What does grammar include? The concept of parts of speech

The concept of “grammar” (from Greek. "record") is defined as a branch of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of a language, as well as the patterns of constructing correct speech structures in this language.

The grammar of a language is a coherent system that has been formed over centuries and is still developing. The science of grammar originates in the Indian linguistic tradition, and is then improved on the basis of the ancient linguistic tradition. In the 19th-20th centuries. The grammar of the language has changed significantly, developing more and more new directions. The most prominent figures of this period in the field of grammar were F. Fortunatov, V. Vinogradov, A. Shakhmatov, L. Shcherba and others.

Traditionally, the grammar of a language is represented by morphology - the study of parts of speech and syntax - the study of phrases, sentences and their structure. Morphology gives an idea of the part-speech composition of the language, as well as the grammatical categories of each part of speech. Syntax considers phrases and sentences from the point of view of their meaning, structure, function, compatibility of components, etc. The main concepts of morphology are: inflection, formation, word form, grammatical meaning, grammatical form, grammatical category, etc. The basic concepts of syntax are sentence, member of a sentence, syntactic connection, etc.

Grammar is closely related to other sciences of language. For example, with orthoepy, because studies sound means of expressing meanings and pronunciation of grammatical forms; with spelling, because covers spelling words; with style, because concerns the stylistic patterns of the use of grammatical forms, etc.

The grammar of a language is represented in several directions: thus, concepts that are universal for all languages of the world are developed by a universal grammar, and concepts relating to a particular language are developed by a particular one; A language at a specific stage of its development is studied by synchronic grammar, and the historical stages of language development are studied by historical grammar, etc.

Russian grammar has many similarities with the grammar of other languages, but at the same time it has a number of features. Thus, in the Russian language the category of verb type is highlighted, hence the lack of need to have many types of tenses (as, for example, in the English language). Until now, in Russian morphology, living processes of transition from one part of speech to another (from adjective to noun and participle, from gerund to adverb, etc.) are observed. In addition, against the background of identifying the traditional 10 parts of speech, disputes about the number of parts of speech in the Russian language, etc., are still ongoing.

Russian grammar is complex, first of all, due to the abundance of grammatical categories. Remember, to characterize a simple sentence we need at least 6 characteristics! However, without knowledge and ability to navigate the grammar of the Russian language, it is impossible to comprehend the language system itself as a whole.

Good luck in learning Russian!

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Central parts of grammar

The central parts of grammar in this meaning are traditionally the doctrine of parts of speech and their grammatical categories, as well as the doctrine of the general rules for combining words into longer units (phrases, sentences) and the structure of these speech units (see Syntax).

Sections of the grammar of synthetic languages

The grammar of synthetic languages includes morphemics as the science of the rules for constructing words from morphemes and syntax as the science of the rules for constructing statements from words, as well as the intermediate sphere between morphology and syntax - morphosyntax, which studies the behavior of clitics, function words, and components of analytic. forms).

Boundaries between grammar and other linguistic disciplines

Semantics, lexicology and phonetics are generally not included in (and contrasted with) grammar.
- However, in some concepts of grammar its scope is understood in an expanded manner - grammar “absorbs” the corresponding subject areas of these scientific disciplines. It includes grammatical semantics, morphonology (including segmental morphonology, accentology and intonology, that is, the science of intonation) and derivatology (the science of word formation), lying on the edge of grammar and, accordingly, semantics, phonetics and lexicology.

The connection between grammar and other disciplines

However, understood more narrowly, grammar is closely related to lexicology (since it studies the grammatical properties of words; see grammatical dictionaries), as well as with such branches of linguistics as:
- orthoepy (and, more broadly, phonetics), as it studies sound means of expressing meanings and pronunciation of grammatical forms,
- spelling, as it covers their spelling,
- stylistics, as it describes the stylistic patterns of the use of grammatical forms in different genres of speech (see grammatical stylistics).
Within grammar, there are several areas of grammatical research.

Formal and functional grammar

- “Formal” (see “Formal direction” (in grammar) (in other terms, superficial) grammar develops the doctrine of grammatical means (grammatical indicators and their formal types - grammatical methods) - superficial grammar.
- Functional grammar (or, in other terms, deep grammar) develops the doctrine of grammatical meanings and thereby constitutes the area of intersection of grammar and semantics (grammatical semantics).

Universal and particular grammar

Universal grammar develops concepts that can be used to describe the grammatical structure of different languages of the world), and particular grammar studies the grammatical structure of individual languages, as well as their groups and families.

Synchronic and historical grammar

A synchronic grammar describes one language at some stage of its existence. In the 19th century, and partly later, such grammar was usually called descriptive, and in the 20th century. began to be called “synchronous” or “synchronous”).
Historical grammar (in other terms, diachronic or diachronic) grammar compares different historical stages in the development of that language, identifying historical changes and shifts in the system of grammatical forms and constructions).
- A variety of the latter is comparative historical grammar (in other terms, comparative grammar), a grammar that studies the origin of an entire group or family of related descendant languages from one source - the proto-language.

The Origins of Grammar as a Science

Modern methods of grammar have their origins in the Indian linguistic tradition (in the writings of Panini in the mid-1st millennium BC).
The system of concepts and categories of modern grammar, down to terminology (names of parts of speech, cases, etc.), goes back to the Ancient linguistic tradition (Greeks - Aristotle, Stoics, Alexandrian school; Romans - Varro (116-27 BC. ).
In the Middle Ages, one of the seven liberal arts. Being both descriptive and normative, it includes the study of the texts of the classics and a certain idea of \u200b\u200blanguage; language, identified with Latin, appears as a potentially eternal form, directly related to the mechanisms of thought.
Greco-Roman grammar the theory through Late Latin grammar (Donatus, Priscian) was adopted by European philologists of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment (for example, the first Church Slavonic grammarians - 1591, 1596); at the same time, the concepts and categories of Latin grammar were transferred to the grammars of new languages.
In the 17th-18th centuries. Interest in the logical and philosophical foundations of the theory of grammar is growing significantly (the problem of “universal” or “universal” grammar.).
The development of typological research and the creation of the first morphological classifications of the world's languages (early 19th century) gave impetus to the creation of differentiated conceptual systems for describing languages of different systems; systematic work in this direction was started by H. Steinthal and continued by the neogrammarians.
The idea of “emancipation” of the grammar of new languages from the Latin-Greek grammatical tradition essentially penetrated into descriptive grammars of specific languages only at the beginning of the 20th century.
- In particular, in Russian grammar the system of grammatical concepts developed by F. F. Fortunatov was used.
The main lines of development of grammar in the 20th century. concerned not so much with the methods of describing specific languages (although this aspect was given sufficient attention, for example, within the framework of descriptive linguistics), but with the problems of the theory of grammar.

Literature

Vinogradov V.V. Russian language. Grammatical doctrine of words. M., 1947 (see also http://slovari.donpac.ru/lang/ru/ibooks/lib/vin/vin2/index.html ;
Espersen O. Philosophy of Grammar. Per. from English, M., 1958 (see also http://lib.canmos.ru/bookinfo.php?file=3697 or http://www.zipsites.ru/books/espersen_filosofiya_gram or http://lib. englspace.com/2006/01/01/filosofiya_grammatiki___the_philosophy_of_grammar__espersen___jespersen_otto___otto_.html);
Kuznetsov P.S. On the principles of studying grammar. M., 1961;
Bloomfield L. Language. Per. from English M., 1968, p. 165-310;
Bulygina T.V. Grammar // TSB. Ed. 3. T. 7. M., 1972;
Lyons J. Introduction to theoretical linguistics. Per. from English, M., 1978, p. 146-423;
aka. Language and linguistics. Per. from English, M., 2004, p. 96-127;
Maslov Yu.S. Introduction to linguistics. Ed. 2nd. M., 1987, p. 125-185, 210-213;
Modern foreign grammatical theories. M., 1985;
Admoni V. G. Grammatical structure as a system of construction and general theory of grammar. M., 1988;
Shvedova N.Yu. Grammar // LES. M., 1990, p. 113-115;
Arno A., Lanslo K. General rational grammar. Per. from French L., 1991;
Testelets Ya.G. Introduction to general syntax. M., 2001;
Bondarko A.V. Theoretical problems of Russian grammar. St. Petersburg, 2002;

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See what “Grammar (as a science)” is in other dictionaries:

Grammar- (Greek γραμματική, from γράμμα letter, spelling) 1) the structure of language, i.e., a system of morphological categories and forms, syntactic categories and constructions, methods of word production. In the triad that organizes the language as a whole in its sound, lexical... ... Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary

Grammar (from the Greek γράμμα “record”), as a science, is a branch of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of a language, the patterns of constructing correct meaningful speech segments in this language (word forms, syntagmas, sentences, texts). These... Wikipedia

This term has other meanings, see Grammar (meanings). Grammar (ancient Greek γραμματική from γράμμα “letter”) as a science is a branch of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of language, patterns of construction... ... Wikipedia

Wiktionary has an article “grammar” Grammar (from the Greek ... Wikipedia

- (Greek grammatike, from grâmma letter, writing) part of linguistics (See Linguistics), which studies the patterns of formation and use of word forms. G. is often understood more generally as a synonym for linguistics. This expansion of meaning... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

A special type of cognitive activity aimed at developing objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge about the world. Interacts with other types of cognitive activity: everyday, artistic, religious, mythological... Philosophical Encyclopedia

Science of Logic Wissenschaft der Logik

- (Wissenschaft der Logik) the most difficult to understand work of Hegel, which is a presentation of the necessary movement of thinking in the pure categories of thought (Absolute Idea). If the philosophy of spirit and the philosophy of nature depict movement... ... Wikipedia

GRAMMAR

(Greek grammatike, from grammata - writing, derived from graphein - to write). 1) a collection of laws and rules for the use of oral and written language. 2) an educational book containing the grammar of a known language.

Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. - Chudinov A.N., 1910 .

GRAMMAR

Greek grammatike, from grammata, writing, from graphein, to write. The science of the laws of language.

Explanation of 25,000 foreign words that have come into use in the Russian language, with the meaning of their roots. - Mikhelson A.D., 1865 .

GRAMMAR

presentation of the laws of language and rules for the structure of speech in Candidate of Sciences. language.

A complete dictionary of foreign words that have come into use in the Russian language. - Popov M., 1907 .

GRAMMAR

the science that studies the structure of language. Its parts are: phonetics (the study of the sound system of a language), etymology (the study of the external form of language) and syntax (the study of the combination of words and sentences). Philosophical studies explore the essence of the laws of language from a philosophical point of view. Comparative language studies existing languages in their mutual relations. Historical studies examine the course of language development.

Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. - Pavlenkov F., 1907 .

Grammar

(gr. grammatike) is a section of linguistics that studies the structure of words and sentences in a language and consists, respectively, of two parts: morphology (the study of the combination of morphemes in the forms of words) and syntax (the study of the combination of words in a sentence).

New dictionary of foreign words. - by EdwART,, 2009 .

Grammar

[ama], grammar, w. [Greek grammatike]. The doctrine of the structure of something. language or group of languages (linguistic). French grammar. Comparative grammar of Slavic languages. || An educational book setting out the basics (rules) of something. language. I bought myself a grammar

Large dictionary of foreign words. - Publishing House "IDDK", 2007 .

Grammar

And, and. ( Greek grammatica).
1. pl. No. Branch of linguistics that studies the structure and change of words ( morphology) and combining words into combinations and sentences ( syntax).
Grammarian- scientist, grammar specialist.
|| Wed. lexicology, semasiology, semantics, phonetics, phonology, phraseology.
2. A book that sets out the rules based on this science. School city. Academic city.
3. pl. No. The structure of language, the system of relations between linguistic categories. Russian city. difficult for foreigners.
Grammatical- related to grammar1, 3.
|| Wed. vocabulary, phonetics.

Explanatory dictionary of foreign words by L. P. Krysin. - M: Russian language, 1998 .

Synonyms:

See what "GRAMMAR" is in other dictionaries:

- (from the Greek grammata “writings”, “scriptures”). In the original understanding of the word, G. coincides with the science of linguistic forms in general, including the study of the elements of the sound form of sounds or, as they were expressed until the beginning of the 19th century, “letters”; this is inclusion... Literary encyclopedia

- [ama], grammar, noun. (Greek grammatike). The doctrine of the structure of a language or group of languages (ling.). French grammar. Historical grammar. Comparative grammar of Slavic languages. || An educational book laying out the basics... ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

Grammar- GRAMMAR is a department of linguistics that includes the study of the forms of words and phrases, although it should be noted that this meaning of this term is by no means generally accepted. “Grammars” of individual languages (and not only practical ones... Dictionary of literary terms

GRAMMAR- (from the Greek gramma - written sign, feature, line). 1. A system of rules that objectively operate in a language for changing words, forming word forms, and combining words into phrases and sentences. 2. Section of linguistics containing the doctrine of forms... ... New dictionary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of language teaching)

Modern encyclopedia

- (Greek grammatike from gramma letter, writing), 1) the structure of language, i.e. a system of linguistic forms, methods of word production, syntactic structures that form the basis for linguistic communication. 2) A branch of linguistics that studies the structure of language, its laws.… ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Grammar- (Greek grammatike, from gramma letter, spelling), 1) structure of language, i.e. a system of morphological categories and forms, syntactic categories and constructions, methods of word production. Without grammar (the building blocks of a language), nothing can be created... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

GRAMMAR, and, female. 1. The formal structure of a language (word formation, morphology and syntax), which, together with phonetics and vocabulary, forms its integral system. 2. The science of this system. Theory of grammar. 3. A book describing this system. Academic g... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

Noun, number of synonyms: 2 glossonomy (1) linguistics (73) ASIS Dictionary of Synonyms. V.N. Trishin. 2013… Synonym dictionary

Grammar is a branch of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of a language, the patterns of constructing correct speech segments in this language (word forms, syntagmas, sentences, texts). Grammar formulates these patterns in the form of general grammatical rules.

Grammatical structure- a set of laws for the functioning of a language at all levels of its structure, or (in a narrow sense) a set of rules for constructing lexical units from morphemes and coherent statements.

Gram. oppositions are called grammatical categories: a series of homogeneous grammatical meanings opposed to each other, systematically expressed by certain formal indicators (MASLOV).

Highlight: historical grammar is a science that studies the structure of words, phrases and sentences in development through comparison of various stages of the history of language and descriptive grammar is a science that studies the structure of words, phrases and sentences in synchronic terms.

Grammar is traditionally divided into morphology(word grammar) and syntax(grammar of connected speech)

Semantics, lexicology and phonetics, as a rule, are not included in grammar (and are opposed to it).

However, understood more narrowly, grammar is closely related to lexicology (since it studies the grammatical properties of words), as well as to such branches of linguistics as:

orthoepy (and, more broadly, phonetics), as it studies sound means of expressing meanings and pronunciation of grammatical forms,
spelling, since it covers their spelling,
stylistics, as it describes the stylistic patterns of the use of grammatical forms in different genres of speech.

41 Morpheme, its types

Morpheme is the smallest significant unit of language, distinguished as part of a word and performing the functions of word formation and morphology (word inflection). The concept of morpheme was introduced into science by Ivan Aleksandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay. If the phoneme is indivisible from the point of view of form, then the morpheme is indivisible from the point of view of content.

A morpheme is a two-sided unit, one side is semantic, that is, the content (signified), the second is a phonetic or graphic form, that is, the expression (signifier).

Word formation is a branch of the science of language that studies the morphological composition of words and methods of their formation.

Most words in the Russian language are divided into significant parts. For example, the verb jumped away is divided into the prefix from; root - jump; suffixes -nu;-l; ending -a. Each of these parts expresses a specific meaning: it means moving away to a certain distance, -jumping - a certain action, -well - perfective form, -l- past tense, -a - feminine gender, singular.

The significant part of a word is called a morpheme. According to the meaning and function in a word, the root morpheme and affixes (prefix, suffix, ending) are distinguished.

Affixes are divided into word-forming and form-forming.

Word-forming affixes include affixes, with the help of which new words are formed. For example, the suffix -ost forms the noun vivacity (from vigorous), the prefix noun suburb (from city).

Affixes that participate in the formation of grammatical forms of a given word are called formative. For example, the suffix -l (da-l) forms the past tense form, the suffix -ee (pretty-ee) forms the comparative degree of the adjective.

Forms of a word are modifications of the same word, which, while maintaining the lexical meaning, differ from each other in grammatical meanings. Grammatical forms are, for example, case and number forms of nouns, gender, number, case, degrees of comparison of adjectives, mood, tense, person, number, voice, verb type, etc.

It is necessary to distinguish between related words and grammatical forms of the same word. For example, high, height, high-rise are related words that have different lexical meanings. The words high - higher - highest - are forms of the same word.

The common part of related words is root. This is the central morpheme of a word, which contains its main lexical meaning. The root is identified by comparing a number of related words. For example, comparing the words price, valuable, price. estimate, we isolate the root of prices.

42 Word form as a unit of morphology

A word form is a morphological unit that represents one of the possible forms of a particular word (spring, spring, spring, spring, spring, about spring, spring, spring, spring, spring, about spring- word forms of the word spring, formed by changing this word in cases and numbers by adding formative morphemes - endings - to the root -a, -s, -e and so on.). Some studies (for example, in the works of G.A. Zolotova) suggest that not all words have word forms: unchangeable words (tomorrow, here, sitting etc.) do not have word forms, such forms are called words. But this discrepancy in terminology is purely conditional, terminological in nature. In this textbook, a word form is any specification of a word. In accordance with this, inflectable words have several word forms (depending on the characteristics of declension or conjugation), and unchangeable words have one.

A word form as a unit of a morphological system has a grammatical (morphological) meaning, form and at the same time has a lexical meaning inherent in a given word: if the word spring denotes a certain time of year, then each of the word forms of this word has the same meaning.

However, for some words, derived lexical meanings do not appear in all word forms of a given word, but are assigned only to some of them. For example, all word forms of the word forest its direct basic meaning retains this meaning ("a large space covered with growing trees"), but the word has several derived meanings that are assigned only to some forms of the word: forest in the meaning of “building material” it has no plural forms. numbers (Timber was brought to the construction site) A forest in the meaning of “fastening structure” is used only in the plural. number (Scaffolding for workers was erected around the building under construction). Word table in the meaning “type of furniture” retains this meaning in all 12 word forms (i.e. in all case forms singular and plural), and in the meaning “food* (This sanatorium has a good table) used only in unit forms. numbers (6 word forms).

When describing the morphological features of words, two terms are used: word form and word form. These terms express two different concepts and therefore should not be confused. The word form, as already noted, is the specific implementation of a word in the text, reflecting its lexical meaning and grammatical meanings and forms; the form of a word is an indication only of particular specific grammatical categories of the word. For example, words windowsill And cup holder have the same structure and the same grammatical meanings and forms (noun, plural, singular, noun), i.e. These are the same forms of words, but at the same time they are different word forms, since they are word forms of different words.

43 Sentence and utterance

FROM THE LECTURE

A sentence is a unit of language. An utterance is a unit of speech.

“Language is an abstraction, it is social, but speech is individual, it is the implementation of language.”

Language as a means of communication exists in the consciousness of an entire people and in this sense it is abstract, speech is the implementation of language, it is material and concrete, it can be spoken and heard.

Each unit of language corresponds to a unit of speech.

Sentence as a unit of language being implemented in a statement.

The difference between them is not only in abstractness and concreteness, but also in the fact that a sentence has a ready-made structure, while a statement is always built anew.

Thus:

Offer - language model, on which the statement is constructed.

An utterance is the lexical, morphological and phonetic embodiment of a sentence.

This means that the sentence is filled with specific words in specific grammatical forms, and the meanings of person, number, aspect, tense, modality, etc. appear.

The ability to reflect the time and place of the described situation is called predicativeness.

Vinogradov: “Predicativeness includes meanings place, time and person».

The utterance implements a certain communicative task: request, order, statement, question, etc. Transformations may occur in the utterance compared to the original model: the emergence of new members (details are added to the reflected situation that determine the specifics of a particular speech act). The statement signals what exactly is most important.

A woman (THE WOMAN) entered the room - A woman entered the room (A WOMAN)

Placing accents is a prerequisite for the communication process.

NOT FROM THE LECTURE, ABOUT THE OFFER. Maybe there is no need to teach. I don't know:\

A sentence includes syntagmas - a combination of two members connected by some kind of relationship, where one member is defining and the other is being defined.

Relationship types:

Predicative: predicate, connection with time and mood;

Attributive: the 2nd member determines the first outside of time and mood, for example, the sign: a beautiful horse

Objective: the defining member is an object, i.e. is not contained in the defined member, but related to him object relations (additions) eating soup, feeding the mole worms

- relative: that which is not contained in the defined, but is connected with it by certain relations of time, place, mode of action - ran quickly, ran in the forest, ran in the morning.

Relations between members of a syntagma can be of three types:

1) coordination– the grammatical meanings of the first word are repeated in the second: handsome young man– number and gender are repeated

2) management– some grammatical meanings of the determiner evoke in the determiner other, quite definite, grammatical meanings: I see a dog, I admire the dog, I went to the dog

3) adjacency- a type of connection between the determined and the defining, when there is no coordination or control, but the relationship is expressed either positionally through word order, or intonationally, by repeating a melodic tone or through pausing.

The chimney sweep is seriously shaking the chimney of my house.

44 Members of a sentence

Sentence member - syntactic function of words and phrases in a sentence

The subject (in syntax) is the main member of the sentence, grammatically independent; denotes an object whose action is expressed by a predicate. The subject names who or what the sentence is talking about and answers the questions “who?”, “what?”.

The predicate (in syntax) is the main member of a sentence, associated with the subject and answering the questions: “what does an object (or person) do?”, “what happens to it?”, “what is it like?”, “what is it?”, "who is he?" etc. The predicate denotes the action or state of objects and persons that are expressed by the subject. The predicate is most often expressed by a verb agreed with the subject, but often the predicate is expressed by other parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, participles, numerals, pronouns, adverbs, indivisible phrases).

Definition (or attribute) - in the syntax of the Russian language, a minor member of a sentence, denoting a feature of an object. Usually expressed as an adjective or participle. Answers the questions “which?”, “whose?”, “which?”

A circumstance in the syntax of the Russian language is a minor member of a sentence, depending on the predicate and denoting a sign of an action or a sign of another sign. Usually circumstances are expressed by nouns in the forms of indirect cases or adverbs, although some groups of circumstances can be expressed by participial phrases.

According to the meaning, which is clarified by questions, circumstances are divided into the following main types:

Time, Manner and Degree, Place, Reason, Purpose, Comparison, Conditions, Concessions.

An application is a definition expressed by a noun that agrees with the word being defined in the case, for example: A golden cloud spent the night on the chest of a giant rock. Applications can indicate various qualities of an object, indicate age, nationality, profession and other characteristics.

An addition in syntax is a minor member of a sentence, expressed by a noun or pronominal noun. The complement denotes an object or person who is the object of the action indicated by the predicate, and answers questions of indirect cases (“what?”, “who?”, “to whom?”, etc.).

There is a direct object - a prepositional object after a transitive verb (in Russian - in the accusative, sometimes in the genitive case) - and an indirect object (in other cases, after prepositions and indirect cases)

45Word formation and its types

The term word formation has two meanings in the science of language. On the one hand, this is the very process of formation of new words, on the other hand, it is a special branch of the science of language, in which the word-formation system of the Russian language is studied. The immediate subject of study in word formation, as in any other section of the science of language, is words. But unlike lexicology, where the individual features of a word are studied (lexical meaning, expressive-stylistic possibilities) or from grammar, where the grammatical features of a word and its syntactic functions are studied, word formation studies the composition, structure, and methods of forming a word as a unit of the word-formation system operating in the language . The study of the word formation system makes it possible to understand the laws of its functioning and establish the norms of modern word formation.

The word-formation system refers to those elements from which words are composed, i.e., significant units of a word (roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings), their role in word production, the very structure of words used in the language (derivative and non-derivative words), as well as those laws according to which some words (derivatives) are motivated by others (derivatives), methods of word formation and those word-formation types (within methods of formation) that are actively involved in the formation of new words.

The word-formation type is the basic unit of classification of derived words. A word-formation type is understood as a class of derivatives belonging to the same part of speech and characterized by the same word-formation properties:

a) derivative from words of one part of speech;

b) the same type of word formation;

c) general way of word formation;

d) identical word-formation meaning;

e) by the same means of expressing word-formation meaning - a derivator.
For example, substantive nouns belong to the same word-formation type forester And stove maker: they are formed within the framework of nominative word formation from one part of speech (noun) in the same way (suffixation), while they have the same word-formation meaning “a person characterized in relation to an object called a generating base”, which is expressed by the same suffix -Nick.

For example, derivatives do not belong to this type: worker(the noun is formed not from a noun, but from a verb), pharmacist, kiosk(the word-formation meaning is expressed by other suffixes: -ar", -or).
In addition, the general characteristics of a particular word-formation type take into account the transpositional/non-transpositional type of relationship between the derivative and the producer, as well as the productivity/non-productivity of the type.
Transposition/non-transpositionality of the type is associated with the part-speech affiliation of the producing and derived words. Transpositional word-formation types are characterized by the attribution of derivative and generating words to different parts of speech [sing(ch.) -> singer(noun); white(adj.) -> turn white(ch.)]. If the members of a word-formation pair belong to the same part of speech, then there is a non-transpositional word-formation type (sing-> sing; white-> white).
The productivity/unproductivity of a word-formation type is expressed in whether it can be replenished with new derivatives. Productive, for example, are types of adjectival adjectives with the suffix -sk-/-esk-(cf. neologisms: Aeroflot, bioacoustic, Hindu) or with a prefix anti- (anti-colonial, anti-patriotic, anti-human). Unproductive word-forming types are represented by closed lists of derivatives: they are not replenished with new words. Non-productive word-formation types include, for example, types of collective nouns with the suffix –nyak (oak, willow), substantive adjectives with the suffix -av- (bloody, full of holes).

46 Affixation and internal inflection

Every grammatical phenomenon always has two sides: internal, grammatical meaning (what is expressed) and external, grammatical method (what is expressed). The grammatical mode is the material expression of grammatical meanings, both relational and derivational. Ultimately, all grammatical differences between morphemes that show changes in case, number, person, tense, etc. are expressed by phonemic differences. The role of a grammatical method is also played by special function words, which are needed both to express the relationships between members of sentences and between sentences. Thus, grammatical meanings are expressed not directly by phonemes, but by known technical combinations of phonetic material.

There are a limited number of grammatical methods used in languages, these are: affixation, internal inflection, repetition, addition, function words, word order, stress, intonation and suppletivism. Some languages (like Russian, English) use all possible grammatical methods, others (like Chinese, French) use only a few.

The method of affixation consists of attaching affixes to the roots (or bases).

Affixes are morphemes with grammatical meaning. Affixes do not exist in languages outside of words; they accompany the root, serving for word formation and inflection.

Based on their position relative to the root, affixes can be divided into prefixes, which come before the root, and postfixes, which come after the root. There are languages that do not use prefixes, and express all grammar with postfixes (Kyrgyz); other languages prefer prefixes and do not use postfixes (Swahili). Indo-European languages use both, with a clear preference for postfixes. The group of postfixes can be divided into suffixes and inflections.

Suffixes are postfixes with derivational meaning.

Inflections are postfixes with relational meaning. In relation to Indo-European languages, prefixes cannot be subdivided in this way, because the same prefix, even in combination with the same root, can express both a derivational or relational meaning, or both at once. According to their grammatical role, suffixes are word-forming affixes, and inflections are inflectional; prefixes can play both roles.

Grammatical meanings can be expressed by changes in the sound composition of the root itself, or by internal inflection. However, there are different types of alternations: first of all, they are divided into phonetic (positional) and non-phonetic (alternation of different phonemes). The latter, in turn, are divided into morphological (historical) and grammatical (they independently express grammatical meanings). It is grammatical alternations that are internal inflection.

The phenomenon of internal inflection was discovered on the material of the Indo-European languages of the Germanic group. The most ancient type of internal inflection is found in so-called strong verbs (such as the English drink - drank - drunk). Jacob Grimm called this phenomenon ablaut - the alternation of vowels in the system of the verb and verbal formations. A similar situation is observed in French (pouvoir – je peux – je puis – ils peuvent). In the Russian language, such alternations have ceased to play the important role characteristic of Old Church Slavonic, thanks to the emergence of reduction of unstressed vowels. However, the combination of internal inflection with affixation is possible when forming multiple subtypes of imperfective verbs (walks - walked).

47 Reduplication, addition, function words, suppletivism

Repetitions, or reduplications, consist of complete or partial repetition of a root, stem or whole word without changing the sound composition or with a partial change in it.

Very often repetition is used to express the plural, for example in the Malay language orang - “person”, orang-orang - “people”, in the dead Sumerian language kur - “country”, kur-kur - “country”.

For many languages, repetitions are used in speech as a means of strengthening a given message: yes-yes, no-no, neither-nor (pure negation), just about, or: barely, barely, barely, a little, a long time ago and so on.

Onomatopoeic repetitions such as quack-quack (duck), oink-oink (pig), ku-ku (cuckoo), etc. are widely known. This type of onomatopoeic repetitions echoes such verbal “residues” repeated twice as clap-clap, knock Knock. If in Russian such repetitions are atypical for the Russian literary language, then they are very common in dialects of the Russian language, and, for example, in the Somali language (East Africa) this method in the verb expresses a special form: fen - “gnaw”, and fen–fen - “gnaw to the end from all sides”, i.e. terminologically this is a “comprehensively final form” (there is no such grammatical category in the Russian language, and this meaning is expressed lexically: “from all sides” and “to the end”). However, in the category of aspect in the Russian language there are cases of repetition to express special shades of the aspect of the verb, for example, you walk, you walk, you pray, you pray (the words of Varlaam, the scene in the tavern from the tragedy “Boris Godunov” by Pushkin).

In addition, in contrast to affixation, not a root morpheme with affixes is combined in one lexeme, but a root morpheme with a root morpheme, as a result of which a single new compound word arises; Thus, addition serves for word formation.

Both full and truncated roots, as well as stems and whole words in some grammatical form, can be combined during addition.

Such additions can also have two tendencies: mechanical, agglutinating, and organic, fusional. As a result of the first tendency, the sum of the values of the terms of the elements appears; for example in Russian: profrabota – “trade union work”,

Grammatical meanings can be expressed not inside a word, but outside it, in its environment, and above all in the function words accompanying significant words. Function words free significant words from expressing grammar [ 470 ] or accompany inflectional affixation.

Function words, as mentioned above, are deprived of a nominative function, since they do not name anything and only show the relationships between members of a sentence (prepositions, conjunctions) or between sentences (conjunctions), and also indicate some grammatical meanings that do not depend on the combination of words in the sentence (articles, particles, auxiliary verbs, words of degree). These are qualitative relations, for example, certainty and uncertainty, number, etc.

Function words often fulfill the same role as affixes, cf. I wanted to warm myself with tea, where the relation of complement with tea is expressed by case inflection, and in the sentence I wanted to warm myself with coffee, where the same thing is expressed by the function word, namely the preposition through.

If the relationship of the word cat to other members of a sentence in Russian is expressed by case inflections: cat, cat, cat, cat, etc., then in French, where there is no declension of nouns, the same grammatical connections are expressed by prepositions or their absence: Ie chat - “cat” (without a preposition with an article), du chat – “cat”, Among the function words one should distinguish:

Prepositions, Conjunctions, Particles, Articles, Auxiliary Verbs, Degree Words, etc.

Supplementism is the formation of an inflectional form of a word in a unique way for a language (often from a different root and/or using a unique alternation). This form is called suppletive form or suppletive.

For example, in Russian, the past tense of a verb is formed using the suffix -l added to the stem of the infinitive:

do - did, do - did, think - thought.

48 Word order, intonation, stress

The linearity of speech gives rise to the importance of the order of the links in its chain. In many cases, changing the place of lexemes in a speech chain can serve as an expressive means for grammatical meanings.

In Latin, word order does not express grammatical meanings, and thus any rearrangement is possible without changing the meaning of the whole. In Russian, for nouns ending in -а, -я and for masculine animate nouns, the situation is the same as in Latin (my sister loves a dog), but for the rest, the understanding of what is a subject and what is an object is determined only by the place in the sentence (the table scratches the chair). In English and French, where there is no declension of nouns and articles, the understanding of what is a subject and what is an object depends entirely on the order of words.

In languages where word order is free, word rearrangement (in the broad sense of inversion) is a very powerful stylistic device.

Intonation refers not to the word, but to the phrase and is thus grammatically related to the sentence and its structure.

First of all, this applies to the modal form of a sentence: with the same order of the same words in many languages, it is possible to distinguish interrogative sentences from affirmative ones by intonation, expressing doubt from sentences, etc. The placement and gradation of pauses within a sentence can show the grouping of sentence members or the division of a sentence. Pausing can differentiate between simple and complex sentences. Intonation can be used to distinguish a coordinating connection from a subordinating connection in the absence of conjunctions. A special phenomenon is the so-called logical stress, i.e. one or another shift of phrasal stress to logically highlight any elements of a sentence. Introductory words and expressions are distinguished by intonation, namely the acceleration of the tempo and the brittle normal intonation wave, which is how they differ from the members of the sentence.

Not every language easily uses intonation as a grammatical device. So, for example, French intonation is very indifferent to the expression of grammar.

The expression of expression and, above all, of various feelings is closely related to intonation, but does not belong to the area of grammar.

In the speech flow, stress is distinguished between phrasal, text and verbal. Verbal stress is the emphasis when pronouncing one of the syllables of a word. Russian stress is heterogeneous. Variability is used to distinguish between homographs and their grammatical forms (Organ-organ) and individual forms of various words (my-moyu), and in some cases serves as a means of lexical differentiation of a word or gives the word a stylistic coloring (well done, well done).
Mobility and immobility of stress serves as an additional means in the formation of forms of the same word: mobile - city-city; motionless - garden-garden-garden-garden... The mobility of the stress ensures the distinction of grammatical forms: buy-buy
Words can be unstressed or lightly stressed. Usually, function words and particles are unstressed, but they sometimes take on the stress, so the preposition with self. the word has one emphasis: na-winter.
Two- and three-syllable prepositions and conjunctions, simple numerals in combination with a noun, connectives TO BE and BECOME, and some of the introductory words can be weakly stressed. Some of the words have, in addition to the main one, an additional, side stress: (aircraft construction)

49 Synthetic and analytical languages

Synthetic languages are a typological class of languages in which synthetic forms of expressing grammatical meanings predominate. Synthetic languages are contrasted with analytical languages, in which grammatical meanings are expressed using function words, and polysynthetic languages, in which several nominal and verbal lexical meanings are combined within a fully formed complex (outwardly resembling a word).

The basis for dividing languages into synthetic, analytical and polysynthetic is essentially syntactic, therefore this division intersects with the morphological classification of languages, but does not coincide with it. The division of languages into synthetic and analytical was proposed by August Schleicher (only for inflectional languages), then he extended it to agglutinative languages.

In synthetic languages, grammatical meanings are expressed within the word itself (affixation, internal inflection, stress, suppletivism), that is, by the forms of the words themselves. To express the relationships between words in a sentence, elements of the analytical structure (function words, order of significant words, intonation) can also be used.

Morphemes included in a word in synthetic languages can be combined according to the principle of agglutination, fusion, and undergo positional alternations (for example, Turkic synharmonism). Synthetic forms are found in a significant part of the world's languages. Since a language, in principle, is not typologically homogeneous, the term “synthetic languages” is applied in practice to languages with a fairly high degree of synthesis, for example, German, Russian, Turkic, Finno-Ugric, most Semitic-Hamitic, Indo-European (ancient), Mongolian, Tungusic. Manchu, some African (Bantu), Caucasian, Paleo-Asian, American Indian languages.

Analytical languages are languages in which grammatical meanings are mainly expressed outside the word, in the sentence: English, French, and all isolating languages, for example, Vietnamese. In these languages, a word is a transmitter of lexical meaning, and grammatical meanings are transmitted separately: by the order of words in a sentence, function words, intonation, etc.

The phrase in Russian is “a father loves his son.” If you change the order of words - “the father loves his son”, then the meaning of the phrase will not change, the word “son” and the word “father” change the case ending. The phrase in English is “the father loves the son.” When the word order is changed to “the son loves the father”, the meaning of the phrase changes exactly the opposite - “the son loves the father”, since there are no case endings, and the word son sounds and is written the same even if it corresponds to the nominative case of the Russian language, and indirect cases. Therefore, the meaning of a sentence depends on the order of words in the sentence. The same phenomenon is observed if we consider the French phrase “le père aime le fils” with the same meaning.

50 Typological classification of languages

Typological classification of languages is a classification based on the similarities and differences of linguistic structure (morphological, phonological, syntactic, semantic), regardless of genetic or territorial proximity. From this point of view, the following are distinguished: isolating (amorphous) type (ancient Chinese, Vietnamese), agglutinating (agglutinative) type (Turkic, many Finno-Ugric languages), inflectional (inflectional) type (Russian language). Some scientists distinguish incorporating (polysynthetic) languages (some Paleo-Asian, Caucasian languages).

Typological classification unites languages according to their common structure and type. It does not depend on origin and relies primarily on grammar.

The basic concepts of typological (morphological) classification are morpheme and word; main criteria: the nature of the morphemes combined in a word (lexical - grammatical), the method of their combination (pre- or postposition of grammatical morphemes, which is directly related to syntax; agglutination - fusion, which relates to the field of morphonology); the relationship between morpheme and word (isolation, when morpheme = word, analyticism / synthetism of word formation and inflection), associated with syntax.

Typological classification seeks to characterize not specific languages, in which several morphological types are always represented, but the main structural phenomena and trends that exist in languages.

Modern typology, preserving as the most important typological categories the concepts developed by the founders of typology - “analytical type of language”, “synthetic type”, “agglutination”, “fusion”, etc. - abandoned the idea of one and general typological classification languages. It became obvious that just one typological classification (for example, morphological) is not enough, since different language levels have their own typologically significant features that are independent of the structure of other levels of language. Therefore, in addition to the morphological classification, various other classifications of languages were required: depending on the type of phonological system, the nature of stress, the type of syntax, the type of lexicon, the nature of word formation, the functional (communicative) profile of the language, the type of normative-stylistic structure of the language (in the typology of literary languages) etc.

Modern typology, preserving as the most important typological categories the concepts developed by the founders of typology - “analytical type of language”, “synthetic type”, “agglutination”, “fusion”, etc. - abandoned the idea of one and general typological classification languages. It became obvious that just one typological classification (for example, morphological) is not enough, since different language levels have their own typologically significant features that are independent of the structure of other levels of language. The understanding of language type has also changed. It became obvious that there were no languages that could be considered in

as “pure”, “one hundred percent” representatives of one type or another. Any language is a more or less “typical representative” of “its” type. Therefore, the category “language type” itself (analytical type, synthetic, agglutination, etc.) began to be interpreted differently: not as a cell in the classification, but as one from possible ideal (mental) schemes of the structure of a language (or a certain level of language); this scheme is created on the basis of studying a number of languages as their generalized and, of course, abstract image and is then applied (as if “tried on”) to individual specific languages.

51Comparative historical...

Comparative-historical linguistics (linguistic comparative studies) is a field of linguistics devoted primarily to the relationship of languages, which is understood historically and genetically (as a fact of origin from a common proto-language). Comparative historical linguistics deals with establishing the degree of relationship between languages (constructing a genealogical classification of languages), reconstructing proto-languages, studying diachronic processes in the history of languages, their groups and families, and the etymology of words.

Throughout the 19th century, comparative historical linguistics was the dominant branch of linguistics.

Comparative historical linguistics appeared after the Europeans discovered Sanskrit, the literary language of ancient India. Back in the 16th century, the Italian traveler Filippo Sassetti noticed the similarity of Indian words with Italian and Latin ones, but no scientific conclusions were made. The beginning of comparative historical linguistics was laid in the 18th century by William Jones.

The historical method of knowledge includes different types. With the help of various methods, knowledge of phenomena is achieved to one degree or another.

Modern rules of grammar are rooted in Indian linguistic traditions, while its basic terminology came to us from ancient times. Grammar became one of the compulsory disciplines in the Middle Ages, but only in the 19th century it began to be considered by scientists as a separate science. It was during this period that it was supplemented with morphological principles and categories. For the first time in Russia, M.V. spoke about grammar. Lomonosov, and he also described the basic rules of the Russian language.

Definition of grammar

In general, grammar means a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of language, as well as its constructions. There are specially formulated grammatical rules that indicate the patterns of construction of all correct and meaningful speech segments (for example, syntagmas, word forms, sentences and texts).

Let's take a closer look at what grammar is. First of all, grammar is considered the formal structure of a language, as well as the science of its structure and rules. In general, grammar is a lexical section that forms the basis of the language, while regulating the formation of all words, as well as speech segments. Also, this section of science should determine the connection between all words and their constructions, namely sentences and phrases.

The main sections of grammar are considered to be syntax and morphology. Syntax studies the structure of sentences and phrases. The regulation of word formation rules from the point of view of parts of speech is studied by morphology. In addition, grammar is also closely related to such sciences as phonetics and vocabulary, namely spelling, stylistics and spelling.

Divisions of grammar

To understand what the grammar of the Russian language is, one should consider all its types, which can most fully reveal all its concepts.

Based on the depth of study of all verbal forms, grammar is divided into formal and functional grammar. Formal grammar studies grammatical means, and functional grammar studies grammatical meanings.
There is also a universal grammar, which contains rules that apply to all language groups and languages. In parallel with the universal one, a special grammar is considered, which studies the grammatical rules of a particular language.
According to the period when grammatical rules are studied, the science of grammar is divided into synchronic and historical grammar. At the same time, synchronic in a particular grammar describes all grammatical rules in a set period of time, and historical implies only a comparison of different periods of synchronic grammar, as well as the origin of a group and family of related linguistic descendants of the proto-language, which is considered a single source. In addition, she also studies modifications of private grammar.