres of human activity is the cause of functional-stylistic differentiation, resulting in the formation of various functional styles. D.I. is one of the main problems studied in sociolinguistics.
social differentiation of language
territorial differentiation of language
functional-stylistic differentiation of language.
Dialects, vernaculars, jargons
A dialect is a type of national language used as a means of communication between people connected by a close territorial community.
There are three groups of territorial dialects.
- 1. Northern Russian dialects are widespread north of Moscow, in the territory of Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Vologda, Arkhangelsk and some other regions. They have the following features:
- 1) okanye - pronunciation of the sound [o] in an unstressed position where in the literary language there is [a];
- 2) clicking - non-distinction between the sounds [ts] and [h] (tsasy, kuricha);
- 3) [znaash], [znash] - contraction of vowels in the personal endings of the verb;
- 4) the coincidence of the form of the instrumental case of the plural of nouns with the form of the dative case [went for mushrooms and berries].
- 2. South Russian dialects are widespread south of Moscow, in the territories of Kaluga, Tula, Oryol, Tambov, Voronezh and other regions. They have the following features:
- 1) akanye - non-distinction between the sounds [o] and [a] [vada];
- 2) yakane - pronunciation of the sound [d] after a soft consonant in place of I› E;
- 3) a special pronunciation of the sound [g], it is pronounced like a fricative [g];
- 3. Central Russian dialects occupy an intermediate position between northern and southern Russian ones. They are located between the areas of distribution of the northern and southern dialects. Distinguishing features:
- 1) hiccups - pronunciation of the sound [i] in place of I and E (pituh);
- 2) pronunciation of the sound [w] in place of ш (shastye);
- 3) pronunciation of [zh] long soft in place of zhzh and zzh.
Dialects are being destroyed under the pressure of the literary language, which, with the help of the media, penetrates into the most remote areas.
Vernacular is a type of the popular Russian language. It is not attached to any specific place - it is the speech of the urban, poorly educated population who do not know the norms of the literary language. The main feature of vernacular speech is ananormativity, i.e. the absence of literary language norms in speech.
Modern Russian vernacular has the following characteristic features.
- 1) the use of words denoting the degree of relationship when addressing strangers: dad, brother, daughter, sister, man, woman;
- 2) the use of nouns in a diminutive suffix: would you like some tea? Should I shave my temples?;
- 3) replacing some words that are falsely understood as rude: rest (instead of sleeping), expressing yourself (instead of speaking), eating (instead of eating);
- 4) the use of emotional vocabulary in a “blurred” meaning: to play, to scald, to chip, to scratch.
- 5) alignment of consonants at the base of the word during conjugation: want - want, bake - bake;
- 6) confusion of genders of nouns: I’ll eat all the jam, which apple is sour;
- 7) building up endings in the genitive plural: a lot of things, no bridges;
- 8) declension of indeclinable nouns.
Jargon (French jargon) - sociolect; differs from the general spoken language in specific vocabulary and phraseology, expressiveness of turns and special use of word-formation means, but does not have its own phonetic and grammatical system. Slang words or expressions are called "jargonisms"
Part of the slang vocabulary belongs not to one, but to many (including those that have already disappeared) social groups. Moving from one jargon to another, the words of their “common fund” can change form and meaning: “to darken” in the slang - “to hide the loot”, then - “to be cunning (in interrogation)”, in modern youth jargon - “to speak unclear, evade answer.”
The jargon vocabulary is built on the basis of the literary language through rethinking, metaphorization, redesign, sound truncation, etc., as well as the active assimilation of foreign words and morphemes. For example: go - "let's go" [source not specified 111 days], cool - "fashionable", "business", hut - "apartment", bucks - "dollars", car - "car", jerk - “go”, basketball - “basketball”, dude - “guy” (from the gypsy language). In modern language, jargon has become widespread, especially in the language of young people.
TERRITORIAL AND SOCIAL DIFFERENTIATION OF LANGUAGE
In special linguistic literature, the concept of a national language, understandable to the entire people, is widespread. This concept, however, is rather vague, since it often includes phenomena of a different nature: 1) a common language is understood as a literary language that is widespread in a given state, 2) a common language is sometimes called a common koine, for example, a city-wide koine, 3) a system of common lexical and grammatical elements that connect different dialects of the language and enable their representatives to agree with each other is often presented as a national language. Such general elements, of course, do not constitute a living language and represent a certain, albeit communicatively effective, abstraction.
In this regard, it is interesting to cite some statements by E. D. Polivanov, who argued that the language of a large collective is not distinguished by the absolute identity of cooperative connections and defined language as the identity of systems of pronunciation-sound symbols inherent in the participants of one or another collective, determined by the presence of special cooperative needs , which determines the need for a common and unified language for this group. Against the background of well-known cooperative ties, one can discover even closer and more specific ties within individual groups. Accordingly, E.D. Polivanov considered it necessary to introduce a sign of relativity into the concept of identity of associative systems, which is usually the basis for the definition of language. “There is a more or less complete identity among small, closely related (internally) groups, and an incomplete identity among the entire (national) collective, which includes these groups. In the latter case, a “common language” provides only the possibility of mutual understanding (and even then, strictly speaking, only within the limits of certain topics - according to the nature of the cooperative ties that unites all members of a given collective), but by no means a single characteristic of the system of linguistic thinking (in phonetic, morphological, etc. relations).”
A language is never absolutely unified, since along with the factors that contribute to the formation of its unity, there are factors that create its heterogeneity. Various variations of the language are usually divided into two groups - some of them are called territorial dialects, others are known as its social variants.
^
TERRITORIAL DIFFERENTIATION OF LANGUAGE
Before moving on to consider various more or less particular aspects of the concept of territorial dialect, which is central to this problem, we note two general circumstances. Firstly, it is necessary to take into account the impossibility of structurally determining the linguistic or dialect status of a particular association (problem: an independent language or a dialect of another language). Compared to the inevitably arbitrary - in this respect - nature of structural criteria, criteria of a sociological order provide a fairly solid support in this regard. Among the latter, the most operative are the presence (or, conversely, absence) of mutual understanding, a common literary language, as well as a common self-awareness of the people. Secondly, it should be borne in mind that the territorial dialect is a historically changeable form of language existence, depending on the level of social development of society. According to the definition of V. M. Zhirmunsky, “a dialect represents a unity that is not originally given, but has developed historically in the process of socially conditioned interaction with other dialects of the national language, as a result of not only differentiation, but also integration: a developing, dynamic unity, as evidenced by the character isogloss of a language map, clearly reflecting the connection between the history of language and the history of the people.” Neither the differential features of the dialect nor the trends in its development remain identical for different eras. Thus, if pre-capitalist socio-economic formations constantly contribute to the dialect differentiation of language, then the relations of the era of capitalism, and especially socialism, make dialects a degrading and even relict category. A powerful factor in the gradual elimination of dialects are national languages, which begin to take shape already in the process of transition from feudalism to capitalism. Strictly speaking, the term “territorial dialect” itself is applicable only to dialects of the pre-national era, since in the process of formation of a nation, territorial dialects turn into territorial-social dialects.
The main reason for the emergence of dialect differences is the weakening of connections and relative isolation of various groupings of the linguistic community. Since language is a historically changing phenomenon, various innovations are constantly emerging in it, which, having arisen initially in one place, then gradually spread. As a rule, however, any close connection between members of a linguistic community is difficult.
In the most general case, factors of a physical-geographical order (cf. the presence of mountain ranges, forests and water bodies, desert spaces, etc.) act as factors that impede the possibility of direct communication. In particular, K. Marx noted the tendency towards the formation of differences in the language of primitive tribes, inevitable given the vastness of the territory occupied by its speakers, and directly pointed out that local separation in space led over time to the emergence of differences in language. A very striking example of the action of this factor is, for example, the deep dialect differentiation of almost all Nakh-Dagestan languages, localized in the mountain spurs of the Greater Caucasus, many of the dialects of which are also divided into a large number of dialects and sub-dialects, often characterizing individual quarters of villages. There are dialectal differences in the Estonian language on almost every island located near the Estonian coast. The main prerequisite for the formation of the Mountain Mari and Meadow Mari languages (or rather, dialects) was the division of their areas by the Volga massif.
An obstacle that complicates linguistic communication is often the administrative division of territories: state, feudal lands, etc. Thus, the distribution of the Sami language across the territory of four states - the USSR, Finland, Norway and Sweden - caused the formation of quite strong differences between its dialects. In many cases, the dialect landscape of languages reflects the historical division of the country into feudal lands (this is the case in German, Italian, Georgian and other languages). Dialectal differentiation of the language is also facilitated by the existence of certain centers that unite the surrounding population. Thus, Kazan in the past linked together the life of the Chuvash districts of its province, isolating them from the adjacent Simbirsk province. The northwestern part of Chuvashia, which was part of the Kozmodemyansky district with the center of the city of Kozmodemyansky on the Volga in the Mari part of the district, has lived its own somewhat isolated life since the division into districts for almost 150 years. Naturally, under these conditions dialect differences could not help but form.
The foreign language environment of the dialect also contributes to its isolation from other dialects. In the Krasnovishersky district (northeastern part of the Perm region) there live about 4,000 people who speak a special dialect of the Komi language, different from both the Komi-Permyak and the Komi-Zyryan dialects. The Komi who inhabit the Krasnovishersky district live in a small group in the middle and part of the upper reaches of the river. Yazva, the left tributary of the river. Vishera, forming administratively the so-called Verkhne-Yazvinsky bush of the Krasnovishersky district. The formation of a special dialect was largely facilitated by the foreign-language environment, which isolated it from the bulk of the Komi-Permyak population.
The separation of dialects can also arise as a consequence of the infiltration of a foreign-speaking population into the territory of a given nation. “Due to territorial disunity, which often arose under the influence of foreign-speaking peoples, individual groups of Mordovians were deprived of the opportunity to communicate with each other for a long time. As a result, despite the common origin of approximately 90% of words, the phonetic appearance of many lexical units going back to the same etymological source has managed to change significantly during this time.” The reason for the emergence of dialect differences may be the influence of other languages and foreign language substrates, for example, the Samarkand-Bukhara subgroup of Uzbek dialects shows a fairly strong Tajik influence. Not only do they not have synharmonicity, but they also completely replicate the Tajik sound system - in particular, vocalism with six vowels - i, e, q , and, oh, and .
The Lower Vychegda Russian dialects have such features as the appearance of Central European l, omission of prepositions, etc., which arose under the influence of the Komi language (cf. p. 473 of this work). According to A. M. Selishchev, a number of features of Russian-Siberian dialects arose as a result of foreign language influence, for example, weakly closed b w or w b(w b oda, dw b a), soft č and dћ instead of soft t And d(person -"body"; chacha -"pussy" jelo -"case"); shift in a number of consonants s - љ, z- ћ (sham or shčam -"myself", shobaka or shčobaka -"dog", ambassador - posouloso);j instead of l, r(bjam -"Brother", ju6 a - "fish", jax? ka- “shop”), etc.
The reason for dialect differences is often their different origins. The so-called Tsakonian dialect of Modern Greek is very different from other dialects. This is because it comes directly from Laconian. dialect of the ancient Greek language, while the remaining dialects trace their origins to the Pan-Greek Koine of the Hellenistic period.
According to E.D. Polivanov, in the modern Uzbek language there are three types of adverbs that genetically belong to three different groups of Turkic languages: the southeastern, or Chagatai group, the southwestern Oguz group and the northwestern, or Kipchak group. This means that the Uzbek people partially included the so-called Chagatai Uzbeks, Turkmen and Kazakhs.
Differences in the field of religion can also be a reason for the separation of dialects. For example, in the Saratov region there is the village of Maly Krasny Yar, whose population speaks a local dialect. Despite the fact that this dialect is located in the vicinity of Akaki dialects, many of the old features of this dialect are preserved very firmly. This is explained by the fact that the inhabitants of this village were schismatics, Old Believers. They communicated little with their neighbors, led a secluded lifestyle, and even took wives from distant northern Russian villages, which could not but affect the state of their dialect. The baptized Tatars, isolated religiously, also turned out to be isolated in the area of language. And this entailed that some old forms were preserved in their language and there were few Arabic borrowings.
It is not difficult to see that especially deep dialect differences arise where several of these factors interact simultaneously.
Above, only the main factors contributing to the separation of language arrays were described. Along with them, there is a certain number of some little noticeable, difficult to catch factors that impede the spread of linguistic phenomena and, in turn, determine the differentiation of dialects into subdialects and smaller units of territorial division of the language. There are, for example, cases when a word exists only in one village. In another village, separated by a distance of only some ten or fifteen kilometers, it is no longer used.
Thus, speakers of the Tonashevsky dialect of the Moksha-Mordovian language have names of objects and concepts, the distribution of which is limited to the territory of the village. Tonashevo and neighboring villages: Vertelim, Kuldym, for example: ftun"decisively" josyps“in vain”, etc. . Obviously, the very fact of the remoteness of one settlement from another, even a short distance, already creates certain obstacles to the spread of linguistic phenomena. It can also be assumed, although this issue has not been studied in detail, that different sounds, words and forms of the dialect do not have the same potential for widespread distribution. Dialectal differences arise because in isolation zones independent changes of the most varied nature begin to occur in all linguistic spheres, which are also carried out unevenly. Sometimes they go so far that dialects develop into independent languages over time.
There is a huge literature devoted to describing the dialects of various languages of the world. Dialectology as a special branch of linguistics touches on many problems. Of greatest interest are two essentially related topics: 1) mixing of dialects and 2) general principles for identifying dialects as independent linguistic units.
49. Territorial and social differentiation of language: dialects, professional languages and jargons.
Territorial differentiation of language. Before moving on to consider various more or less particular aspects of the concept of territorial dialect, which is central to this problem, we note two general circumstances. Firstly , it is necessary to take into account the impossibility of structurally determining the linguistic or dialect status of a particular association(problem: an independent language or a dialect of another language). Compared to the inevitably arbitrary - in this respect - nature of structural criteria, criteria of a sociological order provide a fairly solid support in this regard. Among the latter, the most operative are the presence (or, conversely, absence) of mutual understanding, a common literary language, as well as a common self-awareness of the people. Secondly , it should be borne in mind that the territorial dialect is a historically variable form of language existence, depending on the level of social development of society. According to the definition of V. M. Zhirmunsky, " dialect represents a unity that is not originally given, but has developed historically in the process of socially conditioned interaction with other dialects of the national language, as a result of not only differentiation, but also integration: a developing, dynamic unity, as evidenced by the nature of the isoglosses of the language map, which clearly reflects the connection between the history of the language and history of the people." Neither the differential features of a dialect nor the trends of its development remain identical for different eras. Thus, if pre-capitalist socio-economic formations constantly contribute to the dialect differentiation of the language, then the relations of the era of capitalism, and especially socialism, make dialects a degrading category and even survival. A powerful factor in the gradual elimination of dialects are national languages, which begin to take shape already in the process of transition from feudalism to capitalism. Strictly speaking, the term “territorial dialect” itself is applicable only to dialects of the pre-national era, since in the process of the formation of a nation, territorial dialects turn into territorial dialects. -social.
The main reason for the emergence of dialect differences is the weakening of connections and relative isolation of various groupings of the linguistic community. Since language is a historically changing phenomenon, various innovations are constantly emerging in it, which, having arisen initially in one place, then gradually spread. As a rule, however, any close connection between members of a linguistic community is difficult.
In the most general case, factors of a physical-geographical order (cf. the presence of mountain ranges, forests and water bodies, desert spaces, etc.) act as factors that impede the possibility of direct communication. A very striking example of the action of this factor is, for example, the deep dialect differentiation of almost all Nakh-Dagestan languages, localized in the mountain spurs of the Greater Caucasus, many of the dialects of which are also divided into a large number of dialects and sub-dialects, often characterizing individual quarters of villages. There are dialectal differences in the Estonian language on almost every island located near the Estonian coast. The main prerequisite for the formation of the Mountain Mari and Meadow Mari languages (or rather, dialects) was the division of their areas by the Volga massif.
An obstacle that complicates linguistic communication is often the administrative division of territories: state, feudal lands, etc. Thus, the distribution of the Sami language across the territory of four states - the USSR, Finland, Norway and Sweden - caused the formation of quite strong differences between its dialects. In many cases, the dialect landscape of languages reflects the historical division of the country into feudal lands (this is the case in German, Italian, Georgian and other languages). Dialectal differentiation of the language is also facilitated by the existence of certain centers that unite the surrounding population. Thus, Kazan in the past linked together the life of the Chuvash districts of its province, isolating them from the adjacent Simbirsk province. The northwestern part of Chuvashia, which was part of the Kozmodemyansky district with the center of the city of Kozmodemyansky on the Volga in the Mari part of the district, has lived its own somewhat isolated life since the division into districts for almost 150 years. Naturally, under these conditions dialect differences could not help but form.
The foreign language environment of the dialect also contributes to its isolation from other dialects. In the Krasnovishersky district (northeastern part of the Perm region) there live about 4,000 people who speak a special dialect of the Komi language, different from both the Komi-Permyak and the Komi-Zyryan dialects. The Komi who inhabit the Krasnovishersky district live in a small group in the middle and part of the upper reaches of the river. Yazva, the left tributary of the river. Vishera, forming administratively the so-called Verkhneyazvinsky bush of the Krasnovishersky district. The formation of a special dialect was largely facilitated by the foreign-language environment, which isolated it from the bulk of the Komi-Permyak population.
The separation of dialects can also arise as a consequence of the infiltration of a foreign-speaking population into the territory of a given nation."Due to territorial disunity, which often arose under the influence of foreign-speaking peoples, individual groups of Mordovians were deprived of the opportunity to communicate with each other for a long time. As a result, despite the common origin, approximately 90% of words, the phonetic appearance of many lexical units dating back to one and the same etymological source, during this time it managed to change significantly." The reason for the emergence of dialect differences may be the influence of other languages and foreign language substrates, for example, the Samarkand-Bukhara subgroup of Uzbek dialects shows a fairly strong Tajik influence. Not only do they not have synharmonicity, but they also completely replicate the Tajik sound system - in particular, vocalism with six vowels.
The Lower Vychegda Russian dialects have such features as the appearance of Central European l, omission of prepositions, etc., which arose under the influence of the Komi language. According to A. M. Selishchev, a number of features of Russian-Siberian dialects arose as a result of foreign language influence, for example, weakly closed b w or w b (w b oda, dw b a), soft ch And dћ instead of soft t And d (brow- "body"; chacha- "daddy" jello- "case"); shift in a number of consonants s - sh, z - ћ (sham or shcham- "myself", shobaka or shchobaka- "dog"); j instead of l, r (bjat- "Brother", jiba- "fish", jaxka- “shop”), etc.
The reason for dialect differences is often their different origins. The so-called Tsakonian dialect of Modern Greek is very different from other dialects. This is because it comes directly from Laconian. dialect of the ancient Greek language, while the remaining dialects trace their origins to the Pan-Greek Koine of the Hellenistic period.
According to E.D. Polivanov, in the modern Uzbek language there are three types of adverbs that genetically belong to three different groups of Turkic languages: the southeastern, or Chagatai group, the southwestern Oguz group and the northwestern, or Kipchak group. This means that the Uzbek people partially included the so-called Chagatai Uzbeks, Turkmen and Kazakhs.
Differences in the field of religion can also be a reason for the separation of dialects. For example, in the Saratov region there is the village of Maly Krasny Yar, whose population speaks a local dialect. Despite the fact that this dialect is located in the vicinity of Akaki dialects, many of the old features of this dialect are preserved very firmly. This is explained by the fact that the inhabitants of this village were schismatics, Old Believers. They communicated little with their neighbors, led a secluded lifestyle, and even took wives from distant northern Russian villages, which could not but affect the state of their dialect. The baptized Tatars, isolated religiously, also turned out to be isolated in the area of language. And this entailed that some old forms were preserved in their language and there were few Arabic borrowings.
It is not difficult to see that especially deep dialect differences arise where several of these factors interact simultaneously.
Above, only the main factors contributing to the separation of language arrays were described. Along with them, there is a certain number of some little noticeable, difficult to catch factors that impede the spread of linguistic phenomena and, in turn, determine the differentiation of dialects into subdialects and smaller units of territorial division of the language. There are, for example, cases when a word exists only in one village. In another village, separated by a distance of only some ten or fifteen kilometers, it is no longer used.
Thus, speakers of the Tonashevsky dialect of the Moksha-Mordovian language have names of objects and concepts, the distribution of which is limited to the territory of the village. Tonashevo and neighboring villages: Vertelim, Kuldym, for example: ftun"decisively" josyps“in vain”, etc. . Obviously, the very fact of the remoteness of one settlement from another, even a short distance, already creates certain obstacles to the spread of linguistic phenomena. It can also be assumed, although this issue has not been studied in detail, that different sounds, words and forms of the dialect do not have the same potential for widespread distribution. Dialectal differences arise because in isolation zones independent changes of the most varied nature begin to occur in all linguistic spheres, which are also carried out unevenly. Sometimes they go so far that dialects develop into independent languages over time.
Social differentiation of language. Each language has not only territorial differences. The language is also heterogeneous in social terms. In this regard, it varies in a variety of directions. For example, there may be age-related features of language: the speech of a child will always differ from the speech of an adult, the speech of the older generation often differs from the speech of the younger generation, there are languages in which the language of women in the area of pronunciation differs to a certain extent from the language of men. Speech variability may depend on general education level. An educated person speaks differently than a poorly educated person. A well-known imprint on the speech characteristics of people can be left their occupation, range of interests and so on. Belonging to a specific class, social background, environment, in which a person constantly rotates, also contributes to the appearance of some speech features.
Within a given language, noted A. Meillet, determined by the unity of pronunciation and, in particular, the unity of grammatical forms, in reality there are as many special vocabularies as there are social groups that have autonomy within the society speaking this language.
The factors contributing to the emergence of speech variability in social terms are so diverse that it is impossible to give a complete and comprehensive description of them within the confines of this chapter. It is necessary, however, to characterize the main types of social variants of speech.
The main difficulty is that many researchers include in the concept of so-called social dialects of speech phenomena that, although outwardly similar, are completely different in nature. There is not even any stable classification of these phenomena. The nomenclature of the names of social variants of speech is also not orderly. In Russian linguistic literature the terms " argot" And " jargon" are used non-terminologically, often acting as synonyms. The term "jargon" is sometimes given a stylistically reduced meaning; there is a desire to assign this term to the name of the closed speech system of some antisocial social group, cf., for example, "thieves' jargon." To designate professional lexical systems terms used: "professional languages", "professional dialects" And even "professional dialects". The term existing in Western European linguistic literature " slang“to denote jargon with a wider social base has not taken root among us.
Of particular interest is the classification of social variants of speech recently proposed by V.D. Bondaletov. Depending on the nature, purpose of linguistic features and operating conditions, he distinguishes:
1) actually professional "languages"(more precisely, lexical systems), for example, fishermen, hunters, potters, woodworkers, wool beaters, shoemakers, as well as representatives of other crafts and occupations;
2) group or corporate jargon, for example, the jargon of pupils, students, athletes, soldiers and other, mainly youth, groups; conditionally professional languages (argot) of artisans-otkhodniks, traders and social groups close to them;
3) conventional languages (argot, jargons) of the declassed.
This classification does not, however, include one social variation of speech, which some researchers called class dialects. The problem of the existence of varieties of speech associated with class affiliation was of interest to many representatives of domestic and foreign sociolinguistics. It has often been assumed, especially in relation to the era of modern capitalist society, that the single language of the ruling class is opposed by the territorially fragmented dialects of subordinate social groups (for example, the peasantry, the urban petty bourgeoisie, etc.). However, the factual illustrations of this position cited in the specialized literature find a different interpretation (in particular, the coincidence of territorial and class characteristics is a feature of only a certain era in the historical development of society).
Based on the above, in the subsequent presentation we are guided by the following classification:
1) professional lexical systems,
2) group, or corporate, jargons,
3) slang of the declassed,
4) conventional languages.
Professional lexical systems. V. M. Zhirmunsky was absolutely right when he pointed out the inconsistency of the term “professional speech” existing in the specialized literature. In his opinion, the term “professional speech”, and even more so “professional language” is based on incorrect word usage: in studies devoted to the language of carpenters (Sprache des Zimmermanns), the language of sailors (Seeimannssprache), etc., we are talking only about some special sphere of professional vocabulary within a particular class dialect.
“Professional specialization is reflected in linguistic terms not in grammatical differentiation, as in class dialects, but in the development of a special vocabulary, generally accessible only to representatives of a given profession.”
A distinctive feature of professional terminology is that it always arises under the pressure of a certain practical need. It is known that the continuum of the world surrounding a person is divided differently in different languages. With all these differences, there is a certain pattern - the degree of intensity of division is determined by practice. The more a person has to deal with a certain area or area of reality, the more intensely it is articulated in language. A resident of the interior regions of the country, who does not encounter the sea in his life practice, is usually content with general concepts - sea, shore, sandbank, wind, storm, etc. He does not need more. Another thing is a fisherman who hunts at sea. It is far from indifferent to him whether he is in the open sea or close to the coast, whether the wind blows from the south or north, whether the sandbank has a sandy or rocky bottom. Practical interest gives rise to appropriate terminology.
For example, Russian Pomors living on the shores of the White Sea have special terminology associated with fishing, hunting sea animals and navigation. Below are some examples of this terminology: bazaar"a gathering of gulls and other seabirds on coastal rocks and coastal cliffs", baklysh"a small island with steep rocky shores" more careful"closer to the shore" bet"to drive across or at an angle to the wind" absolutely"too far from the shore" mountain"mainland", naked"open sea", lip"bay of the sea" jerk"good fish bite" blower"a hole in the ice made by a sea animal" corga"underwater or surface low-lying sandbank", summer"South wind", salmon"smooth flat surface of the sea" deeper"depth in the sea or river near the shore" stamina"ice mountain" torokh"strong gust of wind" juro“a small herd of fish or sea animals,” etc.
The fishing terminology of the fishermen of the lower reaches of the Don River is no less diverse, for example, musk deer"small carp" kelyak"young bream" Talaverca"small silver bream" mesh"fisherman catching fish with nets" alaman"net for catching anchovy" oak"a large multi-oared boat used for transporting a seine", skiff"a small two-oared boat used for transporting fish and small fishing gear" seed"crowbar for breaking holes" fight“net for catching bulls”, etc.
If we turn to the terminology associated with the profession of a carpenter, then here too you can find many special terms, for example, slightly- "long beam" fart"drill at the brace" mother"cross beam supporting the ceiling of a house" bow saw"saw with a special handle" hacksaw"small saw with one handle" treasure“to make a gutter on the ravine with a special tool so that water can roll off the roof more easily,” etc.
Each profession has a special vocabulary. The sphere of professional vocabulary also includes artificially created scientific and technical terminology, usually recorded in special dictionaries of scientific or technical terms. There are points of contact between professional vocabulary that arose naturally and artificially created terminology. In speech practice, these two lexical systems are often mixed. However, artificially created terminology is more stable, standard and has no territorial variants.
Professional vocabulary is usually used in business styles, is distinguished by precise meanings and is not very expressive.
At the same time, professional terminology, especially original terminology, can sometimes be accompanied by the use of rather figurative idiomatic expressions, cf., for example, some idiomatic expressions found in the Pomor language: comb(about a wave) "to rise" go into the heat, For example, the water got hot, i.e. “flowed faster” (at high or low tide), etc., special expressions exist among carpenters, for example, chop in the paw, chop in the mustache, pull the edge, in the vocabulary of the Yam craft in the dialects of the Tomsk region, such idiomatic expressions are noted as go to Yamshchina"engaged in the transport of goods" send mail"deliver mail" live with a whip“to earn a living by driving,” etc.
In the professional language of pilots there are known expressions set course, land on three points etc.
However, these idiomatic expressions belong more likely to the lexical sphere of professional jargon than to professional vocabulary in the proper sense of the word.
Group or corporate jargon usually arise in groups of people closely related to each other in some way. Forms of communication can be very different. It is important that this connection unites people in some way, for example, military service, studying at an institute or school, tourism, sports, collecting, etc. Even the departure of people to work in the Far North gives rise to special slang words, for example, walrus or mosquito- names of salary supplements in the Far North zone. The long stay of people at the front during World War II gave rise to specific slang words, for example, Sabantui"heavy artillery shelling" frame“German reconnaissance aircraft”, etc. Jargon arises among people who indulge in various vices, for example, gambling, drunkenness, etc.
In the vocabulary of group, or corporate, jargon, of course, there are elements of professionalism. Wed. such expressions of soldier's jargon as sit on the lip, i.e. “to be in the guardhouse”, lemon- the name of a special type of grenade; in the jargon of investigators there is a verb split apart, For example: Let's wait until it breaks, i.e. “will not give away his secret,” a common verb among graduate students settle down, members of academic councils are well aware of the expression throw a black ball, i.e. “to vote out”, schoolchildren often use the expression get count, i.e. “unit”, etc. However, this is not the main feature of group, corporate jargon.
Here, as V. Straten correctly notes, it is not so much a business need that is at play, but rather a desire for expression and a play on words.
“The specific difference between argot and other types of jargon,” wrote V. M. Zhirmunsky, “is its professional function: while ... corporate jargons are a kind of social fun, a language game, subject to the principles of emotional expressiveness, the argot that is used beggars, thieves, itinerant traders and artisans, serves as a tool for their professional activities, self-defense and struggle against the rest of society."
There are quite a lot of different group jargons, it is impossible to describe them all. The most typical example is student jargon, or, as it is sometimes called, student slang.
L.I. Skvortsov, who studied student slang at our universities, distinguishes two main categories of words in it - the industrial core and the everyday vocabulary. The production core of student speech includes such words and expressions as fak"faculty", styopa, stepukha, stipesha"scholarship", go to spurs"answer using cheat sheets" diagonally or obliquely"about hasty, superficial reading of educational material", count"unit", historian"history teacher" German"German teacher" fishing rod"satisfactorily", approach"attempting to pass the exam" dolbach"cramming student" antique"ancient literature", boss"supervisor of thesis or course work", push, shove"pass an exam or test" core"nuclear physics", common fund"dormitory ", Hindu"student of an industrial institute or technical school", cheat sheet"cheat sheet", etc.
It is easy to notice that this kind of professional or industrial vocabulary differs quite sharply from ordinary professional vocabulary or terminology. Professional vocabulary is usually caused by the need to name some object or phenomenon that a production worker encounters in his work. Most often this is some special subject, little known or completely unknown among other people. The word of student slang is not caused by any special need. There is no point in creating a special name for a student at an industrial institute or technical school. When did the special name appear? Hindu, then the main incentive for its creation was the desire to create something more expressive, bright, mischievous, and more attention-grabbing.
The general everyday dictionary includes words that are not directly related to the educational process. It is based on expressive elements of colloquial and everyday vocabulary, cf., for example, chop, hack, grunt, knock"eat, snack" rubon"food, lunch, etc.", wave"to exchange something" poke"hide" to fuss, to mumble, to mumble"to understand something, to understand something" cover yourself“disappear, abyss”, as well as “fail” - about plans, plans, etc., crusts, wheels"boots", filonit"sit back", take away"to take, appropriate or steal" buy, purchase"to make fun of someone" dust"whining" or "talking in vain" toss"to give or lend money to someone" shoot“borrow a small amount of money”, “ask for a cigarette or a cigarette”, sunbathe, swell"to sit idle, to be idle" press in“finally agree on something, settle some matter,” etc.
The subject-conceptual content of student jargon is very diverse. Two layers are most easily distinguished in it - sports vocabulary and Labush-style vocabulary (from labukh"musician").
Sports vocabulary includes words and expressions related to the field of sports, for example: shoe“knock out in the game”, “cause injury”, water"hit the ball on goal, throw the ball into the basket" can, splash, thing"goal, point", etc.
Labush-stylish vocabulary has quite a pronounced social specificity in the general student dictionary. In most cases, these are words borrowed from the slang of dudes, for example, take"eat, eat" wilt"go", vykhil"trick", bashli, grandmas, pucks, finagas"money", dude"boy", dude, dude, frame"young woman", trampling or Broadway"main street", "meeting and walking place", toss"drink, drink" kirnoy, booze"drunk", kerosene, mur, gop"party, drinking" ancestors"parents", Khiva, Shobla, Kodla, Khevra, Khavira, Sharaga"group of "insiders"", hut"apartment", rock"rock and roll", etc.
In its features, style jargon is close to thieves' jargon, since it combines vocabulary associated with certain areas of everyday life, which is also specially colored.
The common vocabulary of student slang also includes expressive and evaluative vocabulary, for example: masterpiece, amazing, cool, colossal etc. (with a positive assessment of something), boot, lout, scoundrel(disparagingly about a person), hammer(positive about a person), lady, baby, chick, muzzle(positive about the girl), old man, man(about a man). There is an expressive or simply favorite phraseology: hit me with the brains"to surprise, to stun" to the light bulb“caring little about anything”, “not caring about anything”, like a bayonet“required”, “exactly”, etc.
Jargons of the declassed used in the spheres of people belonging to the criminal world, usually serving sentences in prisons, camps, etc., or engaged in criminal activities at large. Despite the presence of territorial varieties, this jargon has relative unity. In its specificity, it differs sharply from group, or corporate, jargon. Therefore, there is reason to consider it separately.
Thieves' jargon has some common features with professional lexical systems. It quite richly presents terminology expressing various thieves' specialties, for example: screen"pickpocket" washer"shoplifter", Maidan activist"train thief" jumper or burglar"apartment thief" dovecote"linen thief" mokrushnik"thief-killer" cashier or bugbear"burglar of fireproof cabinets" stopper"robber thief" sticker"church robber" bath attendant“station thief”, etc. The verb has a fairly extensive synonymy steal, steal, For example: trade, work, steal, buy, bond, steal etc.; There are many verbs denoting an unsuccessful theft: to fall asleep, to fall asleep, to burn, to dry out etc. Synonyms associated with the word are richly represented money: sara, sarochka, sarmak, sarga, redhead etc.; special names exist for the ruble, thousand, three kopecks, ten kopecks, etc. The den of thieves has several names: gop, shalman, hevra, haza, raspberry etc. There are several names for wallets and purses: leather, shemale, hanging etc. The verb has extensive synonymy inform or convey: kick, grab, sell, barnaul and etc.
The terminology relating to the life of thieves is quite developed. Many words associated with swear words, for example: cop, bitch, dog, shket, boy, punk etc., the word prostitute has many synonyms: Shmara, Marukha, Barulya, Malyava, Bixa, Miknetka, Broha etc. The criminal world does not skimp on disparaging names for its constant enemies - representatives of the police, criminal investigation department, court, etc., cf. policeman's name: cop, legash, cop, milton etc., employees of the Moscow Criminal Investigation Department have the nickname murki, Wed also other names for criminal investigation workers - toads, frogs and so on.
Thieves' jargon is rich in figurative idiomatic expressions such as cover the screen"pickpocket" (from the word screen"muffler used to cover hands when committing pickpockets"), kick Sarah, letters "to beat money" in the same meaning, cut the screw"escape from prison" hit the trellises"kill someone with a revolver" take to the grind"to organize a quick handover of the stolen item," stand on guard"to keep watch" etc.
The vocabulary of thieves' jargon is often characterized by cynical and crude euphemism, which seeks to cover up various criminal actions with words that are ordinary in appearance: "to steal" is expressed by the verb buy, "to hit someone with a knife" - scratch with a pen, "pickpocket" - cover the screen, "to steal" - work or trade etc. A successful theft is called clean work, bugbear or cashier means "safe burglar"; a person belonging to the criminal world is simply called mine or its; "to kill for the purpose of robbery" is expressed by a seemingly innocuous verb wet etc.
This cynicism clearly reflects the special psychology of people in the criminal world, contempt for the norms and rules of human society, feigned bravado and rudeness. “Irony and humor, ridicule and contempt for existing things,” notes V. M. Zhirmunsky, “are generated not so much by a positive social ideal as by a nihilistic denial of all generally valid social values, anarchic rebellion and cynical immoralism.”
The typology of thieves' jargon is mixed. It contains both some signs of corporate jargon and individual elements of conventional languages that exist on the basis of a kind of thieves' vernacular.
Territorial differentiation of language
The emergence of territorial varieties of language as a result of the action of divergent processes and the disintegration of a language into several idioms (with a predominance of divergence over the opposite processes of linguistic integration). First stage T.d.i. the emergence of individual variable elements of the language due to the territorial isolation of native speakers.
Variable units of language, specific to different territorial entities, distinguishing them from the literary language and from each other, are represented by lexical units (lexical and lexical-semantic dialectisms, ethnographisms - summer"last summer", cheese"cottage cheese", Paneva- type of skirt), phonetic features (in Russian akanye, okanye, tsokane, clinking, etc.), grammatical variants.
Territorial varieties of a language are not closed systems with clear boundaries, therefore there are zones of distribution of individual dialect phenomena (isoglosses), on the basis of which territorial varieties of different levels are determined. Thus, in the Russian language there are two dialects (northern and southern), each of which is represented by different dialects; the latter can be divided into separate dialects.
Social differentiation of language
The emergence of varieties of language, due to the social stratification of its speakers, is manifested in the presence of social dialects - corporate jargons of various social groups, professionalisms, and various types of vernacular. S.d.ya., understood in a broad sense, also includes a functional-stylistic distinction
25. Functional speech styles are a historically established system of speech means used in one or another area of human communication; a type of literary language that performs a specific function in communication.
Each functional style has its own characteristics of using a general literary norm; it can exist both in written and oral form. Traditionally, there are five main types of functional speech styles, differing in the conditions and purposes of communication in some area of social activity: scientific, official business, journalistic, colloquial, artistic.
Scientific style- style of scientific communications. The scope of use of this style is science and scientific journals. Its main function is to communicate information, as well as prove its truth. It is characterized by the presence of small terms, general scientific words, and abstract vocabulary. The stylistic features of this style are emphasized logic, evidence, accuracy (unambiguity).
Business style used for reporting, informing in an official setting (the sphere of legislation, office work, administrative and legal activities). This style is used for drawing up documents: laws, orders, regulations, characteristics, protocols, receipts and certificates.
Stylistic features - precision, not allowing two interpretations, precise selection of facts and methods of presenting them), lack of emotionality.
The main function of the official business style is informational (transfer of information). It is characterized by the presence of speech cliches, a generally accepted form of presentation, a standard presentation of the material, the widespread use of terminology and nomenclature names, the presence of complex unabridged words, abbreviations,
Journalistic style serves to influence people through the media. It is found in the genres of articles, essays, reports, and is characterized by the presence of socio-political vocabulary, logic, and emotionality. The task is to provide information about the life of the country, influence the masses, and form a certain attitude towards public affairs
Style features - logic, imagery, emotionality, evaluativeness, appeal.
Conversational style serves for direct communication, when the author shares his thoughts or feelings with others, exchanges information on everyday issues in an informal setting. It often uses colloquial and colloquial vocabulary. It is distinguished by its large semantic capacity and colorfulness, giving liveliness and expressiveness to speech.
Linguistic means of conversational style: emotionality, expressiveness of colloquial vocabulary, the use of incomplete sentences, introductory words, address words, interjections, Genres - dialogue, personal letters, personal notes, telephone conversations.
Art style used in fiction. It affects the imagination and feelings of the reader, conveys the thoughts and feelings of the author, uses all the wealth of vocabulary, the possibilities of different styles, and is characterized by imagery and emotionality of speech.
Artistic style presupposes a preliminary selection of linguistic means; All language means are used to create images.
Genres - epic, lyric, drama, epic, novel, story, story, fairy tale, hymn, song, poem, ballad,
Language norm- a historically determined set of commonly used linguistic means, as well as the rules for their selection and use, recognized by society as the most suitable in a specific historical period.
The concept of norm applies to all levels of language. In accordance with level correlation and specificity, the following types of language norms are distinguished:
lexical- ensure the correct choice of words;
accentological- provide for the correct placement of stress;
orthoepic- describe the correct pronunciation of words;
spelling- consolidate the uniformity of speech transmission in writing;
morphological- rules of inflection and word formation described in grammars;
syntactic- regulate the correct construction of grammatical structures.
26. Language is a historically variable phenomenon. The study of the history of the development of many languages showed that the language system develops and changes, and this allowed linguists (I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay) to divide linguistics into static (descriptive) and dynamic (historical).
At any given moment, speech activity presupposes both an established system and evolution; at any moment language is both a living activity and a product of the past.
Diachrony is the study of the development of language, individual linguistic facts and the language system as a whole from a historical perspective.
Synchrony(from the Greek synchronos - simultaneous) - the state and study of language as a system of interconnected and interdependent elements at a certain moment in its development. Synchronic language learning is the subject of descriptive (static) linguistics.
27. Like everything in a language, its sound side undergoes changes throughout history. The sound appearance of individual words and morphemes, their phonemic composition, and their stress changes. More profound changes are also observed: the set of phonemes of the language and the system of differential features by which phonemes are opposed to each other are changing. Thus, in the Russian language, the nasal vowel phoneme that once existed in it, denoted in ancient Russian texts by the letter [yat], and some other vowel phonemes have disappeared.
phonetic law
Regularity of phonetic correspondences, regular and interconnected phonetic change. The decline of the deaf in a certain era of the development of the Russian language. The law of deafening noisy voiced consonants at the end of a word. The law of assimilation of consonants according to voicedness and deafness. Law of reduction of unstressed vowels.
sound law (phonetic law)
Changing sounds according to certain rules, a formula of sound correspondences or transitions characteristic of a particular language or a group of related languages. The law of each individual language is a law that determines one or another phonetic process. The law of related languages in general is the law of historical development of a language, since it explains the origin of specific phonetic processes
Combinatorial changes in sounds
Changes in sounds due to their environment, position in a morpheme, word, as well as accentuation (deafening, voicing, assimilation, dissimilation, palatalization, etc.).
assimilation– articulatory assimilation of similar sounds in the stream of speech;
dissimilation– articulatory dissimilarity of identical or similar sounds in the stream of speech, their loss of common features
accommodation– partial adaptation of the articulation of adjacent consonant and vowel sounds in the stream of speech;
28. The vocabulary of the Russian language is constantly changing, continuously enriched and updated. Some words live for centuries, others die out before they are born, and sometimes acquire other meanings.
Speaking about historical changes in the vocabulary of a language, one should distinguish:
1) Stable vocabulary and flexible vocabulary. Stable vocabulary has been preserved for centuries and does not depend on cultural and historical changes occurring in society. Mobile vocabulary is closely related to the specific historical conditions of life of the people.
2) Active and passive composition of vocabulary. The active stock is those words that are used daily and widely by native speakers. Their meaning is clear to all speakers of a given language.
Passive composition is words that are generally known, but not always understandable to all linguistic speakers; these can be outdated words, or those that have not yet become widespread in the language, or terms. Vocabulary that is considered passive can function as active in certain language communities, for example, among students, doctors, etc. The boundaries between the active and passive vocabulary of an individual are vague, mobile, changeable, because they depend on education, profession, social environment, age, region.
The main reasons for changes in the vocabulary of a language are:
1) The disappearance of an object from everyday use and, consequently, the disappearance of the word that called it, for example, cap, buckshot. Sometimes the object is named in a new way, for example, eyelids - eyelids, lanits - cheeks, stry - paternal uncle.
2) For the purpose of additional expressiveness of speech, for example, Cool movie.
3) Borrowing words from other languages, for example, from English - boyfriend, dealer.
The development of the vocabulary of a language proceeds, on the one hand, continuously. On the other hand, it is uneven. Continuous (evolutionary) change is as follows: language functions in the form of coexistence of elements of old and new. Over time, one option disappears, another is recorded in dictionaries.
The unevenness (jumpiness) of changes in the lexical composition of a language is associated with important historical and political events.
Words that have fallen out of use are divided into historicisms and archaisms.
Historicisms- these are words that cease to be actively used due to the disappearance of objects or phenomena, but concepts about them remain: boyar, veche, visor, reap.
Archaisms- these are words that are replaced by new ones while preserving objects and phenomena of reality: stirrup - down; neck - neck; Usolon – against the sun; salt - according to the sun.
Archaisms are divided into groups:
1) Semantic. Only one of their values becomes obsolete: “house” - meaning “reigning dynasty”.
2) Lexico-phonetic. Their sound shell is becoming outdated: voice, hail.
3) Lexico-word formation. Their shape changes, i.e. morphemic composition (or prefix or suffix): fisherman, warrior.
Words created to designate new objects or express a new concept, as well as to rename already known objects, are called neologisms. Neologisms there are:
1) Semantic, i.e. those that undergo a change in the meaning of the word: nursery, companion.
2) Lexico-grammatical, i.e. those that arise based on the use of models of a given language: nuclear powered ship, cosmodrome.
3) Lexical, i.e. those that appear in a language through borrowings from other languages: provider, business.
Neologisms are rarely invented anew; as a rule, already existing models are used. Words are perceived as new only for some time, then they either become part of the active composition of the language or disappear from use.
29. The foundations of the grammatical structure are least susceptible to change; all processes in grammar occur slowly, gradually.
As scientists testify, initially words did not have grammatical categories and forms. The most ancient words - noun and verb - were not formally distinguished for a long time. The gender system of nouns is a later phenomenon; initially words were divided into animate and inanimate. Even later, the category of case arose.
In the process of language development, some grammatical categories die out, and new ones arise. In many modern languages, the form of the dual number has disappeared, the existence of which in the Russian language is evidenced by the forms “sleeves”, eyes” (plural nominative “sleeves”, “eyes”). Most languages have lost the vocative case form.
In the Russian language, a serious restructuring of verb tenses has occurred: instead of 4 past tenses, one remains, but 2 types have emerged (perfect and imperfect). Among the historical processes operating in morphology, attention should be paid to the phenomena described by the Russian scientist V.A. Bogoroditsky, who proposed the terms “simplification” and “re-decomposition” to designate the two most important types of such processes.
1. Simplification- a lexical-morphological phenomenon, the merging into one morpheme of two or more morphemes that are part of a word (word form): for example, Russian. poya reveals in its composition the old prefix po-, which, however, is no longer distinguishable in modern language, i.e., has ceased to be a prefix and forms part of the root.
2. Re-decomposition (absorption) - a morphological phenomenon: a shift in morphemic boundaries in a word or a familiar phrase, as a result of which a previously single morpheme can turn into a sequence of two morphemes, and a sequence of two or more morphemes into one based on simplification.
30 . Language contacts are the interaction of two or more languages, influencing the structure and vocabulary of one or many of them. Social conditions of K. I. are determined by the need for communication between representatives of different ethnic and linguistic groups who enter into intensive connections with each other for economic, political and other reasons. K. I. occur due to constantly repeating dialogues, constant communication between speakers of different languages, in which both languages are used either simultaneously by both speakers, or separately by each of them.
Accordingly, either active knowledge of two languages is possible (bilingualism in the strict sense of the word, when each speaker can speak both languages), or passive understanding of another language.
Y.K. usually occur in certain geographical areas and are caused by ethnic, historical and social factors. The result of Ya.K. is
ADSTRAT- a set of features of a language system, explained as the result of the influence of one language on another in conditions of long-term coexistence and contacts of peoples speaking these languages. A., in contrast to the terms substrate and superstrate associated with this concept, means a neutral type of linguistic interaction, in which ethnicity does not occur. assimilation and dissolution of one language into another; Adstrate phenomena form a layer between two independent elements. languages. Sometimes the term "A." used to refer to mixed bilingualism
substrate- the influence of the language of the indigenous population on a foreign language, usually when a population moves from the first to the second as a result of conquest, ethnic absorption, cultural dominance, etc. In this case, the local linguistic tradition breaks off, the people switch to the tradition of another language, but in the new language they appear features of the language of the disappeared.
Superstrat- the influence of the language of the alien population on the language of the indigenous population as a result of conquest, the cultural domination of a certain ethnic minority that did not have enough critical mass to assimilate the conquered or subordinated indigenous population. At the same time, the local linguistic tradition does not end, but foreign language influences are felt in it (to varying degrees and at different levels depending on the duration).
(Interference (linguistics) is a consequence of the influence of one language on another.)
31 . The languages of the world are the totality of all varieties of human language known to science. Due to the vagueness of the boundary between the concept of language and the concept of dialect, the exact number of languages in the world cannot be indicated: approximately from 3.5 to 7 thousand languages.1
The languages of the world can be divided into common and more or less rare; into “living” and “dead”; into written and unwritten; into natural and artificial. Languages can be classified geographically: for example, languages of Europe; languages of Africa; languages of Asia; languages of Australia; languages of the Balkans; languages of the Russian Federation; languages of India.
Genealogical classification of languages(from Greek genealogia - genealogy). The division of languages into groups according to their kinship, based on a common origin and expressed in the commonality of words or morphemes. The largest groups are called families.
The following families of languages are distinguished: Indo-European, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Iberian-Caucasian, Mongolian, Tungus-Manchu, Sino-Tibetan, Semitic, Hamitic, Malayo-Polynesian, Dravidian, Bantu, etc.
Typological classification of languages- classification based on similarities and differences in linguistic structure (morphological, phonological, syntactic, semantic), regardless of genetic or territorial proximity.
From this point of view, the following are distinguished: isolating (amorphous) type (ancient Chinese, Vietnamese), agglutinating (agglutinative) type (Turkic, many Finno-Ugric languages), inflectional (inflectional) type (Russian language). Some scientists distinguish incorporating (polysynthetic) languages.
Aggluting languages, languages, the characteristic morphological feature of which is the implementation of word formation and inflection using agglutination - the formation in languages of grammatical forms and derivative words by attaching affixes that have grammatical and derivational meanings to the root or base of the word.