In order for oral speech to be correct and expressive, it is important to be able to place stress correctly. For junior schoolchildren that's pretty difficult task, which is easier to cope with by understanding the meaning of stress. Our article will tell you about the features of Russian accent.
Concept
IN oral speech selection occurs by raising (strengthening) the voice or emotional (expressive) coloring. In writing, if necessary, a special accent mark is used (́ dash above the stressed syllable), but more often, for convenience, the stressed vowel is indicated by a capital (capital) letter.
There are accents:
- Verbal- highlighting a syllable in a word;
- Clock- highlighting a word in a phrase;
- Boolean- highlighting a particularly significant word in the text;
- Phrasal- highlighting a phrase in a phrase.
Let's take a closer look at the first one. It is this that causes the most difficulties, because the stress in the Russian language is always free. Stand out in in different words Any syllable can: from the first to the last (lake, swamp, river). For comparison: in French the stress is fixed (falls only on last syllable). Even borrowed words retain the place of stress (coat, jalousie).
For each Russian word there are norms of correct or preferred pronunciation (orthoepic), which you just need to remember. For example: in words with “е” the stress will fall on this vowel (excluding compound and borrowed ones). If you have doubts when placing an accent, you should check with special dictionaries(spelling, dictionary of difficulties or stresses).
Types of stress in a word
The emphasis in words is:
- Permanent: the form of the word changes, but the stress remains on the same syllable (sign - sign - signs, sadness - sadness - sadness - to be sad);
- Movable: when a word is changed, the stress is placed on a different syllable (leg - legs, table - table). In most cases the stress shifts to another syllable only in some forms (house - houses (where), but houses (many) - home; number - numbers (of what), but numbers).
Complex, compound, words with vice-, super-, ex-, anti-, near-, etc. often have two stresses. In the first part of the word - secondary, in the second - main (five-story, ex-minister).
Assigning word stress
To better understand why it is so important to use accents, you need to know their functions:
- Pronunciation: helps to pronounce words correctly and separately from others, highlighting the stressed syllable (Healthy children can visit the pool);
- Semantic: allows you to find out the meaning of a word in the case when the meaning changes when the stress is shifted to another syllable (lock on the door - build a castle, already done - the stream is narrower than the river).
The stress always plays the first role, and the second - only in cases where it is necessary to distinguish similar words. Also additionally called the expressive task of stress: increasing the imagery (expressiveness) of oral speech due to increased emphasis on a syllable in one word of the phrase (At least once in your life, try to do everything right!
What have we learned?
Having become familiar with the specifics of Russian stress (free), we learned what it is like (constant, mobile), what role it plays in speech (pronunciation, semantic). We figured out how to put the emphasis correctly (know the meaning of the word, check the dictionary). To quickly learn the correct pronunciation, it is important to look through special dictionaries more often.
Isolating a group of words, an individual word or a syllable in a word is called.
In Russian, the stressed element is pronounced with greater force, more clearly and for a longer duration. Depending on which element is highlighted, a distinction is made between logical and verbal stress.
| Logical stress | Word stress (or just emphasis) |
|---|---|
| This is the selection of a word or group of words that is important in terms of meaning in a given phrase. For example, in A. Akhmatova’s poem “Courage” (1942) the lines We know what's on the scales now Pronounced with logical stress on allied words- pronouns What, which must be highlighted by the strength of the voice, since it is they who determine the content of this entire phrase. |
This is the highlighting of a syllable in a word.
If a word consists of two or more syllables, then one of them is pronounced with greater force, with greater duration and more clearly. The syllable that is pronounced with greater force and duration is called stressed syllable. The vowel sound of a stressed syllable is called stressed vowel. The remaining syllables (and vowels) in the word are unstressed. The accent mark “ ́” is placed above the vowel of the stressed syllable: wall, field. |
Russian verbal stress (compared to other languages) has a number of features.
1. In many languages, stress is fixed, constant, that is, the stress is assigned to a certain syllable in a word.
In French, the stress always falls on the last syllable. Polish language- on the penultimate syllable, in Czech language- on the first syllable.
In Russian, stress is free, that is, it can fall on any syllable.
Wed: kitchen, more beautiful, pamper.
2. Russian accent is movable: in related words and when changing the same word, the stress may move to another syllable.
Wed: conspiracy - agreement, start - began, orphan - orphans.
3. It is the accent that can:
distinguish one word from another;
Wed: atlas - atlas.
be an indicator of the grammatical form of a word.
Wed: hands - hands.
4. Many complex words, in addition to the main stress, can also have side stress.
Highly gifted, evergreen.
5. During historical development The place of stress in a word may change.
For example, in the novel by A.S. Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin” we read: The music is already tired of thundering; and now we say - music.
6. All words of a language, when pronounced separately, have an accent. But in speech stream Some words, when adjacent in pronunciation to the previous or subsequent one, become unstressed.
For example, in the phrase Walk on the water with me pretext with with pronoun me, as well as a preposition By with a noun water pronounced with one accent. Moreover, in the first case ( with me) the preposition becomes unstressed; in the second case ( by water) the noun becomes unstressed.
7. Large group words in the Russian language have several accentological variants. Just a few of these options literary language are equivalent.
Cottage cheese And cottage cheese, barge And barge, camphor And camphor, combiner And combine operator, pinch And pinch.
Typically, the options differ in their scope of use.
Thus, one of the options in a literary language can be the main one (cf.: unrestrained, girlish, busy), the other is additional, acceptable, but less desirable. (cf.: unrestrained, girlish, busy).
Other options may be non-literary (colloquial, dialect).
For example, in a literary language the pronunciation is unacceptable (!): busy, document, shop, kilometer, quarter, alcohol, youth. These are colloquial accentological options. Literary options pronunciations: engaged, document, store, kilometer, quarter, alcohol, youth.
If you have difficulty, the stress in words and forms of words can be checked using explanatory, spelling and special, orthoepic dictionaries.
Intonation – rhythmic and melodic side of speech, serving as a means of expression syntactic meanings and emotionally expressive coloring.
Accent – a method of forming a phonetically integral segment of speech.
1. Word stress - highlighting one syllable in a word using duration, volume, height, including using their combination.
2. Dynamic (power) – the stressed syllable is the loudest in the word (English, French)
3. Quantative (longitudinal) – the stressed syllable is the longest (Modern Greek)
4. Musical (tone) - the stressed syllable is highlighted by the height and nature of the tone change (Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese).
5. Bar accent- combines several words into speech tact(syntagma).
6. Phrase stress – combines several measures into a phrase.
Depending on the place of stress, there is a fixed stress, which is assigned to a specific syllable (Finnish, Czech, French, Polish).
The accent can be movable or stationary.
Word stress in Russian. language free, i.e. can be on any syllable.
With a fixed stress, its place in the word remains unchanged during the formation of the gram. forms, as well as during word formation (share-share-share-share-share, etc.).
When a word changes, the movable stress can move from one syllable to another and even go beyond the boundaries of the word (spina - spinu, naf spin).
There are also weak stress, side stress, and logical stress.
Question
Phoneme- separate sound speeches of k.-l. language or dialect, considered in its function, i.e. as a means for differentiation and material for constructing significant units of language - words and morphemes, in abstraction from those features of its pronunciation and sound that do not cause semantic differences in words and morphemes ; basic phonetic unit of language. The term "F." originated in French linguistic literature in 1874 to designate the sound of speech. Russian linguist I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay back in 1870 expressed the idea of “a discrepancy physical nature sounds with their meaning in the mechanism of language." At the suggestion of his student N.V. Krushevsky, he designated the new term “F.” linguistic "equivalent" physical sound, that is, sound considered from the point of view of its properties essential for language; He contrasted f. as a “phonetic” element of language with material sound as an “anthropophonic” element.
Transcription . There are several types of transcription:
1) phonetic (if you need to fully display the pronunciation): easy – [ l"ohkej]
2) phonemic (corresponding to spelling): easy – [ l'ogkoj]
For example, the word “ruthless” according to the first type is transcribed as [ bizzalasnej], and according to the second as [ bezzalostnoj]
3) practical - the sounds of one language are written with the signs of their own: beautiful [ bju:tefl] – [beautyful]
4) transliteration – the transfer of graphemes of one language using the signs of one’s own: beautiful – [ beautifullyfull]
Examples of transcription of the first and second types:
Apple - - ; nails - - ; fairy tale - -
Historical alternations: ska To at - ska h y (k g h), but G a – but and ka (g gzh). Gather – gather – alternations at the root can be traditional or serve as a grammatical distinction.
Transcription– special kind recording speech formations using special symbols based on the sound of a word and its implementation in speech.
Transliteration– a special type of recording of speech formations using special symbols based on their letter (grapheme) composition
Scientific transcription and transliteration
They use special symbols
They have a strict relationship (phoneme-grapheme in transcription and grapheme-grapheme in transliteration) and writing rules.
Practical transcription and transliteration
Use regular language symbols
They have more free writing rules.
Today there is greater transcription tendency than to transliteration
*(Lomonosov – “Nevton”, today – “Newton”)
Phonetic transcription pursues the goal of accurate graphic recording sounding speech. The basic principle of phonetic transcription is that each pronounced sound must receive its own graphic fixation.
Therefore, in transcription, unlike orthographic writing, a letter always corresponds to one sound and each sound is always indicated by the same letter. The basis of the phonetic representation of Russian text (sounding speech) is the Russian alphabet, except for voiceless and ionic letters. In addition, the transcription uses special letter signs [γ], [Λ], [ie], various diacritics(superscript: sign of longitude of sound, sign of softness of sound - and subscript: lines combining proclitics and/or enclitics into a phonetic word). The letters b and b are used in transcription to convey the so-called reduced vowel sounds.
Exist certain rules transcription.
1. Conclude in square brackets transcribed segment (word, sentence, text).
2. Remove capital letters(there cannot be capital letters in phonetic notation!).
3. Remove punctuation.
4. Divide the text into phrases, separating them from each other with two slashes.
5. Divide the phrases into syntagms, separating them from each other with one slash.
6. Place emphasis.
7. Divide the syntagms into phonetic words, indicating proclitics and enclitics with a special sign.
8. In each phonetic word, remove the voiceless letters (b and b), indicating the softness of the preceding consonant sounds, using an apostrophe.
9. Indicate the softness of the consonant sounds preceding the letter I.
10. Replace the letters E, E, Yu, I with the corresponding sounds, taking into account double role iotated letters.
11. Divide phonetic words into syllables.
12. Number the syllables according to their position relative to stress:
Pre-stressed syllables Stressed Pre-stressed syllables
…etc. ׀ V ׀ IV ׀ III ׀ II ׀ I ׀ 0 ׀ I ׀ II ׀ III ׀ IV ׀ V ׀ etc. ...
13. Indicate the reduction of vowels in pre-stressed and post-stressed syllables:
1) incomplete reduction:
a) I pre-stressed syllable;
b) absolute beginning of a word (with a vowel);
c) a syllable far from stressed (IV, V, VI and subsequent pre-stressed);
2) complete reduction:
a) all stressed syllables;
b) II, III pre-stressed syllables.
14. Indicate the changes in consonant sounds:
1) stunning;
2) voicing;
3) mitigation;
4) deletion (simplification of consonant groups);
5) assimilation by place or method of education;
6) dissimilation by place or method of education.
Sample phonetic transcription
He was a man about thirty-two or three years old, of average height, pleasant appearance, with dark gray eyes, but with the absence of any definite idea, any concentration in his facial features.<…>From the face, carelessness passed into the poses of the whole body, even into the folds of the dressing gown (I. Goncharov).
Principles of phonetic transcription
The term "transcription" comes from Latin word transcriptio - rewriting. This word refers to a special, narrow purpose artificial system letters used to accurately designate sound composition our speech. In some cases, especially in language research and teaching, it may be necessary to record as accurately as possible the sound of a word or piece of coherent speech. But what exactly does it mean? At least in such a way that all sounds that are in a word are designated, so that sounds that are not in it are not “attributed” to the word, and that the designation of sounds conveys their real sequence in a word or speech.
The main requirements that a transcription must satisfy are: a) one separate sign(letter) must in all cases denote one separate sound; b) the same sound must in all cases correspond to the same sign; c) the same sign in all cases must correspond to the same sound.
There are three types of transcription - phonetic, phonemic and practical.
1) Phonetic transcription pursues the goals of an accurate graphic recording of pronunciation. It is used in dictionaries foreign languages(where spelling is very far from pronunciation and does not have proper regularity; for example, English), in language textbooks, in diction and recitation textbooks, in recordings of live speech (dialectological records, phonetics textbooks, etc.).
The basic principle of phonetic transcription is that each spoken sound must be separately recorded. Phonetic transcription can be used by anyone existing alphabet, but with the addition of special characters that are not in the practical alphabet. For this purpose there are various techniques(diacritical marks, inverted letters, ligatures, use of letters from other alphabets, etc.).
2) Phonemic transcription conveys each word according to the composition of phonemes, without reflecting those arising in weak positions options and variations. It is used in writing examples and grammar paradigms, where the structural rather than the pronunciation aspect of the matter is important. Its principle: each phoneme, regardless of position, is always represented by the same sign.
Phonemic transcription requires significantly fewer characters than phonetic transcription, since the number of phonemes is always less than the number of options and variations. It is close to those spelling systems that consistently carry out phonemic principle(for example, Russian), and is far from orthographic notation where spelling is based on etymological and traditional principles (for example, in French and English spelling).
Practical transcription is intended to introduce foreign words and their combinations into Russian text, without going beyond the accepted alphabet, i.e. without introducing new letters or special diacritics.
With regard to spelling, some deviations are possible here; for example, writing ы after k, i, sh, zh and at the beginning of a word (Kyzyl-Yrmak, Zhaiyk, Yyyts, Shyklar, Dzhylandy); writing i, e, yu after c, w, zh, h, sch, k, g, x, i (Sventsyany, Zurich, Siauliai); writing ь after c (Pakost), writing e after l (Malecki, as opposed to Malecki), writing th before o, i (Jorgen, Jiří,), etc.
Special rules in practical transcription, the writing of non-alphabetic characters (hyphen, apostrophe, quotation marks), as well as capital letters, is regulated.
Special lists spelling to be specified traditional names(Paris, Rome, Vienna, Naples, Switzerland, Sweden, Germany, Denmark), as well as cases of transfer (Cape Good Hope, Cape Verde Islands, Easter Island, Richard Lion Heart, Heinrich Ptitselov).
Thus, practical transcription is the transfer of words and their combinations of one language into words of another language; in this case the words are taken in their entirety linguistic characteristics: lexical, grammatical, phonetic and graphic for introducing facts of one language into the composition and system of another language.
§ 57. Stress, or accent (from lat. accentus"emphasis"), it is customary to call the emphasis in the speech stream of certain parts of it by one or another phonetic means.
Let's compare following definitions: "Accent(accent) - highlighting in speech a particular unit in a sequence of homogeneous units using phonetic means" ; " Accent(or accent) is called the selection of a sound, syllable or word by increasing muscular tension and pressure of an air stream or changing the pitch (voice tone)"; "Stress (in international terminology - accent) is called sound selection, emphasis using certain sound means certain segments, usually syllables, as part of a word or words as part of a phrase and sentence."
The branch of linguistics that studies stress (its types, functions, etc.) is called accentology(from lat. accentus and Greek logos).
Depending on which unit contains one or another part of it, a distinction is usually made between verbal and phrasal stress, also called syntactic, syntagmatic. Sometimes this feature, along with verbal and phrasal stress, is also distinguished by syllable stress.
IN modern linguistics the term “stress” is often used in another, narrower meaning – to designate one of three types of stress, i.e. verbal stress.
Syllable stress(syllabic accent) is the emphasis of a sound within a syllable. In this case, the vowel sound is usually used as a shock. In the absence of a vowel in the syllable, the most sonorous (sonorant) consonant, which is a syllable-forming consonant, is used as stress, as, for example, in the Czech word vlk(wolf).
Syllable stress can fall on different sounds of this syllable, in particular on different elements the same diphthong (cf. in Ligovsk language: km-na(price) and snai-ge(snowflake), sdu-Ιέ(sun) and saii-sas(dry), kdl-nas(mountain) and kal-tas(guilty).
The stressed sound during syllabic stress in different languages is distinguished by different phonetic means - greater strength, or intensity, of pronunciation, duration, duration of sound, change in the pitch of the sound, i.e. intonation. In this case, it is possible different types intonation (for more details, see § 64 et seq.). To indicate syllable stress in writing, special stress marks are used, which differ depending on the nature of intonation (see the above examples from the Lithuanian language).
Word stress It is customary to call the selection of a syllable as part of a phonetic (accented) word. If a phonetic word contains clitics (proclitics or enclitics), the stress usually remains on one of the syllables of the main, significant word, although it often moves to clitics (cf., for example, in Russian: for city, az forest, no one at your feet, somehow ιιύ it was", in Polish: do mnie(to me), !!! nie with hep I n"ex ce"J (I don't want to). Word stress is carried out using the same phonetic means that are used for syllable stress (for more details on word stress, see below, in § 58 et seq.).
Under phrasal stress usually refers to the selection of a word (or phrase) as part of a phrase or statement. The word highlighted as stressed can occupy a position in the phrase different place. In Russian, for example, it is always located at the end of the phrase. It is distinguished by increased verbal stress, as well as intonation - by raising or lowering the tone of the sound on which the verbal stress falls. Hence, phrasal stress- this is “a stronger stress of the syntagma”, “the most intense stress in the statement”.
Phrase stress should not be confused with logical stress, as is done in the works of some authors, including in university educational literature. The term "phrase stress" is sometimes used to denote logical stress and, conversely, the term "logical stress" denotes what is commonly called phrasal, or syntagmatic, stress. Under logical stress you need to understand the selection in the composition of a statement of one or another of its parts (words, phrases), the most important for the speaker in terms of meaning.
§ 58. The object of study in phonetics is, first of all, stress in in the narrow sense, i.e. verbal stress. (In the following presentation, the term “stress” will be used mainly to denote verbal stress.)
Word stress occurs in most languages of the world; it is absent in languages such as, for example, Kalmyk, Evenki, and it is not noted in Paleo-Asian languages, which include Chukchi, Eskimo, Nivkh (i.e., the language of the indigenous population of Sakhalin Island and the lower reaches of the Amur River), etc. In different languages that have verbal stress, it manifests itself differently, i.e. different types of stress are used.
§ 59. Word stress differs, first of all, depending on what phonetic means it is carried out. Based on this feature, several phonetic types of stress are distinguished: forceful, quantitative, musical.
Power stress is a word stress in which the stressed syllable (its syllabic-forming sound) differs from other syllables of this word the intensity of pronunciation, achieved by increasing muscular tension of the speech organs and increasing the exhaled air stream. This stress is also called expiratory, expiratory (cf. Lat. expire– “to exhale”), dynamic (cf. Greek. dynamis- "force", dynamikos –"relating to strength, force"). Power stress is typical for such languages as, for example: Czech, French, Portuguese, Dutch (Dutch), Evenki.
Quantitative stress is considered to be one that is characterized by a longer duration of sound of the stressed syllable compared to other syllables of the given word. This type of stress is also called longitudinal, or quantitative (cf. Lat. quantum"How many"). Quantitative stress in pure form observed extremely rarely, for example, in modern Indonesian and Javanese languages. Some linguists classify the stress of modern Modern Greek as purely quantitative. An opinion has been expressed that quantitative stress does not occur in its pure form.
Musical is called stress, characterized by the fact that the stressed syllable differs from unstressed syllables in the pitch of the syllabic sound. Other names for this type of stress: tone, tonic, melodic. Musical stress is characteristic of languages such as Chinese, Korean, Japanese, Nanai, Udege, etc. In different languages it varies depending on the nature (type) of intonation (about it we'll talk below, in § 64 et seq.).
The verbal stress of each of the types considered in its pure form is used quite rarely; in most languages it is mixed character, i.e. combines the characteristics ( phonetic means) different types accents. In the Russian language, for example, stressed syllables are distinguished simultaneously by both the duration and intensity of the syllabic sound, and in to a greater extent duration; such a mixed stress can be called quantitative-force, or quantitative-expiratory. In languages such as Swedish and Norwegian, the stress is predominantly musical; at the same time, it is accompanied by a noticeable increase in the intensity of the stressed syllable; This - . musical-power stress. IN Lithuanian language in a stressed syllable, signs of musical (primarily), force and quantitative stress are noticeably expressed: in Lithuanian stress “dynamic and musical elements are distinguished... In addition, the syllabic-forming sound of a stressed syllable under the same phonetic conditions is always longer than the unstressed sounds of the same words... A mixed stress of this type can be called musical-quantitative-force. Something similar is observed in other languages, in particular in German, where the stress is predominantly forceful and at the same time stressed syllables differ noticeably from unstressed syllables in pitch, as well as duration of sound.
§ 60. In many languages of the world, a stressed syllable can occupy any place in a word, i.e. stress may fall on the first, second, third, last, penultimate syllable, etc. There are also languages in which the stressed syllable in all stressed words occupies the same place, i.e. the stress falls either only on the first syllable, or on the last, or on the penultimate, etc. Accordingly, there is a distinction between free and bound stress.
Free is considered to be an accent that is not assigned to certain place in a word in relation to its beginning or end, in different words of a given language it falls on different syllables - first, second, third, etc. This type of stress is also called variable, non-fixed. It is typical for Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian, Bulgarian, Lithuanian, English, German, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Italian, Spanish and many other languages.
Related is the stress that in all words of a given language falls on the same syllable - first, last, penultimate, etc. This type of stress is also called single, non-free, constant, stable, fixed. Bound stress is used in languages such as: Czech, Slovak, Latvian, Estonian, Finnish, Hungarian (stress is always on the first syllable), French, Armenian, Turkish, most Turkic (on the last syllable), Polish (on the penultimate syllable) , Macedonian (on the third syllable from the end).
Along with free and bound stress, stress is possible semi-connected(sometimes called limited). Stress of this type occupies an intermediate position between free and bound: it is not assigned to a specific syllable (unlike bound stress) and at the same time cannot fall on any syllable of the word (as opposed to free stress), and has a “certain zone of localization”. This emphasis is typical, for example, for Latin language, in which it falls either on the penultimate syllable (in cases where the syllabic vowel is long) or on the third from the end (in other cases) (cf., for example: videre(to see), but video(I see)). According to some linguists, a similar phenomenon is observed in ancient Greek and classical Arabic.
The limitation of stress can manifest itself in other ways. So, let's say in difficult words(including compound contractions) the stress may fall on the initial or final component of the addition. In Russian it usually falls on the final component of a compound word: flax fiber, bakery, railway worker, state university, city executive committee, wall newspaper, fruit and vegetable storage, white-pink, unfamiliar, above-mentioned, Tioet-Sanskrit-Russian-English(dictionary), etc. Exceptions are extremely rare and concern, for example, some numerals: seventy, eighty(but compare: fifty, sixty), two hundred, three hundred, four hundred(with forms indirect cases: two hundred, three hundred, four hundred), fifty, sixty, seventy, eighty(with original forms: fifty, sixty and so on.). In languages such as German and Lithuanian, the stress in compound words falls predominantly on the initial component.
§ 61. When the grammatical form of a word changes, the stress can move, move from one syllable to another (which is reflected, in particular, in the above examples of complex numerals) or remain on the same syllable. Depending on this, the emphasis differs between movable and fixed.
Movable(or moving) is a stress that, when the grammatical form of a word changes, changes its place in the word, moves from one syllable to another. This stress is common in many languages characterized by free stress, such as Russian, German, Lithuanian, etc. (cf. some examples from the Russian language: hand - hand, city - cities, head – head – head, cheerful – cheerful – more fun, ten – ten, give – gave - gave away). Similar phenomenon sometimes called stress alternation. The associated stress can also be movable. It moves from one syllable to another in cases where, during the formation of a grammatical form, the syllabic composition of the word and the number of syllables in it change. So, for example, in the Polish language, which has a constant stress on the penultimate syllable, it moves to another syllable in the case of the addition of a grammatical suffix or ending or the disappearance of these morphemes (cf.: ulica(Street) - ulic(streets), nowy(new) - nowego(I am reading) - czytalem[sytalem] (I read)).
motionless(constant) is an accent that has permanent place in the word, in its entire grammatical paradigm, i.e. persisting on the same syllable in all grammatical forms Oh. Many Russian words have this emphasis, for example: know(cf. I know, you know, they know, they knew, they would know, know, know, knowing, knowing, knowing), light(cf. light, light, light), falcon(cf. falcon, falcon, falcons), frame, cornfield, beer, peas, vegetable garden, road, cow, crow, magpie. It is typical for most proper names: Ivan(cf. Ivan, Ivan, Ivan, Ivany, Ivanami), Moscow(cf. Moscow, Moscow, V Moscow), Volga(cf. Volga, Volga, Volga) etc. (but cf. Peter – Petra, Perm – Perm, Dnieper – Dnieper and so on.). All Russian adjectives have fixed stress in their full (pronominal) form, in the positive degree.
§ 62. In languages that have verbal stress, each significant word usually has one stressed syllable, i.e. there is one accent. In some languages (Russian, German, English, Estonian, etc.), polysyllabic words can have two or more stresses, of which one is primary (main), others are additional (minor, additional, or collateral). Basics the stress is stronger, it is mandatory for every significant word and performs the main functions of verbal stress (see below for details). Additional the stress is weaker compared to the main one, and in some cases is not obligatory, i.e. may or may not be present in the same word. To a certain extent, it contributes to the division of a polysyllabic word as a single phonetic whole in order to facilitate its pronunciation. The extra stress is sometimes called a half-stress.
Additional stress can occupy a different place in a word in relation to the main stress. Thus, in Estonian, where the main stress always falls on the first syllable of the word, extra emphasis happens on the third syllable. IN German in complex and prefixed formations, the main stress usually falls on the prefix or on the root morpheme of the first component of the addition, and the additional stress (additional) - on subsequent syllables (cf., for example: unbelievable(irresponsible), iiberglucklich(overly happy) Federhalter(penholder), E"isenbdhn (Railway), Ontergrundbahn (underground road, metro). In Russian, on the contrary, the additional stress precedes the main one (cf.: anti-militarism, chief officer, aircraft driving, tractor construction, electrical supply, square-nested, medical and sanitary, people's liberation, anti-epidemic and others like that).
§ 63. Verbal stress of different types in each language performs certain functions. The main functions of stress are successfully formulated by B. N. Golovin: “What is the role, the function of stress? First of all, it phonetically organizes the word into a single sound complex. At the same time, stress helps to distinguish one word from another in the speech stream, i.e. it helps to divide this stream into words... In languages where stress is mobile, it is involved in the expression and differentiation of lexical and grammatical meanings". Three main accent functions, which in the works of different authors are called differently: 1) unifying, or word-forming, vertex-forming, word-identifying, constitutive (cf. Lat. constitutio"construction" constitutus– “arranged, defined, established”), culminating (cf. Lat. culmen– “top, highest point”); 2) delimiting, word-delimiting, delimiting (from Lat. limes– “interface, boundary”), or the “border signal” function; 3) distinctive (word-distinguishing), or distinctive, significative (cf. Lat. significatum"designated").
Word-forming (culminative) function word stress is that it, as already noted, “phonetically organizes the word into a single sound complex.” The stressed syllable is the center, the pinnacle of the phonetic word; it combines all the others in one phonetic word, unstressed syllables(including clitics).
Stress not only ensures the integrity of a word, it at the same time serves as an indicator of the individuality of a given word. The number of stresses (stressed syllables) in a statement is determined by the number of phonetic words in him.
So, For example, if in the Russian saying “There is fog above the river, there is a border beyond the river” there are four main verbal stresses, then it four phonetic words.
The word-forming function is considered the main one, the most important function word stress; it is characteristic of stress of all types and types, is carried out in all languages that have verbal stress, and in relation to each stressed word.
The word-delimiting (delimiting) function of stress is manifested in the fact that, according to B. N. Golovin, “it helps to delimit one word from another in the speech stream, i.e., it helps to divide this stream into words”; a stressed syllable determines the location or proximity of a word boundary. This function characteristic only of connected, constant stress. Thus, in Czech, Latvian and other languages that have constant stress on the first, initial syllable, the word boundary always passes before the stressed syllable. In French, Armenian and other languages in which the stress always falls on the last syllable, the word boundary is located after the stressed syllable. In Polish, with constant stress on the penultimate syllable, the word boundary is usually located after the stressed syllable through one unstressed one. Exceptions are monosyllabic words used without syllabic proclitics, as well as disyllabic and polysyllabic words with enclitics, which in Polish do not affect the place of stress in the word (cf., for example: Po wsi niosła się pies"n"(A song sounded in the village; literally: A song was heard throughout the village)).
The essence distinctive (significative) functions stress lies in the fact that it, according to the above definition by B. N. Golovin, “participates in the expression and distinction of lexical and grammatical meanings.” In other words, stress can serve as a means of distinguishing words and grammatical forms of words; in some cases it differentiates different meanings one and the same polysemantic word, its lexical and semantic variants. This distinctive function can only be performed by different places of stress.
In accordance with the distinctive function of stress, two are sometimes considered independent functions: word-distinguishing, or word-identifying, and form-distinguishing, or form-identifying.
Distinctive is called the stress function associated with discrimination individual words(cf., for example, Russian lock – castle, Cossack women – Cossack, give - give, talk - push, soar – damn, I'm crying – I'm crying, conservative – conservative; Lithuanian drauge(girlfriend) - dragê(crowd, flock, accumulation), svêre(hanged, weighed) - svère(rape)).