Positional and historical alternation of sounds in Russian. Types of alternations

Positional alternations

Different sounds can be pronounced at the same place in the same morpheme. In the forms of the word goat, goat, goat, goats, in the words goats, goat, capricorn, the root is the same. But we pronounce then [z] (goat, goats), then [z"] (goat, goat, capricorn), then [s] (goats), then [z], a rounded consonant, when pronounced, the lips are tense and elongated in tube (goat). The vowels are also not pronounced the same: k [b] are evil, k [o] z - k [a] for, k [a] zel. The first consonant is also not the same: before [a] it is [k]: [ka] for, before [o] this is [k]: [k] ozly, [k°] oz. Such a change of sounds is called alternation. Alternation occurs only in the same morphemes. Replacing [z] with [s] or on the contrary, in the words ko [z] a, ko [s] a, we will not get alternation - the roots here are different.

Alternation may be associated with a certain position of sounds in a word. So, in Russian, the sound [g], coming to the end of a word, is replaced by the sound [k].

Alternation [g/k] in Russian is positional alternation. Positional alternation is an alternation that occurs in any position and knows no exceptions in a given language system. The alternation [g/k] is phonetic. In phonetic alternations, positions, i.e. conditions for the appearance of a particular sound, phonetic - the beginning and end of a word or syllable, the proximity of other sounds, position in a stressed or unstressed syllable.

But here’s another example - alternation [g//zh]: friend [g] a - other [g] ny, paper [g] a - paper [g] ny, tai [g] a - thai [g] ny, moving [t]at - movable [g]ny, mo [g]u - possible [g]ny. This alternation occurs in many words, and one might think that it is due to the position before [n]. This would mean that it is also phonetic.

But this is not so: [g] before [n] is not necessarily replaced by [g]: [g] om - [gn] ag, mi [t] at - mi [g] n, step - sh [g] n. Phonetic

There is no positional conditioning here. But there is another positional conditionality: the alternation [g // w] does not know exceptions in the position before the suffix of adjectives - m-. The position here is morphological, the alternation is morphological positional. In addition to positional alternations, there are also those that have neither phonetic nor morphological conditionality: friend - friends, ignorant - ignorant, death - pestilence - to wipe out. Such alternations are associated only with specific words.

According to the rules of Russian spelling, phonetic alternations are usually not reflected in writing. We write the root of the word noga in the same way - nog, although all three sounds in the first form and in the second are different. Non-phonetic alternations are usually expressed in writing by different letters: leg - step. Phonetic alternation is the alternation of sounds belonging to the same phoneme. Non-phonetic alternation is the alternation of phonemes.

§1. The concept of positional alternation

Surprisingly, in everyday life we regularly encounter different language processes. In this lesson we will talk about one of them. Let's consider the phenomenon of positional alternation of sounds (vowels and consonants). Let us note right away that we will talk about the phonetic process, and not about spelling.

In the flow of speech, the sounds we pronounce undergo various changes. Why is this happening?

The fact is that the sounds of the same morpheme (part of a word) fall into different positions: strong or weak.

Positional alternation- replacing one sound with another when its position in a word changes.

Strong position- this is a position in which the sound is clearly pronounced in a word, and in writing is conveyed by the corresponding sign (letter).

Weak positionThey consider one in which the sound is not heard clearly, is not pronounced at all, or is pronounced with changes. In this case, the spelling of the word is different from its pronunciation.

Let's look at the transcription of these words:

[mAroWith] and [heat]

Now let’s write these words in compliance with spelling rules:

mOroh, heat

Please note that the spelling of the first word is significantly different from its sound, and the second word is spelled the same way as it is heard. This means that in the word “frost” the first vowel and the last consonant sounds are in a weak position.

§2. Positional alternations of consonants

Let's find out which positions are strong and weak for vowels and consonants.

Doesn't change, is always therein a strong position consonant [th].

Strong position for hard and soft consonants is their position:

– at the end of the word: you[l] and tyu[ l"];

– before vowels:[ d]ub and [ d"] ate;

– before hard consonants: ba[n] ka and ba[n"]ka.

Weak Forhard and soft consonants is the position:

– before soft consonants: for example, in the word pi[s"m"] enlarged;

– before [sh"], [h"]: for example, in the word baraba[n"sh"]ik.

Voiceless and voiced consonants also have their ownweak and strong positions .

The sounds [l], [l'], [m], [m'], [n], [n'], [r], [r'], [th] do not have a voiceless pair, so there are no weak ones for them positions.

Strong positions for the remaining consonants in terms of deafness/voicing are the following:

– before vowels: volo[ s]s or[ h] uby;

– before consonants [l], [l'], [m], [m'], [n], [n'], [p], [p'], [th], [v] and [v"] : for example, in the words [z]loy and [ With] loy, [h]venet.

Weak positions :

– at the end of the word: steam[s];

– before voiceless and voiced consonants (except for [l], [l'], [m], [m'], [n], [n'], [r], [r'], [th], [v] and [in"]): povo[s] ka.

§3. Positional alternations of vowel sounds

Now let's look at positional alternations of vowel sounds.

Strong position for a vowel, the position is always stressed, and the weak position, accordingly, is unstressed:

v[a]r[O]ta

Often such alternation is typical only for vowelsO Ande .

Let's compare:

m[ó]kry - m[a]mole and wise - m[u]drec

There are also features in the pronunciation of sounds, which in writing are designated by the letters E, Yo, Yu, Ya.

Why do you need to know cases of positional (phonetic) alternation of sounds? You need to know this to develop spelling vigilance.

If you do not know these processes and do not recognize them in words, then you can make a mistake in the use of one or another spelling or in the morphological analysis of a word.

One of the most striking evidence of this statement isrule :

In order not to make a mistake in spelling the consonant at the root of a word, you need to choose a related word or change the given word so that after the consonant you are checking there is a vowel.

For example, du[p] – du[b]y.

§4. Brief lesson summary

Now let us repeat once again what we have learned about such a phonetic process as positional alternation of sounds.

Alternation is the replacement of one sound with another.

Positional, i.e. depending on the position of the sound in the word.

Important to remember:

Positional alternation of sounds does not affect writing!

Sounds are characterized by strong and weak positions.

In a strong position, the sound is pronounced clearly and is represented in writing by the corresponding (own) letter.

For vowels, the position under stress is strong.

For soft and hard consonants, the strong position is the position at the end of the word, before a vowel or before a hard consonant.

For voiceless and voiced consonants, strong positions are also before the vowel and before the sonorant consonants [m], [m'], [n], [n'], [r], [r'] [l], [l'], [v], [v"] and [th].

In other cases, sounds change and alternate in the flow of speech - these are weak positions.

Different sounds can be pronounced at the same place in the same morpheme. In the forms of the word goat, goat, goat, goats, in the words goats, goat, capricorn, the root is the same. But we pronounce then [z] (goat, goats), then [z"] (goat, goat, capricorn), then [s] (goats), then [z°], a rounded consonant, when pronounced, the lips are tense and elongated into a tube (goat). The vowels are also not pronounced the same: k[o]zly, k[o]z - k[a]za, k[a]zel, k[a]ze - k[a]zerog. Not the same and the first consonant: before [a,b] this is [k]: [ka] for, [kъ] zerdg, before [o] this is [k°]: [k °]zly, [k°]oz This type of sound is called alternation. Alternation occurs only in the same morphemes. Replacing [z] with [s] or vice versa in the words ko[z]a, ko[s]a, we will not get alternation, the roots here are different.

Alternation may be associated with a certain position of sounds in a word. So, in Russian, the sound [g], coming to the end of a word, is replaced by the sound [k].

Alternation [g//k] in Russian is positional alternation. Positional alternation is an alternation that occurs in any position and knows no exceptions in a given language system. The alternation [g//k] is phonetic. In phonetic alternations, positions, i.e. conditions for the appearance of a particular sound, phonetic - the beginning and end of a word or syllable, the proximity of other sounds, position in a stressed or unstressed syllable.

But here’s another example - alternation [g//zh]: friend[g]a - other[zh]ny, bumaya[g]a - paper[zh]ny, tai[g]a - tay[zh]ny, moving [g]at - mobile, mo[g]u - possible. This alternation occurs in many words, and one might think that it is due to the position before [n]. This would mean that it is also phonetic. But this is not so: [g] before [n] ie is necessarily replaced by [g]: [g]on - [gn]at, mi[g]at - mi[g]nut, stride - step[g]nut. There is no phonetic positional conditioning here. But there is another positional conditionality: the alternation [g//zh] knows no exceptions in the position before the suffix of adjectives -n-. The position here is morphological, the alternation is morphological positional.

In addition to positional alternations, there are also those that have neither phonetic nor morphological conditionality: friend - friends, ignorant - ignorant, death - pestilence - to wipe out. Such alternations are associated only with specific words.

Phonetic alternation is the alternation of sounds belonging to the same phoneme. Non-phonetic alternation is the alternation of phonemes.

Issues covered:

1. Types of alternations of sounds.
2. Positional alternation of sounds:

a) positional alternations of vowel sounds;

b) positional alternations of consonant sounds.

3. Historical alternations of sounds.
4. Phonetic transcription.
5. Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) vowels and consonants.

Key concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, sound position, positional alternations of sounds, combinatorial alternations of sounds, accommodation, quantitative and qualitative reduction, assimilation, dissimilation,constriction, diaeresis, epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution, deafening of consonants at the end of a word, historical alternations of sounds, phonetic transcription.

1. Types of alternations of sounds

During speech, some sounds can be replaced by others. If this replacement is permanent, regular, and explained by the same reasons, then we say that there is a process of alternation and not an erroneous pronunciation. The relationship of regular replacement of some sounds with others in the same phonetic conditions is called alternating.

Alternations associated with the position of a sound are called positional alternations. Alternations caused by phonetic processes that took place in the past are called historical alternations.

All types of sound alternations can be presented in the following table:

Types of sound alternations

positional

(changes in sounds associated with their position)

historical

(changes in sounds due to phonetic processes that took place in the past)

actually positional

(sound changes related only to the position of sounds)

combinatorial

(changes related to the position of sounds and the influence of sounds on each other)

vowel reduction;

deafening at the end of consonants

accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation, contraction, diaeresis, epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution

Despite the alternations, we recognize sounds, and therefore words, since alternations are associated with the relationships of sounds (phonemes) within a system, where units are connected to each other in some way. In language, there are two main (global) types of interactions, interconnections (relations) of units: syntagmatic(linear) – relations of mutual influence of neighboring units and paradigmatic(non-linear, vertical) – relations of unification of homogeneous units based on associations.

In phonetics, the influence of adjacent sounds on each other is a syntagmatic relationship, and recognizing similar sounds and mentally linking them into the same sound, regardless of sound, is paradigmatic (for example, when a speaker recognizes that the sounds [b], [b' ], [n] in the words [oaks], , [du΄p] are the same typical sound).

2. Positional alternations of sounds (Syntagmatic relations)

Sounds in the stream of speech are pronounced with different strength and clarity depending on sound positions.Sound position – this is its immediate environment, as well as its position at the beginning, at the end of a word, at the junction of morphemes, and for vowels, its position in relation to stress.

There are two types of changes in sounds in the speech stream.

Positional changes – these are changes in sound associated with its position (for example, deafening at the end of a word, weakening of unstressed vowels [o], [a], [e]). Types of Positional Changes: stun at the end of a word , reduction (weakening of sound), assimilation, dissimilation, contraction of sounds, prolapse (diaeresis), epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution, accommodation.

Combinatorial changes – these are changes associated with the influence of sounds on each other. Combinatorial changes include all types of positional changes, except for deafening at the end of a word and reduction, since these processes are associated only with position in the word, and not with the influence of other sounds.

2 a) Positional alternations of vowel sounds

The main type of positional changes in vowel sounds is reduction. Reduction happens quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative reduction – decrease in length and sound strength - typical for sounds [and], [s], [y] not under stress. Compare, for example, the pronunciation of [s] in different positions of the word [was - experienced]). High-quality reduction– weakening with some change in sound. For example, the sounds [a], [o], [e] are in an unstressed position. Wed: sound of vowels in words hammer And hammer: [molt], [mlLtok].

The sounds [a], [o] after hard consonants are pronounced as reduced sounds [L] in the first pre-stressed position and at the absolute beginning of the word and as a reduced sound [ъ] in other positions (2nd, 3rd syllable before or after stress , For example, milk– [milLko], beard– [barLda]. After soft consonants, the sounds [a], [o], [e] are pronounced as reduced sounds [and e], [b] – Rowan[r"i e b"in], hourly[h"sLvoy].

The sound [e] in the first pre-stressed position is pronounced as the sound [and e], in the rest - [b]. For example: flight– [p"r"i e l"ot].

In foreign words, the qualitative reduction of vowels [o], [e] appears irregularly: piano– [рLjал"], but boa[boa], remark[r"and e mark], but metro[m "etro".

Positional changes in vowel sounds undergoing reduction can be presented in the following table:

accent

strong position

Unstressed positions

absolute beginning of a word

the beginning of the word after [j],

first pre-stressed syllable

1 weak position

2 b) Positional alternations of consonant sounds

As a result of the adaptation of the consonant to the articulation of the subsequent sound (usually a rounded vowel), a process arises consonant accommodation. Wed. the sound of the sound [t] in words – So And That: [sic] – [t o from].

Much more common than accommodation are other changes in consonant sounds.

Assimilation – similarity on any basis. Assimilation happens:

by proximity of the affecting sound : contact or distant;
by the nature of the change by deafness/voice And hardness/softness;
in the direction of influence – progressive(impact from left to right (®) and regressive(exposure to sounds from right to left (¬);
in terms of completeness of comparison: full And partial.

The Russian language is characterized by contact, regressive assimilation. For example: fairy tale– [skask] – voiced [z], under the influence of the voiceless [k], was assimilated into the voiceless paired sound [s]. This is contact assimilation, partial regressive in deafness.

Whistling consonants before sibilants as a result complete assimilation turn into hissing: I'm driving .

D assimilation – dissimilarity of sounds. In Russian this process is rare. As a result of the process, sound changes its characteristics according to the method or place of formation: r ® x soft– [m "ahk"y], easy– [l "ohk"y]. Pairs of sounds or similar sounds that are identical in the method or place of formation are subject to dissimilation. Dissimilation may be contact And distant,progressive And regressive.

Distant progressive dissimilation occurred, for example, in the literary language in the word February from February, in common parlance kolidor from corridor. Replacing one of the two [p] with [l] is distant dissimilation. (Not to be confused with the pronunciation norm: th, hrs like [shn] – What[what] and - wow, -him like [ova], [iva]: blue– [s "in" ьвъ]! These alternations take place regularly, in the same positions, without exception, and have the character of a law.)

Contraction– coincidence in the articulation of two sounds in one. For example, urban® [g'artskaya ® g'artskaya], [ts] ® [ts].

When groups of consonants are contracted, sound loss may occur: Sun- [son]. Usually these are combinations [vstv], [ntsk], [stl], etc.

Changes based on the phenomena of assimilation and dissimilation:

Prolapse (miscarriages, diaeresis)- (from the Greek diaresis - gap) - omission of one of the sounds in a combination of three or four consonants. For example, giant– [g’igansk’iy].

Haplology– (from Greek gaplos – simple + logos – concept) omission of one or two identical adjacent syllables due to dissimilation. For example, mineralogy instead of mineralology, standard bearer, instead of standard bearer.

Metathesis– (from the Greek metathesis - rearrangement) rearrangement of sounds or syllables within a word on the basis of assimilation or dissimilation. For example, palm from dolon, plate from ticket.

Epenthesis- (from Greek epenthesis - insertion) insertion of sounds, For example, ndrav instead of disposition, scorpijon instead of scorpion in colloquial speech, the sound [th] in a word coffee(from coffee), sound [v] in a word singer(from sang) in literary speech.

Substitution- (from Latin - substitution) the replacement of one sound with another, often when replacing sounds uncharacteristic of the language in borrowed words. For example, in the word William[в] instead of [w].

3. Historical alternations of sounds

Regular changes in sounds, not related to position in a word, but explained by the laws of the phonetic system that existed in the past, are called historical alternations. The main historical alternations associated with the processes of falling reduced, palatalization of consonants or their changes under the influence of softening [Ĵ]:

vowel alternation:

[ e] –[ i] –[ o] –[ a] – [Ø] // sound zero: died - die; pestilence - to kill - I will die; take – collect – collection – collect;

[e] – [Ø] sound zero: stump - stump; faithful - faithful; wind - wind;

[o] – [Ø] – sound zero: forehead - forehead; bottomless - bottom; lie - to lie;

[s] – [Ø] – zero sound: send –ambassador - to send.

Vowels can alternate with consonants or with vowels + consonant:

[i] – [th] – [her] – [oh]: drink - drink - drink - swill; beat - beat - beat - fight;

[s] – [oh] – [ov] – [av]: dig - swarm - ditch; swim – swimmer – swim; cover – cut – cover;

[y] – [ov] – [ev]: kuyu – forge; draw - draw; peck - peck;

[a] – [im] – [m]: reap – shake – press;

[a] – [in] – [n]: reap - reap - reap.

consonant alternation:

[g] – [f] – [z]: friend - be friends - friends; run - run; moisture – wet;

[k] – [h]: scream - shout; hand - manual; bake - bakes;

[x] – [w]: quiet - silence; dry – land; stuffiness - stuffy;

[z] – [z"] – [zh]: thunderstorm - threaten - threaten; carry - drive; smear - smear; climb - I get along;

[s] – [s"] – [w]: bring – carry – burden; scythe - mow - mow; ask - demand - request; high - height - higher;

[t] – [t"] – [h] – [w"]: light - shine - candle - lighting; return – return – return;

[d] – [f] – [zh]: gardens - planting - planting;

[n] – [n"]: change - change; torn - torn;

[l] – [l"]: business - efficient; prick - prickly;

[r] – [r"]: blow - to hit; heat - heat; steam - steam;

[b] – [b"] – [bl"]: rowing - rowing - rowing;

[p] – [p"] – [pl"]: pour out - rash - pour out;

[v] – [v"] – [vl"]: trapper - catching - catching;

[f] – [f"] – [fl"]: graph - graph - graph;

[sk] – [st] – [s"t"] – [w":]: shine - shine - sparkle - shines; start - let - lower;

[sk] – [w":]: crackle - crackle;

[st] – [w"]: whistle - whistle

4. Phonetic transcription

Phonetic transcription is the recording of spoken speech using special characters. There are several transcription systems that differ in the degree of accuracy in conveying the nuances of sound. You are offered the most common phonetic transcription, created on the basis of the Russian alphabet. Not all letters of the Russian alphabet are used in transcription. Phonetic transcription does not use letters e, e, yu, i. Letters ъ, ь are used in a different meaning. Some letters of the foreign alphabet are added - j , γ , as well as superscript and subscript characters: È .... Ç. Basic signs adopted in phonetic transcription:

– square brackets to highlight transcribed sound units;

/ – a sign above the letter to indicate emphasis;

’ – a sign to the right of the letter to indicate the softness of the sound;

L– a sign to indicate the sounds [a] or [o] in the first syllable before stress after hard consonants or at the beginning of a word not under stress: [сLды́], ;

ъ– a sign to indicate unstressed sounds [a], [o] after hard consonants in all unstressed syllables except the first syllable and the beginning of the word: gardener– [sudLvot], young– [мълЛд΄й], as well as the unstressed sound [e] after unsoftened [zh], [sh], [ts] in all unstressed positions, except for the first one before the stress: cement– [tsam’i e nt’i΄arv’t’].

b– a sign to indicate vowels [a], [o], [e] after soft consonants, except for the first syllable before stress: hourly– [h’sLvoy], forester– [l’sLvot];

and uh– a sign to indicate vowels [a], [o], [e] after soft consonants in the first syllable before stress: forest– [l’i e snoy]; nickel– [p’i tak].

s uh – a sign to indicate a sound in place of the letter E in the first pre-stressed syllable after always hard consonants f, w, c: regret– [zhy e l’et΄t’], price– [tsy e na΄],

γ – letter to indicate the fricative consonant indicated by the letter G in words: yeah, lord;

È – a bow under the line between words indicates a combined pronunciation of a function and an independent word: in rows– [пъ È р’ и е dam];

j– a letter to indicate the sound [th] at the beginning of words e,yo,yu, I, as well as between two vowels and after hard or soft signs: spruce – , climb– [pLдjo΄м], his– [svj i e vo΄];

Ç – the bow above the combinations of consonants (dz, j) indicates their continuous pronunciation: [d Ç zhy΄nsy].

/ – mark of a beat pause when transcribing spoken speech: [s’i e rg’e΄ay / my friend//]

// – a sign of a phrasal pause when transcribing spoken speech:

[dom / and È s’t’e΄any pamLga΄jut //] .

Phonetic transcription conveys the exact pronunciation of words and is used in the study of dialects and dialects, when the peculiarities of the pronunciation of a word in a particular area are recorded, in the study of children's speech, as well as in mastering the correct literary pronunciation of words.

Literary pronunciation of words in the Russian language presupposes compliance with certain norms, which are reflected in the rules of transcription.

5. Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) vowels and consonants

Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) vowel sounds:

1. The vowels O, A, E (in spelling E) in an unstressed position are subject to reduction (weakening) and are not pronounced clearly.

2. In all unstressed positions after hard consonants, except for the first unstressed syllable, A and O are written with the sign b: balalaika– [b llLlayk]; gardening .

The vowels I, Y, U do not change during pronunciation.

3. In the first pre-stressed syllable, O and A are pronounced as open A, in transcription they are conveyed by the sign - [вLда́]. This type of pronunciation is called let's say. The norm of the literary language is accentuated pronunciation.

4. The sign also reflects the pronunciation of the initial unstressed O and A: district– . If the word has a preposition, in the flow of speech it is one phonetic word and is transcribed in accordance with the general rule: to the garden[in ъглр΄т];

5. After soft consonants in the first pre-stressed position, the sound A (letter Z) is pronounced as I and transcribed using the [and e] sign: watch[ch'i e sy].

6. The vowel E (in spelling E) in the first pre-stressed position is pronounced as I and transcribed using the sign [and e]: forest[l’i e snoy]. In other positions, except for the first pre-stressed syllable, E is pronounced unclearly and is transcribed after soft consonants using the sign [b]: forester– [l’sLvot], copse– [p'р' и е l'е΄сък].

7. The letters E, E, Yu, I are not used in transcription; in their place the sounds corresponding to the pronunciation (audible) are written: ball[m’ach’], ball[m'i e ch'a΄], apple , climb[pLd j o΄m], spacious[prolstornj jь].

8. After the hard consonants Ж, Ш, Ц in the first prestressed syllable, in place of the letter E in the transcription the sign [ы е] is written: want– [zhy e lat’], price– [tsi e na]. In other positions, unstressed E after hard ones is conveyed by the sign [ъ]: yellowish[yellow].

9. After Zh, Sh, Ts in the stressed position, instead of the spelling rules I, the pronounced [s] is written in the transcription: number– [cy΄fr], lived– [lived], sewed- [whispered].

Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) consonant sounds:

In the flow of speech, consonants are subject to mutual influence, as a result of which processes of assimilation, dissimilation, contraction, loss, etc. occur. Voiced consonants at the end of a word in Russian are deafened. Accommodation processes of consonant sounds (for example, rounding of the sound [t o ] in a word here) are usually not reflected in the transcriptions we use.

The positional change of consonant sounds is observed according to the following characteristics:

1) exchange of consonants according to voicing - deafness.

A voiced sound changes to a voiceless sound in the following cases:

a) at the absolute end of a word:

Friend - friend, oaks - oak

[g] // [k], [b] // [p]

b) before a voiceless consonant:

all - all, low - low

[v’] // [f], [z] // [s]

The voiceless consonant changes to a voiced one before the voiced one:

ask - request, from the window - from the mountain

[s’] // [z’] [s] // [z]

2) exchange of consonants according to hardness - softness.

Wed: Bridge - bridge, ride - ride, bow - bow.

[st] - [s’t’], [zd] - [z’d’], [nt] - [n’t’].

3) exchange of consonants [z], [s] to hissing sounds before hissing sounds [zh], [sh].

Often this change is accompanied by a change in consonants in terms of voiceness - deafness.

For example: sew - [shyt’]:[c] [w] + [w] = [w]long,

squeeze - [zhat’]:[s] [z] [g] + [g] = [g] long.

4) The consonant system of the Russian language is characterized by the phenomenon of simplification of consonant groups. The so-called unpronounceable consonants are observed in combinations: stn, zdn, lnts, rdts, stl, ntsk, vstv.

For example: [g’i / ga / nsk’ ij].

Thus, the consonant sounds [d], [t], [l], [v] alternate with the zero sound – .

SECTION "GRAPHICS"

Concept of graphics. Development of writing

Graphic arts is a branch of linguistics that examines the relationship of the letters of the alphabet to the composition of phonemes. This word also refers to a set of letters or styles that are used in writing.

The Russian literary language exists in two forms: oral and written.

Writing arose as a means of communication, complementary to oral speech. Writing associated with the use of descriptive characters (drawing, sign, letter) is called descriptive writing. It has come a long way in its development.

We use sound, or rather phonemic writing. In it, signs (letters) serve to convey phonemes in a strong position, as well as the sounds of Russian speech.

The list of all letters is arranged in a certain order, which is called alphabet(from the Greek letters "alpha" and "vita") or ABC(from the name of the first letters of the Slavic alphabet “az” and “buki”).

Our writing is based on the Cyrillic alphabet, an alphabet created at the end of the 9th-10th centuries by Byzantine missionaries Cyril (Constantine) and Methodius. The Cyrillic alphabet was compiled for the translation of Greek church books into the Old Slavonic language (Macedonian dialect of the Bulgarian language).

In Rus', the Cyrillic alphabet appeared at the end of the tenth century in connection with the adoption of Christianity in 988. It was based on the Greek alphabet

Over the period since 988, all aspects of the language have changed (vocabulary, phonetics, grammar). Russian writing developed and improved along with the language.

Until the 16th century, our writing was continuous - there were no spaces between words. “Ъ” and “b” were placed at the end of words.

The reforms of Peter I played a major role in the development of graphics and spelling, on whose initiative and with the participation the Civil Alphabet was created in Russia (1708-1710). The church font was replaced by a civil one: the letters of the civil alphabet, unlike the Cyrillic alphabet, were simpler in geometric shapes and closer to the shapes of the Latin alphabet. Some letters have disappeared from the alphabet.

For more than 1000 years, only three letters appeared in the Russian alphabet: the letter "e" introduced by N. Karamzin in 1797, letter "uh" legalized by Peter I, but was used in Russian writing earlier, the letter "th" introduced by the Academy of Sciences in 1735

With minor changes, this alphabet is still used today.

By the end of the 19th century, a draft graphic and spelling reform was prepared, but it was approved on December 10, 1918 by a special decree of the Council of People's Commissars. The graphics were simplified, the letters “yat”, “and decimal”, “fita” and others were eliminated from it.

During the period from 1918 to the present, no changes have been made to the composition of the Russian alphabet.

Composition of the Russian alphabet. Letter and phoneme

The modern Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. The arrangement of letters in alphabetical order is arbitrary, but knowledge of it is necessary in order to freely use dictionaries, alphabetical lists and indexes.

Each letter has its own name, equal to one sound or two: a – [a], b - [be] etc.

Ten letters are vowels, of which letters a, o, e, and, y, s– simple (unambiguous) letters e, e, yu, i– iotized (two-digit). Twenty-one letters are consonants. Letters b and b sounds are not indicated. The style of letters has 2 varieties - printed and written. Each distinguishes between lowercase (small) letters and uppercase (capital) letters, with the exception of ь, ъ, ы.

Letter- an element of the alphabet that represents an outline of a certain configuration; it is a drawing that cannot be pronounced.

In addition to letters, graphics also use non-letter graphics: accent mark, hyphen (dash), punctuation marks (the rules for their use relate to punctuation), apostrophe, paragraph mark, spaces between words, parts of text, as well as font emphasis (italics, bold, discharge, etc.), underlining, highlighting with color.

Phoneme - This is an insignificant unit of language, which in speech is realized by a number of positionally alternating sounds. The main function of a phoneme is distinctive. In writing, we denote a phoneme in a strong position. As a result, it turns out that each morpheme (a significant part of a word), since it contains the same phonemes, is always written the same way.

Water - water - water mushroom - mushrooms

[in/dy] - [in a / yes] - [vb / d’ and e / noj] [g r’ and p] - [g r’ and / b y]

<о>: [O] - [ a ] - [ъ]<б>: [P] - [ b ]