Features of functional semantic types of speech. Functional – semantic types of speech, their characteristics

The work was supported by the Russian Humanitarian Fund
(grant No. 02-04-00414 a/t)

System of functional-semantic types of speech
in modern Russian
(description - narration - reasoning - prescription - statement)

Functional semantic types speech (FSTR) - communicatively determined typified varieties of monologue speech, which traditionally include description, narration and reasoning. In the history of the development of rhetoric, poetics, and stylistics, they had different names: methods of presentation, types of text, verbal and stylistic unities, compositional and speech forms, etc. The term “functional-semantic type of speech” was introduced into scientific circulation by prof. O.A. Nechaeva (1974). Publication of the monograph by O.A. Nechaeva, dedicated to research descriptions, narrations and reasoning (mainly based on the material of literary texts), laid the foundation for the active study of FSTRs functioning in the stylistic varieties of modern Russian literary language.

Development functional style, a special appeal by scientists to the problem of FSTR, the involvement as an object of study of the entire variety of socially significant functional varieties of speech led to the identification of subtypes within FSTR, the identification of new types of speech (the main ones include prescription and statement - types of speech that are characteristic primarily of official business texts), to significant clarifications of the initial ideas of linguists about the FSTR system and its functioning in the Russian language. As a result of the fact that the goals and objectives of communication in different spheres of communication are different, the processes of evolution of types of speech in the Russian literary language are also different (Trosheva, 1999), and the modern characteristics of each FSTR. The specificity of functional varieties of language determines the variability in the manifestation of the same FSTR in different texts - up to their functional and semantic transformation. Extralinguistic factors also determine the uniqueness of the linguistic expression of reasoning, its structure, and quantitative parameters of use in various functional styles. The current level of development of the science of language, the turn of linguistics from the structural to the functional paradigm does not allow us to ignore the functional and stylistic specificity of textual phenomena, including when studying them at school.

Process communicative development personality is impossible without the formation of a theoretically clear idea of ​​the functional-semantic typology of speech, without developing the ability to analyze a text from the point of view of its belonging to a certain type, the ability to create texts in accordance with communicative-functional, logical-semantic, compositional-structural, lexical-grammatical characteristics one or another FSTR. In practice, the most difficult type of speech to master is reasoning; however, information about this particular FSTR and its subtypes in secondary school textbooks is incomplete, and often inaccurate and contradictory. As a result, a distorted idea of ​​the real functioning of reasoning in texts is formed. various styles. For example, insufficient consideration of the specifics of a literary text, which determines the leveling of the argumentative function and semantics of reasoning, the activation of its visual, aesthetic function, leads to incorrect qualification of the FSTR, to an erroneous determination of the functional and semantic dominant of the style.

Let us consider the main FSTRs, characterizing each of them in detail. We included the main types of speech that constitute the dominant of one or more functional styles(as a result of text analysis, we were convinced that in scientific speech reasoning and description predominate, in official business - prescription and statement, journalistic - narration and reasoning, fiction - narration and description, colloquial - narration).

Description- FSTR, the essence of which comes down to expressing the fact of coexistence of objects and their characteristics at the same time. The description serves to convey in detail the state of reality, an image of nature, terrain, interior, and appearance. For example:

“The Kochanovskaya estate stands on a river, opposite the village. The estate is not rich - the house is covered with wood chips, on both sides there are gates connecting it with outbuildings, in the left wing there is a kitchen, in the right there is a barn, a cowshed, a barn. One kitchen window overlooks the river, but you can’t see the river; an old, hard raspberry tree props up the outbuilding...”(K. Fedin. Shepherd);

“...The road, as if not wanting to be intrusive, went somewhere to the right. A barely noticeable path branched off from it, meandered between the pines and died in a clearing near the house. Despite the twilight of the night, the grass in the clearing was white with strawberry flowers. She, this berry of my childhood, bloomed especially thickly behind the house: I stood in one place, afraid to step over and trample its white stars” (V. Belov. Beaver Eel).

In the content of descriptive texts, the main thing is objects, properties, qualities, and not actions. Therefore, the main semantic load is carried by nouns and adjectives. Nouns belong to specific vocabulary ( river, village, house, gate, outbuilding, window and etc.). Words with spatial meaning are widely used - circumstances of place ( on the river, opposite the village, on both sides, between the pines, in the clearing, near the house, behind the house and so on.). Verb predicates are semantically either weakened or erased ( the estate is located on a river; the window overlooks the river; the road went to the right), or have a qualitative-pictorial meaning ( the grass was white with strawberry flowers; it bloomed thickly). The present tense verb form is often used, expressing a lasting state of an object or a “timeless” state ( stands, connects, props up). Verbs imperfect form past tense indicate the state of the described phenomena at the moment of observation of them ( turned white, blossomed). Even perfective verbs in descriptive contexts convey a property, a characteristic of an object, and not active action (a barely noticeable path branched off from it, meandered between the pines and died in a clearing).

The description is characterized by the uniformity of the forms of the predicate, which is an indicator of the static nature of what is depicted. The most common are descriptions with a single plan of the present tense or with a single plan of the past tense. The degree of staticity in descriptions with a past tense plan is lower than in descriptions with a present tense plan. The structure of sentences in the description is often characterized by syntactic parallelism.

The description may include a sequence of nominative and elliptical constructions, which creates a unique nominative style, most clearly represented in stage directions for dramatic works, film scripts, and diary entries. For example:

“Large room, corner of the house; Vassa lived here for ten years and spends most of the day. A large desk, in front of it a light chair with a hard seat, a fireproof cabinet, on the wall there is an extensive, brightly colored map of the upper and middle reaches of the Volga - from Rybinsk to Kazan; under the map there is a wide ottoman covered with a carpet, on it there is a pile of pillows; in the middle of the room there is a small oval table, chairs with high backs; double glass doors to the garden terrace, two windows also to the garden. A large leather chair, there are geraniums on the window sills, and a laurel tree in a tub in the space between the windows on the floor. A small shelf, on it there is a silver jug ​​and the same gilded ladles. Near the ottoman there is a door to the bedroom, in front of the table there is a door to other rooms."(M. Gorky. Vassa Zheleznova).

In such descriptions, objects seem to be recorded by a video camera. The sentences are equal in relation to each other and are autosemantic. They can be grouped in other ways, it all depends on the “starting point”.

The enumerative meaning of a descriptive text is often conveyed by the parallel connection of sentences. This is clearly demonstrated by texts of descriptive sciences (biology, geology, etc.), which include logical unities in the form of entire paragraphs, which consist of sentences expressing parallelly related judgments with a single subject and different predicates. For example:

“The common one is clearly distinguishable by its dark, almost black color... Distributed in the European part of the country, in Siberia east to Transbaikalia and in places in Central Asia. It lives along the banks of swamps, rivers, and ponds. It feeds on frogs, lizards, rodents, and less commonly insects. Rarely eats fish"(S.P. Naumov. Zoology of vertebrates).

A special type of description is a characteristic - a type of speech used to depict the qualities of a person or object. For example, in a scientific text:

“Let us give a brief description of the listed classes of particles. 1. Photons... participate in electromagnetic interactions, but do not have strong and weak interactions. 2. Leptons got their name from Greek word"Leptos" which means "light". These include particles that do not have a strong interaction: muons..., electrons..., electron neutrinos... and muon neutrinos... All leptons have a spin equal to 1/2 and, therefore, are fermions. All leptons have weak interaction... 3. Mesons are strongly interacting unstable particles that do not carry the so-called baryon charge... These include... pions..., kaons... and the eta meson...”

In a characterization, as in any description, there may be elements of reasoning. Thus, in the given fragment (item 2) there is a sentence (“All leptons have a spin equal to 1/2 and, therefore, are fermions”), which is a deductive conclusion with a missing first premise. However, its functioning in this text is subject to the implementation main task- describe the properties of leptons.

A literary text is characterized by a mixture of description and narration. Elements of descriptiveness are present in almost any narrative text.

Sometimes the semantic load in the description falls on the action, in this case they talk about “dynamic description” - a transitional type of speech bordering on narration. Dynamic description conveys the flow of actions with small time intervals in a limited space. The structural content of the description is reduced to the temporal relation of simple consequence. Due to the fact that all attention is focused on fixing the dynamics, on a number of moments of action, their “step-by-step” nature, such content determines the selection of sentences that have an independent character, autosemantic. Dynamic description is often used to show external events, being a means of naturalistic reflection of reality (there is a special term to designate the naturalistic method is very detailed description actions with great precision in conveying details - “second style”). In addition, a dynamic description can serve as a means of sharp, subtle psychological sketches - when depicting the experience, the dynamics of the hero’s internal state.

Dynamic description is widely represented in scientific texts (along with static description and reasoning), where it is used for a detailed, accurate depiction of actions performed during an experiment. The author’s task in this case is not to tell a story about events unfolding in a certain time (which is typical for a narrative), but to describe a process, the stages of this process, usually regardless of a specific time. For example:

“They take a prism of Iceland spar... The prism is sawed perpendicular to the plane... Then both halves are glued together with Canada balsam...”(A.G. Stoletov. Introduction to acoustics and optics).

Narration- FSTR, intended to depict a sequential series of events or the transition of an object from one state to another. For example:

“And Doctor Startsev, Dmitry Ionych, when he had just been appointed zemstvo doctor and settled in Dyalizh, nine miles from S., was also told that he, as an intelligent person, you need to get to know the Turkins. One winter he was introduced to Ivan Petrovich on the street; we talked about the weather, about the theater, about cholera, and an invitation followed. In the spring, on a holiday - it was Ascension - after receiving the sick, Startsev went to the city to have a little fun and, by the way, buy himself something. He walked slowly (he didn’t have his own horses yet), and hummed all the time... In the city he had lunch, walked in the garden, then somehow Ivan Petrovich’s invitation came to his mind, and he decided to go to the Turkins , see what kind of people they are..."(A.P. Chekhov. Ionych);

“Spring has come, coltsfoot and forget-me-nots have bloomed, snowdrops have appeared under the brown roots of the forest, and the Cat has suddenly blossomed in the neighboring house. The cat's whiskers turned blue with snowdrops, his eyes turned golden with coltsfoot and bird cherry leaves, and white pussy willow earrings appeared on his paws and chest. Decorated and blooming, he lay on the new grass, sat on the old fence, and sparkled with his eyes on the roof of the barn. I kept waiting for some spring tulip, a special one, a cat’s, to appear on his tail, but the tulip did not appear...”(Yu. Koval. Spring cat).

In the foreground in the content of narrative fragments of the text is the order of the action. Each sentence usually expresses some stage, stage in the development of action, in the movement of the plot. An important role is played by the temporal correlation of predicates, which can manifest itself both as their temporary uniformity and as temporal heterogeneity. The main semantic load is usually carried out by verbs of the perfect form, prefixed and non-prefixed ( settled in, introduced ourselves, talked, went, had lunch, walked, decided etc.; came, bloomed, bloomed, turned blue, turned golden etc.), which denote extreme, alternating actions. The narrative is characterized by specific vocabulary ( doctor, patients, horses, city, garden; forest, snowdrops, cat, mustache, paws). The course of events is emphasized through the circumstances of time ( just now, one winter, spring, on a holiday, after seeing patients, then).

In terms of the use of syntactic structures and types of connection between sentences, narration is opposed to description, which is manifested, in particular, in the following: 1) in the difference in aspectual and tense forms of verbs - description is based mainly on the use of imperfective forms, narration - perfective; 2) in predominance chain link sentences in the narrative - more typical for description parallel communication; 3) in use one-part sentences- atypical for the story nominative sentences, impersonal offers, widely represented in descriptive contexts (for more details on the linguistic means characteristic of description and narration, see: Nechaeva, 1999).

Narration is a type of speech that functions primarily in literary texts and forms a story about events, the system of which makes up the plot of the work. In artistic and visual speech (works of fiction, texts of some genres of journalism - reportage, essay, informative and expressive notes, text-stories in a conversational style) elements of descriptiveness and narration are organically combined. The description is included in the narrative to visually represent the characters and the scene of action.

Reasoning- FSTR corresponding to the form abstract thinking- inference, which performs a special communicative task - to give speech a reasoned character (to arrive logically at a new judgment or to argue for something previously expressed) and formalized using lexical and grammatical means of cause-and-effect semantics. The main sphere of use of reasoning is scientific, updating logical, rational type thinking.

Reasoning functions in texts in the form of several communicative-compositional options, the typology of which is a field structure.

The central variety is actual reasoning(reasoning in the narrow sense of the word) is a type of speech that most consistently expresses the cause-and-effect relationship between judgments: from cause to effect, and not from consequence (thesis) to cause (foundation). The central place of reasoning itself in the system of argumentative subtypes of speech is also determined by its role in the communicative-cognitive process. It is this type of speech that formalizes the derivation of new knowledge, demonstrates the course of the author’s thought, and the way to solve the problem. Structurally, the reasoning itself is a chain of sentences, connected by relationship logical consequence. For example:

“Under the influence of an electromagnetic wave, an atom can move with equal probability to both a higher and a lower energy state... In the first case, the wave will be weakened, in the second, it will be strengthened. If a paramagnet is in thermal equilibrium, the atoms are distributed among sublevels in accordance with Boltzmann's law... Consequently, the number of atoms in a state with lower energy exceeds the number of atoms in a state with higher energy. Therefore, transitions occurring with increasing atomic energy will prevail over transitions occurring with decreasing energy. As a result, the intensity of the wave will decrease - the paramagnetic absorbs electromagnetic radiation, causing it to heat up. From the above it follows that electronic paramagnetic resonance is the selective absorption of radio frequency field energy in paramagnetic substances located in a constant magnetic field"(I.V. Savelyev. Course of general physics).

The area adjacent to the center, the area of ​​the near periphery, is occupied by subtypes of reasoning, which serve to give the expressed judgments a more reasoned character: proof(communicative-cognitive function - establishing the truth of the thesis), refutation(a type of evidence that serves to establish the falsity of the thesis), confirmation(or empirical evidence, function - establishing the reliability of the stated position by supporting it with facts), justification(establishing the expediency of an action, motivation; in contrast to evidence, which corresponds to the question “Is this really so?”, justification provides an answer to the question “Is this really necessary, expedient?”). These subtypes of reasoning are united among themselves on the basis of structural similarity: they all include a thesis, which forms the key part of the construction, and arguments - a commentary part, which is designed to remove doubts (in whole or in part) about the position put forward as a thesis.

Here is an example of proof: “The thermal motion of radiating atoms leads to the so-called Doppler broadening of spectral lines. Let the atom have momentum at the moment of emission of a photon... Therefore, the momentum of the atom changes... Consequently, the energy of the translational motion of the atom also changes... Let us replace... Let us denote... The value of this frequency is obtained from the condition... As a result, we obtain that... From the formulas... it follows that... Substituting here the expression .., we arrive at the formula... Therefore, the expression... gives the Doppler width y spectral line» (I.V. Savelyev. Course of general physics).

The proof, as a rule, ends with a variable repetition of the thesis - a conclusion, i.e., a judgment already known to the reader, the new point of which is that its truth has been proven. A distant lexical-semantic connection is established between the initial and final sentences, which is a signal of the beginning and end of the utterance and plays a special compositional role, organizing the text. The proof is characterized by the use of a typical set of tools. Stereotypes of its design include designating a sequence of operations using 1st person plural verbs: find, multiply, equate, determine etc. The result of these operations is entered in words will be, we will have, we will receive, where it comes from, it follows from here, then etc. To express cause-and-effect relationships, conjunctions and allied analogues of the corresponding semantics are used: since, so, therefore, therefore, therefore, thus, so. The proof, carried out using additional assumptions, uses the particle let, performatives suppose, let's say, conditional constructions.

In the region of the far periphery of the field structure of reasoning lies the explanation. Unlike the named subtypes of reasoning, an explanation serves primarily not for the purposes of confirming the validity of the thesis (or establishing its falsity), but for revealing the reasons real phenomena. For example:

“It is interesting to note that the sharp edges of the shaped hole profiles become smoothed in the fiber, and if the size of the parts of the profiled hole is not very large, then the fiber turns out to have a round cross-section, i.e., the same as with a round hole. This happens because forces act on the liquid stream surface tension…» (S.P. Papkov. Polymer fibrous materials).

Reasoning as a textual phenomenon was formed in scientific speech. It was thanks to the scientific style that the Russian literary language, in the process of its development, was enriched with reasoning in its most “pure” form, in all its main varieties. In texts of other styles, one finds an adaptation of reasoning to the specifics of the style.

Fictional, journalistic, and official business texts are not characterized by strictly logical, detailed reasoning. The subtype of “reasoning proper” in literary texts appears in the form of its emotional version - free reflection, in which the causal connection between judgments as a whole can be traced, but does not unite them with a rigid logical core. The looseness of the form of speech and the ease of reflection help to create an atmosphere of intimate communication between the author and the reader, characteristic of the artistic sphere. In journalistic texts, reasoning itself performs the function of preparing, leading the reader to a certain conclusion, but here, unlike scientific speech, this subtype of reasoning, even with its large volume, as a rule, is not a chain of judgments logically following from one another, but factual information followed by a conclusion.

Literary texts do not use evidence. Logical verification of the truth of the thesis put forward using complex system inferential judgments are relevant primarily for the scientific sphere of activity, and also for the criminal legal sphere. For journalism, focused on the mentality of an educated, intelligent addressee, argumentative types of speech are fundamentally important, since they ensure the implementation of the main communicative function of journalism - persuasive influence. However, the task of persuasion is solved in journalism not through proof itself, that is, not through strict logical procedures, as in scientific speech. In journalistic texts, in order to convince the reader of the correctness of the author’s judgments, confirmation of them with facts is used. In this regard, great activity of the argumentative subtype of speech “confirmation” is revealed here. In works of art, confirmation as an argumentative construction, which includes a hypothetical statement by the author and a presentation of facts supporting this statement, which have not a causal meaning, as in an explanation, but a causal-argumentative meaning, is rarely used. Confirming the author’s statements with arguments in the field of artistic creativity is not as important as in the field of science or journalism. In addition, confirmation functioning in literary texts performs a task different from the task of confirmation in scientific speech. If in the latter it helps to make a scientific guess more reliable, then in a work of art it performs a purely communicative function - it makes what is depicted more visual, psychologically more reliable, and helps the reader feel the inner state of the hero. For example: “He stood with his hands on the back of the seat, and was obviously very worried: his face was red, and a muscle was trembling on his cheek...”(L.N. Tolstoy. Kreutzer Sonata).

Explanation and justification are common not only in scientific but also in journalistic texts, where they serve the task of increasing the reader’s understanding of the problems being analyzed, the importance of decisions made, and actions taken. Explanation is also present in works of art, however, like other types of reasoning, it is distinguished here by a special “aura” and arises as a result of a creative dialogue between the author and the reader in the process of clarifying the artistic meaning of the text. An open explanation of the events described, the states of the characters, which increases the degree of verisimilitude of what is depicted, is combined with hidden forms of explanation, deliberate understatement, which encourages the reader to think, to look for answers to the numerous “whys” that arise. in the general context and subtext of the work and thereby helps the reader come closer to understanding the deep ideological and aesthetic content of the work.

IN official business texts In general, the frequency of use of reasoning is insignificant. Due to the specifics of this style, its extra-linguistic basis - its purpose in society, regulatory functions (and therefore the dominant position in the texts is occupied by instructions), reasoning cannot be a systemic constructive feature official business speech. Some genres present certain types of reasoning (for example, statements and claims are characterized by justification, explanation), but there is not a single subtype of reasoning that would be used in business texts of all genres (at least genres within one substyle). In addition, subtypes of reasoning function specifically here, reflecting the characteristics of style. For example, reasoning itself in legal texts is close to the representing type of speech - statement (see more about this below).

Functional and stylistic options for reasoning differ in the means of designing the compositional parts. In journalistic and especially literary texts, there is a high degree of implicitness of reasoning, not only at the level of means of communication between structural components, but also in relation to the links of reasoning themselves, which may be in the subtext (see: Trosheva, Kaygorodova, 2002). Syntactic means reasoning conveys his expressiveness in these styles. Exclamatory and interrogative sentences and parcellation are widely used. The incompleteness and fragmentation of the argumentation is emphasized through the use of ellipses. The means of connecting the compositional parts of reasoning in artistic and journalistic works are stylistically more diverse than in scientific and business ones (from bookish, archaic lexical and grammatical units such as the conjunction so that, adverbs therefore to colloquial because, once, after all, they say and so on.).

Prescription- FSTR, used to express directives and recommendations. It functions primarily in official business and scientific and technical texts (laws, regulations, decrees, orders, various kinds of instructions) - texts whose communicative task is to convey mandatory instructions or equip the reader with a method of action, subject to certain conditions, knowledge of technological processes .

In official business speech, the main stylistic feature which is imperative, conditioned by the regulatory, regulating function of law, the prescription is the leading FSTR, expressing the typical communicative expression of the will of the creators of the legal norm. The prescription is implemented in three main subtypes: obligation, permission and prohibition. For example:

“Everyone is obliged to take care of the preservation of historical and cultural heritage, protect historical and cultural monuments”; “Every person detained, taken into custody, accused of committing a crime has the right to have the assistance of a lawyer...”; "Not allowed economic activity aimed at monopolization and unfair competition"(from the Constitution).

To design the structural parts of an order in documents, it is typical to use rubrics. For example:

“It was decided: 1. The dissertation... be accepted for defense as corresponding to the specialty 10.02.01 - Russian language. 2. The degree of reflection of the dissertation materials in published works is considered sufficient... 3. As official opponents... appoint... 4. As the leading organization of the dissertation... approve..."(from the protocol).

In scientific and technical texts, the prescription also refers to the most frequent FSTR (along with another representative type - description). Technical sciences represent a specific system of knowledge that reflects the process of purposeful transformation of natural material objects into technological processes and artificial material devices. In scientific and technical activities, there is an accumulation of reproductive operations, which the researcher groups and then develops instructions for performing stereotypical procedures. The type of speech “prescription” and serves to express prescription knowledge, is used in instructions intended to present technological recipes that prescribe certain actions to the addressees. For example:

“Cutting forces on a sharp cutter when removing large-section chips are usually calculated using the expression [formula]... The magnitude of tangential forces in relation to the operation of roadheaders is established using empirical expressions like [formula]...”(V.V. Rzhevsky. Physical and technical parameters of rocks);

“When developing a cement slurry, the choice of the optimal formulation must be carried out in strict accordance with specific mountain and hydrogeological conditions. Should be considered chemical composition groundwater..."(E.Ya. Kipko and others. Complex method of grouting in the construction of mines).

Prescriptions were widespread in the scientific speech of the 17th and first half of the XVIII V. (the so-called prescription style) - in manual texts, which is due to the general didactic nature scientific literature that time. Among the original scientific works, works that combined the features of educational and scientific-business works predominated. Nowadays, prescriptions are also typical for educational and didactic literature (see, for example, educational programs, textbooks, methodological recommendations, instructions).

Performing the functions of an activity regulator, an order can appear in various modifications - with shades of a strict directive, recommendation, guidance, wishes. In this regard, the degree of expression of imperativeness may be different. For a very specific expression of imperativeness, the following linguistic means are used:

1) incentive offers with verb forms imperative mood or infinitive, often a chain of these forms, for example: “Combine your first training sessions on ice with the usual on-land ones. In addition, alternate 5-10 minutes of skating at a calm pace with a short rest indoors. Ride on slightly bent legs... Bend your body forward when running. Don’t lower your head and shoulders..."(from a recommendation for beginner skaters);

2) modal words with the meaning of obligation ( must to report, obliged pay, necessary consider);

There is also a somewhat veiled form of prescription - usually using verbs in the present tense (the so-called present prescription) as part of indefinite personal sentences (such constructions are typical, for example, for culinary recipes: “The seeds are removed from the pepper, the cottage cheese is rubbed, mixed with feta cheese, semolina and sour cream, then white sauce, beaten eggs, salt are added and everything is mixed...”), two-part constructions (the tenant is responsible for damage caused to the hired property... - i.e. must answer), and in this case the entire context is prescriptive.

Statement- FSTR, which implements the standard communicative task of certifying one or another fact of reality up to the establishment of this fact in the status of law. The statement forms, as a rule, a secondary, i.e. already processed primary information and has wide use in the texts formal business style. The very name “statement” speaks about the nature of its constituent elements - this is a message in the form of sentences containing statements and statements. For example:

“The Russian Federation and the Republic of Kazakhstan, hereinafter referred to as the High Contracting Parties, relying on the historically established strong ties between the two states, traditions good communication.. reaffirming our commitment to the norms of international law,.. have agreed on the following...”(from the contract);

“Upon acceptance of the goods according to the invoice dated May 5, 1990 No. 810, the shortage of ... goods was certified, which was certified by the attached act dated May 6, 1990 No. 945... as well as the act of opening the container of packaging units”(from the complaint);

“This Certificate has been issued in accordance with the provisions of Part One Tax Code Russian Federation... and confirms the registration of an individual on March 20, 1997 with the State Tax Inspectorate...”(from testimony).

The statement synthesizes two types logical connection: spatial juxtaposition and temporal sequence. The ascertaining nature of the statement, the lack of dynamics in it, the pronounced completeness of thought weakens the temporal sequence in favor of juxtaposition in the transfer of facts. The fact that events are presented in an effective aspect, as facts, allows us to qualify the type of business speech with external signs of narration as a statement. In the statement “one senses not so much the sequential-temporal nature of the connection as the sequential-enumerative one” (Brandes, 1983, p. 64). With an enumerative connection, the logical cohesion of the text often does not find linguistic expression in the form of conjunctions, allied words or pronominal adverbs, as a result of which the communicative load of each sentence increases, the boundaries of the sentences are clearly delineated. For example:

“We listened to: a report by a graduate student... on the content of the dissertation work... After the speech... 12 questions were asked. The graduate student gave convincing answers to all questions. They performed..."(from the protocol).

For a statement, the typical functioning of verbal forms of the past tense is in the meaning of the so-called past underlined statement; For example: "We, the undersigned, examined, measured.., compared drawings and accepted single-apartment panel house"(from the act). Perfective verbs are used in texts with specific content (act, conclusion, minutes of a meeting, etc.). Verbs of the imperfect form, as more abstract in meaning, prevail in genres of business speech of a more general nature (Constitution, code, charter, etc.); For example: “The rights and freedoms of man and citizen are directly applicable. They determine the meaning, content and application of laws, the activities of legislative and executive power, local government and are provided with justice"(from the Constitution).

Not only traditional representing types of speech (narration and description) are transformed, realizing communication tasks business texts, specific to of this style types (ascertainment and prescription), but reasoning usually acquires a ascertaining character here. Thus, in some genres (statutes, instructions, contracts, etc.) conditional constructions are active, but their large number does not indicate the widespread use of reasoning in official business speech. The structure of the argument serves to fix the conditions from which the necessity follows. certain actions, For example: “If the proposal to revise Chapters 1, 2 and 9 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation is supported by three-fifths of the votes total number members of the Federation Council and deputies of the State Duma, then the Constitutional Assembly is convened in accordance with the federal constitutional law.”(from the Constitution); “If the condition of the returned property after the end of the contract is worse stipulated by the contract, the tenant compensates the landlord for damage caused based on the assessment of the property at the time of conclusion of the contract"(from the contract). Reasoning of this kind (close in function to a statement) has been known since the time of the “Russian Truth” - a set of laws of the 11th century, i.e., they have been a sign of business text since the Old Russian period in the history of the language.

Thus, the functioning of speech types in the stylistic varieties of the modern Russian literary language reflects the uniqueness of communication tasks in the relevant areas and the specificity of functional styles.

Bibliography

Brandes M.P. Stylistics German language. M., 1983.
Kozhina M.N. Stylistics of the Russian language. 3rd ed. M., 1993.
Loseva L.M. How the text is constructed. M., 1980.
Nechaeva O.A. Essays on syntactic semantics and stylistics of functional-semantic types of speech. Ulan-Ude, 1999.
Nechaeva O.A. Functional and semantic types of speech (description, narration, reasoning). Ulan-Ude, 1974.
Trosheva T.B. Formation of reasoning in the process of development of the scientific style of the Russian literary language of the 18th - 20th centuries. (compared with other functional varieties). Perm, 1999.
Trosheva T.B., Kaygorodova V.E. Reasoning in the system of poetics // Stylistyka. Opole, 2002, no. 11.

Reference

Depending on the content of the statement, our speech can be divided into the following types: description, narration, reasoning. Each type of speech has distinctive features.

Description is an image of a phenomenon of reality, an object, a person by listing and disclosing its main features. For example, when describing a portrait, we will point out such features as height, posture, gait, hair color, eye color, age, smile, etc.; the description of the room will contain such characteristics as size, wall design, furniture features, number of windows, etc.; when describing a landscape, these features will be trees, river, grass, sky or lake, etc. What is common to all types of description is the simultaneity of the appearance of features. The purpose of the description is for the reader to see the subject of the description and imagine it in his mind.

The description can be used in any style of speech, but in a scientific style the description of the subject must be extremely complete, and in an artistic style the emphasis is placed only on the most striking details. Therefore, the linguistic means in the scientific and artistic style are more diverse than in the scientific one: there are not only adjectives and nouns, but also verbs, adverbs, comparisons and various figurative uses of words are very common.

A narrative is a story, a message about an event in its time sequence. The peculiarity of the story is that it talks about next friend after another action. All narrative texts have in common the beginning of the event (commencement), the development of the event, and the end of the event (denouement). The narration can be conducted from a third person. This is the author's story. It can also come from the first person: the narrator is named or designated by the personal pronoun I.

Such texts often use verbs in the past perfect form. But in order to give the text expressiveness, others are used simultaneously with them: a verb in the past tense form of the imperfect form makes it possible to highlight one of the actions, indicating its duration; present tense verbs allow you to imagine actions as if they were happening before the eyes of the reader or listener; forms of the future tense with the particle how (how will jump), as well as forms like clap, jump help to convey the swiftness and surprise of a particular action.

Narration as a type of speech is very common in genres such as memoirs and letters.

Example narration:

I began to stroke Yashka’s paw and thought: just like a child’s. And tickled his palm. And when the baby pulls his paw, it hits me on the cheek. I didn’t even have time to blink, and he slapped me in the face and jumped under the table. He sat down and grinned.

(B. Zhitkov)

Text 1

1. Apple tree - ranet purple - frost-resistant variety. The fruits are round in shape, 2.5-3 cm in diameter. Fruit weight is 17-23 g. Average juiciness, with a characteristic sweet, slightly astringent taste.

2. The linden apples were large and transparent yellow. If you look through the apple into the sun, it shines through like a glass of fresh linden honey. There were black grains in the middle. You used to shake a ripe apple near your ear and you could hear the seeds rattling.

(According to V. Soloukhin)

Assignments to the text:

1. Determine the style of each text.

2. Write down the adjectives, determine the gender. Number, case.

3. Determine the category of adjectives.

4. Parse the last sentence.

Control questions:

1. Name the functional and semantic types of speech.

2. Define description as a type of speech.

3. Define storytelling.

Glossary:

1. Description is an image of a phenomenon of reality, an object, a person by listing and disclosing its main features.

2. Narration is a story, a message about an event in its time sequence.

Reasoning as a type of monologue. Types of reasoning. Linguistic features of speech types.

Reference

Reasoning is a verbal presentation, explanation, confirmation of any thought.

The composition of the argument is as follows: the first part is the thesis, i.e., an idea that must be logically proven, justified or refuted; the second part is the rationale for the thoughts expressed, evidence, arguments supported by examples; the third part is the conclusion, the conclusion.

The thesis must be clearly provable, clearly formulated, the arguments must be convincing and in sufficient quantity to confirm the thesis put forward. There must be a logical and grammatical connection between the thesis and arguments (as well as between individual arguments). For the grammatical connection between the thesis and arguments, they are often used introductory words: firstly, secondly, finally, so, therefore, in this way. In argumentative texts, sentences with conjunctions are widely used: however, although, despite the fact that, since. Example reasoning:

As a rule, the composition of the argument is built by model: thesis, proof (a series of arguments that use facts, inferences, references to authorities, obviously true provisions (axioms, laws), descriptions, examples, analogies, etc.) and conclusion.

Reasoning is typical primarily for scientific and journalistic texts, the task of which is to compare, summarize, generalize, justify, prove, refute this or that information, give a definition or explanation of a fact, phenomenon, event.

In scientific speech, there are such subtypes of reasoning as reasoning-explanation: There is a distinction between the so-called biographical author, that is, a historical figure, a private person (A.S. Pushkin, 1799 - 1837), and a creative author, whose ideas about the world and man are reflected in the work he creates (A.S. Pushkin, author of the novel "Eugene Onegin")(Dictionary literary terms), and reasoning-inference: If the author-creator portrays himself in a work, then we can talk about the image of the author as a character work of art and consider it among others characters(the image of the author in A.S. Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin”)(Dictionary of literary terms).

In literary texts, reasoning is used in the author's digressions, explaining the psychology and behavior of the characters, when expressing the moral position of the author, his assessment of the depicted, etc.: There was a premonition that Moscow would be taken in Russian Moscow society in 1212.<…>Those who left with what they could seize, leaving their houses and half their property, acted this way due to that latent patriotism, which is expressed not by phrases, not by killing children to save the fatherland, etc. by unnatural actions, but which is expressed discreetly, simply, organically and therefore always produces the most powerful results(L. Tolstoy).

Genres of reasoning include scientific, popular science and journalistic articles, essay ([French essai - attempt, test, essay] - a work usually devoted to literary-critical, journalistic and philosophical topics and conveying the author’s individual impressions and thoughts about a particular subject or phenomenon. The essay is characterized by a free composition: the sequence of presentation in it is subject only to the internal logic of the author’s thoughts, and the motivations and connections between parts of the text are often associative in nature: Picture in the reader: a barefoot old man. // I turned the page; // my imagination remained // cold. Either way - Pushkin: // cloak, rock, sea foam...(V. Nabokov).

In reasoning, there are often lexical signals of cause-and-effect relationships, unique markers of reasoning: introductory words and sentences firstly, secondly, therefore, so, in addition, finally, further, in conclusion and etc.; conditional and concessional complex sentences showing the presence of cause-and-effect relationships: It should be noted about the high school student: if he has become completely green, it means that he has matured in science and can receive a matriculation certificate. It's different with other fruits(A. Chekhov); interrogative constructions: What did it serve me that almost in my mother’s womb I was already a guard sergeant? Where has this got me?(A. Pushkin), etc.

Text 2

A strange thing is a book. There is something mysterious and mystical about her.

Yes, this is a strange thing - a book. It stands on the shelf quietly, calmly, like many other objects in your room. But then you pick it up, open it, read it, close it, put it on the shelf and... that’s it? Hasn't something changed in you? Let’s listen to ourselves: after reading the book, didn’t some new string sound in your soul, didn’t some new thought settle in your head? Don't you want to reconsider something in your character, in your relationships with people, with nature?

The book...This is a piece of the spiritual experience of humanity. As we read, we voluntarily or involuntarily process this experience and compare our life gains and losses with it. In general, with the help of a book we improve ourselves.

(N. Morozova)

Assignments to the text:

1. Highlight the compositional parts of the text.

2. Determine the genre of the text.

3. What type of reasoning does the text belong to?

4. Write an essay on the topic “A book in my life.”

5. Highlight the reasoning markers.

6. Look at the table. Draw conclusions for each type of text.

Name of speech types	What question is answered in the statement?	What does the statement say?	The most characteristic time relations for types of speech	How is the statement of each type of speech constructed (their main elements)?
Narration	What does an object or person do or what happens to it?	About events and actions	Subsequence	The development of events, actions according to the scheme: exposition, the beginning of the development of the action, the climax, the denouement.
Description	What is the object or person?	About the signs of an object or phenomenon	Simultaneity	General impression (common feature and individual signs
				possible conclusion)
Reasoning	Why is the object or face like this? Why does a person think and act this way and not otherwise?	About the causes of signs, events, actions	Different temporary relationships	Thesis (thought that is proven) arguments (evidence) conclusion.

7. Using the table, give full description semantic type of text. Determine the main idea and style of the text.

Mikhailovsky Park- a hermit's shelter. This is a park where it's hard to have fun. He is a little gloomy with his centuries-old spruce trees, tall, silent and imperceptibly passes into centuries-old and deserted forests as majestic as himself. Only on the outskirts of the park, through the darkness that is always present under the arches of old trees, will a clearing suddenly open, overgrown with shiny buttercups, and a pond with quiet water. Dozens of small frogs pour into it.

(K. Paustovsky)

Glossary:

Reasoning is a verbal presentation, explanation, confirmation of any thought.

Thesis - Old Greekἡ θέσις (thésis) - a position, a statement put forward and then proven in some reasoning.

Control questions:

1. Define reasoning as a type of speech.

2. Name the types of reasoning.

3. What types of reasoning are used in a scientific style. What about the artistic style?

4. Name the means-markers of reasoning.

5. What genres of reasoning are distinguished?

Week 3

Subject: Functional speech styles. General characteristics of functional speech styles. Business style and its features. Main genres of documentation. Journalistic style and its features. Scientific style and its features. The main genres of scientific and educational texts are abstract, abstract, review. The general concept of the scientific style of speech, its difference from other functional styles. Genres of scientific style. Mass media.

Target: to form skills and develop abilities in types of speech activity: speaking, reading, listening, writing.

Reference

Styles- these are varieties of language due to differences in areas of communication and the main functions of language. In linguistics, the study of styles deals with such a special section as stylistics.

There are five spheres of communication (they are also called language situations): everyday life, science, law, politics, art. As for the main functions of language, there are three of them: communication, message, influence. Depending on the speech situations and language functions, the following types of styles are distinguished:
conversational style (everyday sphere, communication function, less often - messages);
scientific (field of science, function of communication);
official business (sphere of law, message function);
journalistic (the sphere of politics and art, functions of communication and influence);
artistic (sphere of art, function of emotional impact).

In the construction of text and speech in general, a lot depends on what task the speaker (writer) sets for himself, on the purpose of the speech. It is quite natural that the author will structure his text differently when he talks about an event, describes the nature or explains the causes of any phenomena.

Over the centuries, functional and semantic types of speech were gradually formed, that is, methods, patterns, verbal structures that are used depending on the purpose of speech and its meaning.

The most common functional and semantic types of speech are description, narration and reasoning. Each of specified types allocated in accordance with the purpose and content of speech. This also determines some of the most typical grammatical means of text design.

Purpose of creating text	Content and form of text	Typical grammatical means
Text type: Description
1) Enumeration of signs, properties, elements of the subject of speech. 2) An indication of its belonging to a class of objects. 3) An indication of the purpose of the item, methods and areas of its functioning.	1) An idea of ​​the subject as a whole is given at the beginning or at the end. 2) Detailing of the main thing is carried out taking into account the semantic significance of the details. 3) The structure of individual parts of the text (description elements) is similar to the structure of the text as a whole. 4) Techniques of comparison, analogy, and contrast are used. 5) The text is easily collapsed.	a) with direct word order; b) compound nominal predicate; c) with verbal forms of simultaneous action; d) with present tense verbs in a timeless meaning; e) with defining characteristics.
Text type: Narration
A story about an event showing its course in development, highlighting the main (key) facts and showing their relationship.	1) A logical sequence is observed. 2) Dynamism and change of events are emphasized. 3) The composition is chronological.	Simple and complex sentences: a) with a perfect verb predicate; b) with species-temporal forms emphasizing the nature and change of events; c) with the expression of cause-and-effect and temporal conditionality.
Text type: Reasoning
Study of the essential properties of objects and phenomena, substantiation of their relationship.	1) There is a thesis (the position that is being proven), arguments (judgments that justify the correctness of the thesis) and a demonstration (method of proof). 2) Reflections, inferences, and explanations are used. 3) The semantic parts of the statement are given in a logical sequence. 4) Everything not related to the proof is omitted.	Simple common and complex sentences: a) with those involved and participial phrases; b) with circumstances or adverbial subordinate clauses of cause, effect, purpose; c) with verbs of different aspect forms.

Let us demonstrate the structure and method of design of different functional and semantic types of texts using the following examples.

As an example description text An excerpt is taken from the story by A.S. Pushkin " Captain's daughter"with a description of Emelyan Pugachev’s appearance:

His appearance seemed remarkable to me: he was about forty, average height, thin and broad-shouldered. There was a streak of gray in his black beard; alive big eyes so they ran. His face had a rather pleasant, but roguish expression. The hair was cut into a circle; he was wearing a tattered overcoat and Tatar trousers.

Describing the appearance of a person still unknown to him, Pyotr Grinev first of all conveys his impression of this appearance, highlighting those details that seemed most remarkable to him. So, general idea about the stranger is given at the beginning of the description: His appearance seemed remarkable to me. This is followed by the characteristics of the hero: age, physique, face, hair and elements of clothing. The author strives not only to give an idea of ​​Pugachev’s appearance, but also to show how, based on these details, one can form an opinion about his lifestyle, character, and behavior. For example, a strong physique clearly indicates active image life. Hairstyle and clothing indicate the social status of the stranger: this is a poor Yaik Cossack. But the author pays main attention to the expression of the eyes. It is from this detail that the reader can understand that Pugachev has a lively mind. This is not a villain, on the contrary, his appearance is attractive, but at the same time, Grinev’s counselor is clearly hiding something (cf.: shifty eyes and roguish facial expression).

If you turn to grammatical means text design, we can state the following. When describing, simple sentences or chains of complex ones predominate non-union proposals with direct word order. In addition, attention is drawn to the components nominal predicates: seemed wonderful; he was about forty, of average height, thin and broad-shouldered; were shorn. Verbs (mostly imperfect) indicate simultaneity of action. The use of past rather than present forms in a timeless sense is due to the fact that the narrator is narrating a meeting that occurred in the past ( was about forty; his eyes were darting; the face had an expression; hair was cut; he was wearing an army coat). Finally, in almost every sentence you can find members with various kinds defining characteristics: remarkable; thin, broad-shouldered, black beard; big lively eyes etc.

In the same story A.S. Pushkin meet and microtexts-narratives, For example:

I actually saw a white cloud at the edge of the sky, which I initially mistook for a distant hill. The driver explained to me that the cloud foreshadowed a snowstorm.
I heard about the blizzards there, that entire carts were covered in them. Savelich, in agreement with the driver’s opinion, advised him to turn back. But the wind did not seem strong to me; I hoped to get to the next station in time and ordered to go quickly.
The coachman galloped off; but he kept looking to the east. The horses ran together. Meanwhile, the wind became stronger hour by hour. The cloud turned into a white cloud, which rose heavily, grew and gradually covered the sky. It began to snow lightly and suddenly fell in flakes. The wind howled; there was a snowstorm. In an instant, the dark sky mixed with the snowy sea. Everything has disappeared. “Well, master,” the coachman shouted, “trouble: a snowstorm!”...
I looked out of the wagon: everything was darkness and whirlwind. The wind howled with such ferocious expressiveness that it seemed animated; the snow covered me and Savelich; the horses walked at a pace - and soon stopped.

This microtext tells about the snowstorm that Grinev got into while traveling to his place of duty. Description of the storm in this case is given precisely as a narrative, since the logical sequence of events is clearly observed, and the entire composition is chronologized: a white cloud appears in the sky; Grinev, despite the hesitation of the coachman and Savelich, decides to continue the journey; the coachman lets the horses gallop; the wind is getting stronger; a snowstorm begins; the blizzard turns into a blizzard; the exhausted horses stop. The change of events in time is expressed using perfective verbs: I saw a cloud; I ordered to go quickly; the coachman galloped off; the cloud turned into a white cloud; it is snowing etc. The same events that are included in the same time period are described using sentences with imperfective verbs (cf.: I heard; Savelich advised etc.). Sentences with perfective verbs are indicators of key facts, signaling the replacement of one event by another, and each new event is thought of in connection with the previous one (in this case, this connection is chronological).

Specifics text-reasoning can be demonstrated by the example of Grinev’s thoughts on the road after losing a hundred rubles to Zurin and a quarrel with Savelich:

My thoughts on the road were not very pleasant. My loss, at the prices at that time, was significant. I could not help but admit in my heart that my behavior in the Simbirsk tavern was stupid, and I felt guilty before Savelich. All this tormented me.

The argument begins with a thesis statement: My thoughts on the road were not very pleasant. And although we do not find further subordinate reasons, but the very arrangement of subsequent conclusions is perceived as an explanation of the reasons for Grinev’s dissatisfaction with himself. The arguments are the amount of loss, “stupid” behavior and a feeling of guilt towards the old servant. In conclusion, it is concluded that internal state narrator, which is perceived as a consequence of “sorrowful conclusions”: All this tormented me.

In general, the most striking examples of reasoning can be found in scientific texts (see the excerpt from the book by Yu. M. Lotman given in exercise 123).

Of course, the text may contain different functional and semantic types of speech. Thus, very often narration is combined with description (this can be seen in the example of the given passages). Complementing each other, they often merge so organically that sometimes it is difficult to differentiate between them. Wed. a combination of these types of speech in an excerpt from the story of I.S. Turgenev "Bezhin Meadow":

I went right through the bushes[narration]. Meanwhile, the night was approaching and growing like a thundercloud; it seemed that darkness was rising from everywhere along with the evening vapors and even pouring from above[description]. I came across some kind of unmarked, overgrown path; I walked along it, carefully looking ahead[narration]. Everything around turned black and died down, only the quails screamed occasionally[description]. A small night bird, silently and low rushing on its soft wings, almost stumbled upon me and timidly dived to the side. I went out to the edge of the bushes and wandered across the field between[narration]. I was already having difficulty distinguishing distant objects; the field was vaguely white around; behind it, looming in huge clouds every moment, rose the gloomy darkness. My steps echoed dully in the frozen air. The pale sky began to turn blue again - but it was already the blue of night. The stars flashed and moved on it[description].

All texts are divided into three semantic types: description, narration, reasoning.

Description– a semantic type of text that describes the characteristics of objects, phenomena, animals, people:

Autumn has come. Almost all of the small foliage has flown off the coastal vines, and the branches are visible in the turquoise sky. The water under the vines became clear, icy, and seemingly heavy. And the black sky is marked with fiery stripes by falling stars (I. Bunin).

Purpose of the description– show the reader or listener the subject of the description so that he can visualize it in his mind.

Description composition elements: general idea of ​​the subject, individual features of the subject, author's assessment, conclusion, conclusion.

A description of nature is called a landscape, a description of a person is called a portrait.

Descriptive tex t can be in any style shape.

Narration– a semantic type of text that describes events in a certain sequence:

But then the shooting began to subside and then stopped completely. Black shadows darted to the side, ran into our fire and disappeared behind the trees. The enemy was leaving! This most difficult and terrible night battle in the forest has ended. (M. Fortus)

Narrative text comes in the form of literary and colloquial styles.

A literary narrative text has a certain structure - composition(from Latin composito - composition, composition, connection). It is customary to highlight: exposition(the situation preceding the start of the action), the beginning(what the action begins with), development of the action, climax (highest point development of action), denouement(end of event).

Events may develop in chronological sequence and in reverse, when we first learn about the denouement, and then about the development of the action.

The narration can come from a third person, this is the author's narration, or from the first person.

Reasoning– a semantic type of text in which any phenomenon, fact, concept is affirmed or denied.

The reasoning is structured as follows: thesis, arguments proving it, conclusion. The thesis must be clearly formulated and provable, the arguments must be convincing. It is important that a logical, semantic and grammatical connection be established between the thesis and arguments (introductory words are often used: firstly, therefore, therefore):

Russian language– one of the greatest languages ​​in the world.

Firstly, it is distinguished by its richness of vocabulary, and secondly, by its extraordinary flexibility and plasticity. language forms, thirdly, a variety of stylistic means.

So, A.S. was right. Pushkin, arguing that our language is not only not inferior to European languages, but has superiority over them.

(A. Dudnikov)

Reasoning differs from description and narration in the more complex construction of sentences (with participial and participial phrases, various types of conjunction and non-union communications), vocabulary (words denoting abstract concepts: good, truth).

Reasoning can take different forms genre forms: letters, articles, reports, political speeches.