How does stress appear in speech stream, V to a large extent depends on the language. In some languages stressed syllables have a higher or lower tone than unstressed ones - this is the so-called tone, or musical stress. In other languages, they may be pitched higher or lower than surrounding syllables (tone deviation), depending on the type of sentence. There is also dynamic (noisy, forceful) stress, qualitative (qualitative) stress (lack of vowel reduction) and quantitative stress (quantitative - an increase in the length of the sound, known in music theory as agogics). An accent can have several of these characteristics at the same time. In addition, stress can be realized in varying degrees on in different words in one sentence; in some cases, the difference between the acoustic signals of stressed and unstressed syllables may be minimal.
It is also observed reverse process when some historical changes influence the place of stress. So, for example, in the Russian language over the last hundred years there has been a process of shifting the emphasis to the root or to the beginning of the word, as its most significant parts, which carry the main semantic load. For example, roll, call, salt and other verbs in -it in all forms except the 1st person form singular present and future tense ( you roll, rolls, they're rolling, we're rolling; take a ride, will roll etc.). Linguists explain this trend by saying that over the past hundred years the pace of our lives has accelerated significantly and resulted in faster speech, so such changes in stress allow us to more effectively grasp the meaning of what we hear.
Stress levels
Some languages distinguish between primary and secondary stress. Traditionally it is believed that English language has two stress levels, as in the words cóunterfòil [ˈkaʊntɚˌfɔɪl] and còunterintélligence [ˌkaʊntɚ.ɪnˈtɛlɪdʒəns], and some studies have even suggested that it has four stress levels, but these studies often contradict each other.
The evolution of stress rules in Russian
- Each morpheme (prefix, root, suffix, ending) can be self-accented (or like a), right-impact (or type b) and unstressed (or type c).
- The unit of stress is a word with prepositions, conjunctions, particles. Wherein auxiliary words, standing before a word, are always unstressed, after a word - always self-stressed.
- Old Russian also had reduced vowels (they are usually denoted by the letters ъ And b). They were strong and weak; the latter is always weak. If there is another reduced one in front of a weak reduced one, that one will be strong. The weak reduced ones have now disappeared, the strong ones have turned into O And e (end → end, the end → end).
- We find the first stressed morpheme. If it is self-accented, the emphasis is on it, if it is right-accented, the emphasis is on the syllable to the right.
- But if the emphasis falls on a weak reduced one, we shift it to the left.
- If all morphemes are unstressed, the stress is on the first non-weak syllable.
For example, root hand- unstressed, ending -A self-impact, ending -y and preposition on unstressed, and it comes out hand, hand, in your hand, on the hand.
Modern emphasis shifts to other, more complex rules, while some words work according to the old rules, others according to the new ones. Phrases on hand And on hand mean completely different things. Unconditional stressed morphemes appeared - for example, the suffix -iv-(y) (happy). The accent took on the function of distinguishing cases - wives broke up into wives(r.p. unit) and wives(i.p. plural). In words on -er/-er the emphasis makes it clear whether it is a mechanism or a person: rope starter, starter with flag.
PROPERTIES OF WORD STRESS
Word stress in Russian is free, or varied, that is, it is not assigned to any specific syllable. In some languages, the stress in a word always falls on a specific syllable: in Czech - on the first, in French - on the last, in Polish - on the penultimate, etc. In this case, they speak of fixed or connected, accent. The predominant place of verbal stress in the Russian language is due to the gravity of the stress towards the center of the word and towards the second half of the word.
Another ability of Russian word stress is its moving during inflection (for example, during declension or conjugation). The accent is called motionless, if, when inflected, it does not change its place, and mobile, if during inflection it moves to other syllables. In Russian, words with fixed stress predominate.
Word stress in the Russian language is characterized by a certain connection with morphemes (i.e. prefixes and suffixes) or (more broadly) with the morphological structure of words.
Some suffixes and prefixes are always or in certain forms words are only stressed: for example, the suffix -ist always percussion (accordionist, tractorist). Suffixes -ik And -ka always stand immediately after the accent, for example: domIk, sadIk, river.
Words formed using a suffix -tel, retain the emphasis of the producing word: write - writer; READ – reader.
The freedom and diversity of verbal stress in the Russian language also extends to morphemes: stress can fall on all the main morphological parts of the word - the root (dozhIt), prefix (dozhili), suffix (dozhIt), ending (dozhiVesh), etc. Only connecting vowels do not have stress (airplane, steamer, navigator, etc. .).
In russian language unstressed are only prepositions, particles and conjunctions, i.e. function words, which in speech are adjacent to the closest ones stressed words: Do you know. Unstressed words form a phonetic unity with a stressed word, united by stress, i.e. phonetic word. Unstressed words adjacent to preceding stressed words are called enclitics(wow), and those adjacent to subsequent stressed words - proclitics(on the table).
Prepositions, being usually unstressed (proclitics), can pull the stress from the main word to themselves. Then the significant word, devoid of stress, becomes a kind of enclitic with the preposition: to the shore, two by two.
Sometimes a word contains a second, additional stress, which always precedes the main one and very often ends up on the first syllable of the word. This emphasis is called side or secondary; it is typical mainly for difficult words. There are three groups of words that have side stress:
Compound words, the second part of which is separate word: sberkassa, wallgazeta, profbilet, city council;
Some actually complex words, especially polysyllabic ones (in particular, book terms): photo report, perjury, densely populated, cartofelekogAlka;
Words with prefixes after-, super-, arch-, anti-, super-, ultra-, trans-, counter-, pro-, de-, re-, post-, ex-: Post-War, Supernatural, Anti-Social, Arch-Educated, Ultraviolet, Dust Jacket, Transoceanic, Counter-Offensive, Pro-American, DEMOBILIZATION, REPATRIATION, POSTSCRIPTUM, POSTACTUM, Ex-CHAMPION.
Stress norms in modern Russian literary language represent difficulty in mastering due to the diversity and mobility of stress.
If the words had any formal or semantic features, indicating which syllable the stress should be on and how it should move from one syllable to another when changing the forms of the word, the stress would be more easily absorbed. However, there are practically no such signs in words. Stress is learned along with the word, just as the meaning of a word is learned. It is necessary to remember and translate into speech skills not only the meaning of the word, but also its inherent stress. This individuality of verbal stress explains both the difficulties experienced by a foreigner learning Russian and the numerous spelling errors of people for whom Russian is their native language.
You can master the norms of stress and correct mistakes by using special reference books and dictionaries. Knowing the types of Russian accents may also be of some help. standard schemes its location in words and their forms.
In some categories of words, the different place stress of the Russian language is fixed, that is, when forming grammatical forms words remain in the same place, but move in others, that is, when forming different grammatical forms of this word is transferred from one syllable to another. For example, stupidity And head: stupidity, stupidity, stupidity, stupidity, stupidity, stupidity And head, heads, head, heads[Avanesov 1956, 72].
In Russian, most words have a fixed stress. Such an emphasis can be on the base (on the prefix: suburb, wash; on the root: map, red; on the suffix: Wolf, oak) or at the end ( articleI, young, bear) [Lekant 2007, 102].
Mobility of stress is an additional, auxiliary in Russian grammatical device, accompanying the main means of formation of grammatical forms - affixation. Thus, different forms of the word, differing from each other by different affixes ( for the most part inflections), may at the same time also differ in the place of stress: for example, accusative from a noun head is formed by inflection -у while simultaneously transferring the stress from the ending to the stem: head[Avanesov 1956, 72]. So, for example, for some nouns in the singular the stress falls on the stem, and in the plural - on the ending: city, city, city, city, in the city, But cityA, cityOv, cityAm, cityAmi, in cityAkh. In other nouns, the stress falls on the ending in the singular, and on the stem in the plural. For example, spot: stain, stains, stain, stain, oh stain, but stains, stains, stains, stains, oh stains. A number of nouns have singular and nominative case In the plural, the stress falls on the stem, and in other plural forms - on the ending. For example, stone, stone, stone, stone, about stone and stones, But STONES, STONES, STONES, ABOUT STONES.
Many verbs also have movable stress. If in the 1st person singular the stress falls on the stem, then the personal forms of this verb have a fixed stress. For example, mine, wash, wash, wash, wash, wash. If in the 1st person singular the stress falls on the ending, then according to the presence or absence of stress movement in personal forms There are two types - verbs with fixed stress at the end and verbs with movable stress. Verbs have fixed stress carry, lead, weave: weave, weave, weave, weave, weave, weave. If there is a movable stress, the latter falls in the 1st person singular on the ending, and in other personal forms on the stem. Verbs of both the 1st and 2nd conjugation have movable stress in personal forms [Avanesov 1956, 75].
For verbs of the 2nd conjugation with movable stress in the personal forms of the verb, the form of the 2nd person plural differs from the corresponding form imperative mood only with emphasis. For example, ask - ask, buy - buy. For verbs with fixed stress on the personal ending, these forms coincide: salt, call, sit, be silent.
Some verbs have an oscillating stress - movable and fixed at the ending, for example: excite, excite, excite, excite, excite And excite, excite, excite, excite, excite, excite.
In the past tense form, three groups of verbs are distinguished by place of stress - verbs with fixed stress based on: read, read, read, read; verbs with fixed stress on the ending (of course, except for the singular masculine form, where there is no ending): drove, drove, drove, drove; brought, brought, brought, brought; verbs with stem accent in all forms except the singular form female and with the emphasis shifted to the ending in this last form: took, took, took, took; sold, sold, sold, sold[Avanesov 1956, 76].
Prefixed verbs (except for verbs with the prefix you-) mostly have a movable stress with its transfer to the ending in the singular feminine form. Let's compare took, took, took, took And collected, collected, collected, collected.
The prefix you- usually takes the stress over itself, so verbs with this prefix have a fixed stress. For example, Chose, paid, kicked out, poured out.
Past tense verbs with a reflexive particle -sya(-s) in many cases have the same stress as the corresponding verbs without return particle. For example, called, called, called, called And named, called, called Axis, called. But in a number of verbs in spoken language the emphasis can be transferred to particle singular male and for vowel endings before the particle -sya in other forms.
Short adjectives based on a suffix (except for the suffixes -n-, -l-, -k-, -ok-), usually have a fixed stress; For example: silverist, silverist, silverist, silverist. Other short adjectives (without suffixes in the stem or with suffixes: -n-, -l-, -k-, -ok-) usually have a movable stress - on the first syllable of the stem in all forms except the feminine singular, and on the ending in the feminine gender; For example: Proud, proud, proud, proud.
In some cases, the neuter gender may have double stress: WHITE And WHITE, full And FULL. Double stress is also possible in plural: white And white, full And FULL.
Collateral stress
In some words in speech, along with the main stress, extra emphasis. This type of stress is called collateral. This stress is usually found in polysyllabic words. For example, Aircraft construction, flax spinning mill.
If there are two stresses in a stem, the secondary stress is usually the first (closer to the beginning of the word), and the main stress is the second (closer to the end of the word).
In many cases, the side stress is optional; it is present in a more distinct pronunciation and absent in a more fluent pronunciation.
If a compound word has three stems, it may have three stresses - two collateral and the last main one. For example, ELECTROMACHINERY.
In addition to compound words, many compound words, which are the addition of part of the first word with full second in a word. For example, trade movement, party congress, trade union organization. If a compound word is the addition of parts of two words with a third in full, then it can have three stresses - two collateral and the third main. For example, SELKHOZOBEDIENIE, VOLGODONSTROY.
Unstressed and weakly stressed words
Some words in speech are not stressed. They are adjacent to other words, forming one phonetic word with them. Unstressed word, standing in front of the shock to which it adjoins, is called a proclitic. Proclitics are usually one thing complex prepositions, conjunctions and some particles: on the mountain; to me; sister | and brother; said, | for them to come; Don't know. An unstressed word that comes after the stressed word to which it is adjacent is called an enclitic. Enclitics are usually monosyllabic particles: tell me, He's the same, will he come[Lekant 2007, 102-103].
Some monosyllabic prepositions with a certain noun often take on stress, and then the independent word following them turns out to be unstressed, so that in this case, the preposition, together with the independent word following it, has the same stress. Most often, the stress is taken on by the prepositions on, for, under, by, as well as from, without. The most common examples:
On the: For the water, for the mountain, for the leg, for the arm, for the back, for the winter, for the soul, for the wall, for the head, for the side;
Behind: For the water, for the leg, for the head, for the hair, for the hand, for the back, for the winter, for the soul;
Under: Under the feet, under the arms, under the mountain, under the nose, under forty, under the evening;
By: By the sea, By the field, By the forest, By the floor, By the nose, By the ear;
From: From the forest, From home, From nose, From sight;
Without: Without a message, without a quarter, without a year, a week;
From: hour From hour, year From year[Avanesov 1956, 81].
Two-syllable and three-syllable conjunctions are usually used with emphasis, but it is weaker in them than in independent words. Such stress is called weak, or side, and the corresponding words are called weakly stressed. Two-syllable prepositions differ in the presence or absence of side stress. Some of them are always unstressed. These are complex prepositions ( because of, from under) and prepositions with the fluent o, together with the last two-syllable ( under, must, about, from, iso) or trisyllabic ( in front). Side stress usually has a preposition through.
Union to, in contrast to the pronoun combination What with a particle would(to), has no accent, always being a proclitic. The monosyllabic conjunction is also unstressed What, in contrast to the pronoun What.
Simple numerals in combination with nouns are often weakly stressed: five rubles, five minutes to five, two weeks.
The ligament is also weakly impacted be and verb become in connective use.
Thus, in addition to words having normal word stress, and unstressed words, a third category of words is distinguished - weakly stressed or that can be weakly stressed in a phrase [Avanesov 1956, 84].
Collateral stress
Dictionary-reference book linguistic terms. Ed. 2nd. - M.: Enlightenment. Rosenthal D. E., Telenkova M. A.. 1976 .
See what “side stress” is in other dictionaries:
This article is about the linguistic term. For typographical mark, see accent mark. Stress is the highlighting by some acoustic means of one of the components of speech: a syllable in the composition phonetic word word stress... Wikipedia
Accent (emphasis)- – highlighting in speech one of the units in a sequence of homogeneous units using phonetic means. Depending on which unit the stress is functionally correlated with (syllable, word, phrase, etc.), a distinction is made between verbal,... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Media
- (lat. Ictus = blow, U.). Underneath this grammatical term of course different shades strength and musical pitch, observed times. Depending on whether we consider these shades within a single syllable, or within a whole word, or, finally... ... Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron
collateral stress- Stress that occurs along with the main stress, as a rule, in polysyllabic words: Old Russian ...
emphasis- (accent) (background) Emphasizing a sound, syllable and word by increasing muscle tension and air pressure or changing the pitch of the voice (voice tone). According to the object of emphasis, stress is: 1) syllabic; 2) verbal; 3) phrasal. Acoustically... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal
- (lat. ictus = blow, U.). This grammatical term refers to the different shades of strength and musical pitch observed in speech. It depends on whether we consider these shades within one syllable, or within a whole word, or, finally... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron
Accent- a method of forming phonetically an entire segment of speech. Thus, verbal U. highlighting one syllable in a word, serving for phonetic. united this word. In addition to verbal U., there are syntagmatic ones. and phrasal U., which also phonetically unite several... ... Russian humanitarian encyclopedic Dictionary
- (side) stress. A weaker stress, which occurs along with the main one in polysyllabic words formed from two or more stems. A movie, a tree nursery, a car racing... Dictionary of linguistic terms
_Appendix II- Readers who have become acquainted with the contents of Appendix I may think about the following question: do the words of the Russian language have any signs by which one could determine their belonging to one or another type of stress (accent... ... Dictionary of Russian accents
Books
- , Lehfeldt Werner. The book systematically, step by step, discusses all the main problems of accentology of the Russian language. main idea, on which the book is based, is the need to distinguish between two...
- Accent and stress in the modern Russian language, V. Lefeldt. The book systematically, step by step, discusses all the main problems of accentology of the Russian language. The main idea on which the book is based is the need to distinguish between two...
There are different understandings of what a side stress is. According to the first of them, the first stress in complex words consisting of two measures is considered to be such ( red-white, city council etc.) Such stress is practically no different from the “main” - it specifies the same reduction scheme within the first phonetic word that defines the “main” within the second. This stress is expressed phonetically less clearly than the “main” one, but this phenomenon is observed in any sequence of two stresses: in other cases equal conditions The second stress in Russian is always more pronounced than the first.
According to another understanding, side stress is a purely phonetic (not dictionary) emphasis on the first vowel in long words, in which the stress falls on the 5th syllable from the beginning onwards. In this case, the reduction scheme does not undergo changes, and the additionally strengthened vowel remains reduced (for example, cr[ъ´ ]snospaná Russian)
Finally, sometimes the term “side stress” describes the strengthening of an unstressed vowel associated with the implementation of part of a complex phrasal accent on it (for example, Z[ъ]swordá Really!), while the reduction scheme usually does not undergo changes either.
Structural types of stress
§ 110. In relation to the syllabic structure of words, it is customary to distinguish free stress, which can fall on any syllable of a word (as, for example, in Russian) and stress related(which falls on a specific syllable of the word).
The associated stress is in turn subdivided into fixed– it always marks the same syllable in a word (first in Czech, penultimate in Polish, etc.) and limited, the place of implementation of which depends on some additional reasons. So, in Arabic The last heavy syllable of a word is stressed; if there are no heavy syllables, the stress falls on the first syllable of the word - the stress seems to be looking for heavy syllables for its implementation, starting from the end of the word; if it cannot be found, it stops at the last syllable from the end.
In relation to the morphological structure of words, they are distinguished motionless stress (its place does not change when inflected) and stress movable, which can move from stem to inflection in different forms one word. Movable stress is characteristic of a large number of words in the modern Russian language.
The pattern of stress distribution in word forms of one word is called accent curve. Words characterized by the same accent curves are combined into accent paradigms. In modern Russian it is customary to distinguish three main accent paradigms: accent paradigm a make up names with fixed (columnar) stress based on ( crow); accent paradigm b – names with a fixed accent at the ending ( veil); accent paradigm With – names with movable stress ( beardsá -bó family) – see Table 14.
Table 14. Main accent paradigms of names in the Russian language.
In the history of a language, structural and phonetic stress types may undergo changes. Thus, in the Russian language, musical stress was replaced by qualitative and quantitative; in history Czech language free stress was replaced by bound stress.
LITERATURE.
Avanesov R.I.. Russian literary and dialect phonetics. M., 1974.
Vinogradov V.A.. Stress // Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1990.
Zlatoustova L.V.. Phonetic implementation of Russian word stress. L., 1953.
Kodzasov S.V., Krivnova O.F.. General phonetics. M., 2001.
Halle, M. Stress and accent in Indo-European // Problems of phonetics II. M., 1995.
Kodzasov, Sandro V. English // Harry van der Hulst (Ed.). Word Prosodic Systems in the Languages of Europe. Berlin, New York. Mouton de Gruyter. 1999. 852-868.