« New rhetoric identifies as fundamental rhetorical figures: metaphor - semantic substitution by similarity; metonymy - substitution by contiguity, association, causality; synecdoche - substitution based on quantitative relations (plurality - singularity) or involvement, inclusion. And if literary thinking is metaphorical, then film thinking is metonymic by its very nature.

According to A.A. Potebny, " Each time a poetic image is perceived and enlivened by the understander, it tells him something different and greater than what is immediately contained in it. Thus, poetry is always allegory... in the broad sense of the word». Consequently, it is right to say that a number of fundamental rhetorical figures determine the artistic and figurative essence of thinking in different types and genres of art.

Rhetorical figures are classified depending on the type of deviation operation used (this principle of classification was first proposed by the “Mu” group): 1) from a sign (word) - morphological; 2) from the grammatical code - syntactic; 3) from meaning - semantic; 4) from the principles of thinking - logical.

The first type of rhetorical figures arises on the basis of deviations from morphological norm (a sign, a word undergo partial or complete transformations, replacements, deformations). Let us outline the main varieties of this type of deviation.

Epenthesis (insert) - a rhetorical figure created by adding a sign (a spoken word) in the middle extra words. So, in Russian vernacular they say: “ like», « for the sake of" The artist can use this figure to characterize the hero’s speech or create a mocking, ironic author’s speech. This artistic medium It is also used in fine arts, for example when creating a caricature portrait or caricature.

Synonymy- with the same signified constituent elements signifiers are replaced by others. So, in “The Bronze Horseman” A.S. Pushkin the usual phrase “ cold body"replaces with poetically expressive" cold corpse" Special cases of stylistic synonymy include archaisms - the replacement of a modern concept with an outdated one that has fallen out of use. In Pushkin’s “Prophet” we read:

With fingers as light as a dream
He touched my eyes.

The use of elements of the order system in modern architecture and the rejection of perspective in painting are also examples of archaisms.

Neologisms- again formed words. For example, using the neologism “ thunderous goblet» F.I. Tyutchev creates a vivid poetic image in the poem “Spring Thunderstorm”.

The rhetorical figure is turning text into a set of sounds , the meaning of which is not perceived, although the sounds are articulate. In this case, the redundancy of speech is not enough and full-fledged artistic communication does not occur, because reduction (return to any “zero stage”) turns out to be impossible; abstruseness arises - words devoid of meaning, as in the poem by A.E. Twisted "Heights":

Eww
ias
oa
oasieya
oa

This rhetorical device—the destruction of the traditional sign system and the creation of a new one—is widely used in abstract painting and concrete music.

Citation foreign words can also be a rhetorical figure. Its use by L.N. is well known. Tolstoy in "War and Peace". Other “foreign” inclusions are also artistically expressive. For example, dialectisms in “Quiet Don” by M. Sholokhov, jargon in “Cavalry” by I. Babel.

The joining of different linguistic layers also occurs when using the eclectic style in architecture.

Pun- a play on words, the use of polysemy of words, homonymy (complete coincidence of signifiers when the signifieds are different) or sound similarity of words to achieve artistic expressiveness and comedy.

As a means of expressiveness, puns are used not only in the comedy genre. M. Gorky, for example, resorts to it in one of the episodes of his epic novel “The Life of Klim Samgin.” One day his comrades flogged Boris Varavka, considering him a sneaker and an informer. Klim Samgin did not like Boris. Having somehow caught a “belated beetle and handed it to Boris with two fingers, Klim said:

- Here, insect.

« Pun, writes Gorky, appeared by itself, suddenly and made Klim laugh...».

In fine art, a pun is found, for example, in some paintings by S. Dali, which can be read differently from different viewing angles: people against the backdrop of an ancient castle - a bust of Voltaire.

Anagram- a rhetorical figure formed by rearrangement at the morphological level (letters in a word). This figure was first used by the Greek grammarian Lycophron (3rd century BC). Examples of anagrams: " murmur - ax"; as well as nicknames such as Chariton Mackentin - Antioch Cantemir.

Palindrome(“reversal”) - reverse rearrangements, phrases, stanzas of verse that are read equally in both directions (from left to right and from right to left). Examples: " I come with the sword of the judge"(G.R. Derzhavin) or in V. Khlebnikov’s poem “Razin”:

Lament cliff
Morning to the devil
We Nizari flew to Razin
Flows and is gentle, is gentle and flows
The Volga wonders are carried by the cramped view of the corners
Deer turned blue

IN in a certain sense The Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, standing right on the river bank, can be considered a palindrome in architecture. Reflected in the river, it doubles and is visually perceived in unity with its reverse image in the water surface. In addition, this temple has axial symmetry and “the same” from left to right and from right to left.

The second type of rhetorical figures arises on the basis of deviations from the syntactic norm (in this case, the author influences the form of the sentence and changes its grammatical structure). The zero level of the syntactic norm for this type of rhetorical figures is based on a grammatical norm that defines the structural relationships between morphemes. According to the findings of linguist R.O. Jacobson, the order of words in many languages ​​reflects the logic of the content of the sentence: verbs are arranged in accordance with the temporal sequence of events, indicating the “main character of the message”, the subject dominates the object. Violation of these “natural” syntactic and grammatical features of the message has the meaning of a rhetorical figure.

Ellipsis- an artistic and expressive omission in speech of parts of a sentence, which, due to the redundancy of information contained in the statement, are implied and can be mentally restored. So, V.A. Zhukovsky in the poem “The Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors” omitted the verb “ let's turn»:

We sat down in ashes; cities - to dust;
Swords include sickles and plows.

Or another example. I.A. Krylov writes: “ Not so: the sea doesn’t burn", and the expression " it wasn't there».

When a word or other elementary meaningful semantic unit disappears from a phrase, its intonation changes, which is expressed in written text by ellipses. An example of such a rhetorical figure in painting is the painting by V.I. Surikov’s “The Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, where there is no execution scene itself - there is a complete plot reduction.

An example of ellipsis in drama is the dialogue between Elena Andreevna and Astrov in the play by A.P. Chekhov's "Uncle Vanya". The excited speech of the characters is abrupt:

« Elena Andreevna. No... It’s already decided... And that’s why I look at you so bravely, that my departure has already been decided...
Astrov. How strange... We knew each other and suddenly for some reason... we would never see each other again. So everything in the world...»

In order to be able to perceive the meaning of a text from which something has been omitted, the redundancy of that text must be great enough to compensate for the missing element.

Abbreviation of syntactic marks - a rhetorical figure similar to asyndeton (omission of conjunctions: “ I came, I saw, I conquered..."). For the first time he allowed the exclusion of syntactic signs from a poetic text French poet G. Apollinaire. Later, many poets and prose writers began to use this rhetorical figure. But even when using this rhetorical figure, it is unacceptable to violate the boundaries of redundancy, since syntactic uncertainty due to abbreviation of punctuation marks can result in semantic uncertainty. In cinema, F. Fellini excluded “punctuation marks” (dissolves, blackouts, etc.) from his film “8/2” in the transition frames from real events to memories or scenes imagined by the hero. This gave the film additional expressiveness.

Amplification - enumeration and piling up. A striking example of this rhetorical figure is the following stanza from “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin:

More cupids, devils, snakes
They jump and make noise on stage;
Still tired lackeys
They sleep on fur coats at the entrance;
They haven't stopped stomping yet,
Blow your nose, cough, shush, clap;
Still outside and inside
Lanterns are shining everywhere;
Still frozen, the horses fight,
Bored with my harness,
And the coachmen, around the lights,
They scold the gentlemen and beat them in the palm of their hands:
And Onegin went out;
He goes home to get dressed.

Amplification is used in the paintings of I. Bosch and S. Dali.

Syllepsis- a rhetorical figure that arises through an artistic and expressive violation of the rules for agreeing morphemes or syntagmas by gender, number, person or tense. V. Hugo, for example, wrote the following lines:

You wake up in the morning and the whole family
You are hugged and kissed by: mother, sister, daughter!

Syllepsis as a replacement of one person by another can be found in “Essays on Bursa” by N.G. Pomyalovsky. One of the students, Pyotr Teterin, signs for receiving government boots: “ Petra Tetenry received boots».

In the theater, an additional artistic effect arises from the performance of a child’s role by a “travesty” actress, female roles by a man, or male roles by a woman.

Chiasmus- this is a rhetorical figure that sets a certain order in one sentence, and in another its reverse (mirror) symmetry arises; a compositional figure in which, from two sentences built on syntactic parallelism, the second sentence is constructed in the reverse sequence of members. Let's remember Pushkin's lines:

Secrets of the great POLYGLOTS: the language barrier and CREATIVITY

Shushpanov Arkady Nikolaevich

A person who has chosen to engage in a serious, creative business faces many barriers. One of them - language. How to overcome it faster?

The experience of famous polyglots is collected and systematized into just a few principles. Anyone who has read the book, using them, can, like from a constructor, make personal language learning method.

The book is addressed to readers who are faced with the task of mastering foreign language, as well as those interested in issues of creativity.

The less we love a woman,
The easier it is for her to like us...

Here the first sentence is constructed according to the scheme: “subject - predicate”, and the second, on the contrary, “predicate - subject”.

Parallelism - one of the lines repeats the other in its syntactic structure. In “Reflections at the Front Entrance” N.A. Nekrasov writes:

Why do you need this crying sorrow?
What do you need these poor people?

Rhetorical figure tmesis occurs when morphemes or syntagmas that are usually closely related to each other are separated by other elements inserted between them. V. Hugo, for example, in the poem “The Ungrateful King” writes:

You commanded in your pride, -
Shame on you! - so that day and night you
Your monk praised in Latin
And in Castilian - your judge.

Or from A.A. Blok in the poem “Humiliation” we read:

In a yellow, winter, huge sunset
The bed has sunk (so luxurious!)..

Tmesis in cinema is expressed in the form of an unexpected montage insert between two related episodes, and in painting it occurs in certain types of collage and caricature.

Inversion- manifests itself in a change in the order of the subject, predicate, circumstances of time and place, as well as in similar operations relating to such pairs as “verb - adverb” or “noun - adjective as a definition”:

Oh, sad, sad was my soul (P. Verlaine).

Inversion, chiasmus and other rhetorical figures, built on the “game” of the order and arrangement of words or other signs, allow you to create a sense of speech space, help the recipient to feel sign system of this art. On this basis, artistic searches arise, similar to the “topographic experiments” of S. Mallarmé, G. Apollinaire, M. Butor.

Rhetorical figures of the second type, in a specifically refracted form, are also used in other artistic and communication systems, for example, in cinema.

Rhetorical figures of the third type (tropes) - are built on the basis of “semantic shifts” , replacement of one semantic content with another, deviation from the “zero meaning”. In the trope, the basic meaning of the sign changes; the word is assigned a meaning that does not coincide with its direct meaning. The trope changes the content of the word, preserving a piece of its original meaning. This kind of semantic rhetorical operations are based on the fact that any phenomenon can be divided on two grounds: 1) the component parts of the phenomenon: river - source, channel, mouth; 2) varieties of the phenomenon: river - plain, mountain, underground. These two fundamental semantic relationships underlie the tropes to which, according to R.O. Jacobson, predisposed to the realistic school of art.

Based on the transition from the particular to the general, from part to whole, from lesser to greater, from species to genus, the rhetorical figures of synecdoche and antonomasia arise. Generalizing (expanding) synecdoche - using more instead of less. For example, they say about people: “ mere mortals“However, this expression can also be legitimately applied to animals. Generalizing synecdoche makes speech philosophical. Narrowing synecdoche - using less instead of more. For example, in “The Bronze Horseman” by A.S. Pushkin's word " flags" is used instead of the phrase " merchant ships flying national flags»: « All flags will visit us..." Narrowing synecdoche occurs in poetic speech even when the singular replaces the plural. For example, in Pushkin’s poem “Poltava”: “ Swede, Russian - stabs, chops, cuts».

In cinema, synecdoche is used as a rhetorical figure when close-ups(“blow-up”), when part of an object seems to personify its whole (the image of guns is the image of the battleship “Potemkin” in the film of the same name by S. Eisenstein). In sculpture, the bust, and in painting, the portrait often appears as a synecdoche.

Antonomasia - replacing a person’s name with an object related to him, or common noun- own. So, in “Mozart and Salieri” A.S. Pushkin calls Michelangelo " creator of the Vatican", and in one of the poems he calls the doctor an aesculapius.

One of the main rhetorical figures in the service of poetics and aesthetics - metaphor- installation in artistic message semantic connection by similarity, a change in the semantic content of a word (more broadly, a sign in general), a reference to both its literal and figurative meaning. By figuratively group "Mu", a metaphor is a small semantic scandal. How " transfer of names by analogy", it serves as a powerful factor in the enrichment of concepts. The basis for creating a metaphor is the similarity manifested in the intersection of two meanings of a word or other sign. The “Mu” group, defining the general trope of rhetoric, notes that “metaphor attributes to the union of two sets those characteristics that, strictly speaking, are inherent only in the intersection of these sets... Metaphor... seems to push the boundaries of the text, creates a feeling of its “openness.” "makes it more capacious." At the same time, the “Mu” group reveals the presence of visual metaphors in painting. A striking example of metaphor in literary text can serve as a figurative definition of a person proposed by B. Pascal: “ Man is just a reed, the weakest of nature's creations, but he is a thinking reed» .

Bringing together various items, a metaphor helps to better describe one of them. It is no coincidence that it is often formalized using conjunctions “ How», « like», « as if”, facilitating comparison and establishing similarity or identity. These are the stereotypical comparisons: “ clear as day b", " one like a finger».

Rhetorical figures are in a certain sense “false,” and no one takes the identification they contain literally. An example of such a “false” but expressive metaphor is a line from G. Heine:

My mouth is so dry, it’s like I ate the sun...

Interesting thoughts about the nature of metaphor were expressed in his time by the poet I.L. Selvinsky at a seminar on poetic skills at the Literary Institute. M. Gorky SP USSR, of which the author of these lines was a participant. Selvinsky noted the existence of metaphors of Eastern and Western types, belonging to different artistic traditions. Eastern tradition assumes, as a rule, one point of similarity between the objects being compared. For example, say " the girl is as slim as a telegraph pole“Within the framework of the Eastern tradition, Selvinsky believes, is quite acceptable. In the Russian traditions and in general European poetry the metaphor must bear at least three points of similarity with the compared phenomena. Following this tradition, it is right to say: “a girl is like a birch tree.” The similarity here is that both compared objects are slender, young, flexible, spring-like, fresh and joyful.

Reasoning by I.L. Selvinsky are valuable in that, using the example of metaphor, they show the relationship of rhetorical figures to the deep structures of artistic thinking, fixing such an important parameter as national identity. Selvinsky showed the features of the expressive metaphor of the European tradition using a phrase describing a chandelier hidden in a gauze cover for the summer: “ The chandelier was like a cocoon" There are three types of similarity here: external - a white shell, internal - something is contained in the shell, existential - the temporary state that will be changed, and the internal will be revealed and revived.

In Aeschylus we read: “ May we not experience that for which there is great suffering, for which the great sea is plowed with a sword" Analyzing this metaphor, literary critic O. Freidenberg writes: “ The image of “plowing with a sword” leads to mythology: the semantic identity of agricultural and military tools is known. The great sea, plowed by the sword, is the sea on which Paris sailed with Helen to Troy, the sea of ​​love that caused the war of nations.

Mythological images continue to speak in their own specific language. But they “allegorize” themselves, giving a conceptual meaning: “May we avoid the harmful consequences of love.” The ancient “different rendering” is that the image, without losing its character (plowing the sea with a sword), receives a meaning that does not at all correspond to its meaning (the disastrous results of passion). This new meaning begins to convey the semantics of the image “otherwise”, in a different way, on a completely different mental plane - abstractly, as if the thought reads one thing and says another» .

M. Proust believed that metaphor is a privileged expression of a deep poetic vision, giving style a “kind of eternity.” This idea can be confirmed by an example of a cinematic metaphor from A. Rene’s film “Hiroshima, my love”: at first the viewer sees the body of a murdered Japanese man, his arms are outstretched, this image is montagedly compared with the image of the body of a soldier of the Nazi army lying in the same position. One can also recall other film metaphors: in S. Eisenstein’s “Strike” the types of carnage introduced into the episode of a police attack, or in C. Chaplin’s “Modern Times” shots depicting a flock of sheep are edited into the picture of the crowd. Examples of metaphor in monumental sculpture include the sphinx pairing a man and a lion, and the centaur pairing a man and a horse.

The general aesthetic universality of rhetorical figures is evidenced by the definition of architecture as a metaphor made of stone, given by the Italian theorist of rhetoric and poetics of the 17th century. E. Tesauro.

Metaphor, the queen of rhetorical figures, also found its place in the system of Indian rhetoric and poetics in the figure of rupaka (“giving appearance”)178. And it is not surprising, because Indian poetry is metaphorically rich. Thus, in Kalidasa we read: “ Your fingers are stems, the shine of your nails is flowers, your hands are vines, and all of you are spring beauty, open to our gaze." The distinctions between rupaka and metaphor, which P. Grinzer outlines in his work, are not sufficient to not recognize these figures as corresponding to each other, especially if we proceed from broad understanding metaphor proposed in the classification of rhetorical figures by the Mu group.

A rhetorical figure close to metaphor is comparison- identification common feature when comparing two phenomena. For example, A.S. Pushkin’s poem “Anchar” contains the following comparison:

Anchar, like a formidable sentry,
Standing - alone in the whole universe.

Comparison montage is often used in cinematography.

Metonymy(literally renaming) - establishing a connection between phenomena by contiguity, transferring the properties of an object to the object itself, with the help of which these properties are revealed, an allegorical designation of the subject of speech. So, A.S. Pushkin " the hiss of foamy glasses"replaces foaming wine poured into glasses. In metonymy, the effect can be replaced by the cause, the content by the capacity, resulting in a transfer of the name based on the contiguity of meanings. For example, sometimes the material from which a thing is made replaces the designation of the thing itself. At A.S. Griboedova Famusov recalls: “ Not on silver, I ate on gold».

The French rhetorician Du Marsay revealed the difference between metonymy and synecdoche. The first, as he believes, involves the comparison of objects that exist independently of each other (“ with metonymy, the replaced and the replacing concepts do not have a common semantic part"), and the second is the rhetorical pairing of objects that constitute some unity and correlate as a part with the whole.

Researchers also note the existence of metonymic epithets (“ The luminary of day shines" - M.V. Lomonosov), metonymic periphrases (“ Great Peter's daughter" - M.V. Lomonosov).

Coats of arms and other symbolic sign formations have a metonymic character (the coat of arms is a metonymy of the state). Collage in painting gives rise to a metonymic relationship between the glued part and the painted part of the canvas. Yu.M. writes about this. Lotman: " The drawn and pasted objects belong to different and incompatible worlds according to the following characteristics: reality / illusory, two-dimensional / three-dimensional, iconic / unfamiliar, etc. Within a number of traditional cultural contexts, their meeting within the same text is absolutely prohibited. And that is why their combination creates that exceptionally strong semantic effect that is inherent in the trope».

Oxymoron- close proximity in the syntagm of two signs or words with contradictory meanings, direct correlation and combination of contrasting, seemingly incompatible features and phenomena. These are " black Sun "in the finale of "Quiet Don" by M.A. Sholokhov or " the splendor of shamelessness» - capacious characteristic women lung behavior in W. Faulkner's novel “The City”.

Repeat— repetition of sound, symbolic (verbal), synonymous is carried out in the name of artistically expressive, emotionally inspiring and logically persuasive goals. Repetition gives an artistic statement strengthening, changing and increasing meaning. This is, for example, a repetition from A.S. Pushkin:

I'm driving, driving in an open field;
Bell ding-ding-ding...
Scary, scary involuntarily
Among the unknown plains!

In the film by L. Buñuel “The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie,” the same scene of receiving guests is repeated many times in the dreams of different characters. Then this scene is realized in reality.

A rhetorical figure of repetition in architecture is, for example, the colonnade of the wings of the Kazan Cathedral in Leningrad.

In Sanskrit poetic culture, the rhetorical figure of repetition corresponds to the figure of avritti, which has three varieties: repetition of words with a change in meaning, repetition of meaning with a change in words, and repetition of both words and meaning.

The fourth type of rhetorical figures arises on the basis of deviations from the logical norm. For figures of this type, the “zero level” may be a “protocol” speech that certifies the truth of the facts disputed by the rhetorical figure. Rhetorical figures of the fourth type are built on the basis of the conscious use of polysemy (multiple meanings of a word or sign) for artistic expressive purposes.

Antithesis- opposition of different, sharply contrasting phenomena. It is built according to the logical formula “ A is not A " Antithesis is especially expressive when it is made up of metaphors. For example, G. R. Derzhavin resorts to such an antithesis in the poem “God”:

I am a king - I am a slave - I am a worm - I am a god!

Overlay- the use of a word simultaneously in a literal and figurative, “figurative” meaning. Its most common form is superposition, which is based on two meanings of a word expressed in one use. So, in V. Hugo we read:

And they remember you, sorting through the ashes
Your hearth and your heart!

The specificity of the imposition here is that the expression “ashes of one’s heart” is perceived metaphorically. At the same time, when perceiving the text, the reader takes into account the direct meaning of the word “ashes” in the context of “ashes of one’s hearth.”

Superimposition as a rhetorical figure is also present in other forms of art, for example in cinema, in frames shot with double exposure. In this case, one image is superimposed on another and forms a new thought that is not contained in any of the interacting images.

The quantitative (exaggerating) nature of rhetorical figures is inherent hyperbole. Roman orator and theorist of eloquence M.F. Quintilian defined hyperbole as an appropriate deviation from the true state of affairs. It involves a maximum increase in the action, properties, and size of an object for artistic expressive purposes. When N.V. Gogol states in Taras Bulba that “ a rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper", he uses hyperbole as a rhetorical figure in the organization of artistic speech. Sometimes hyperbole appears in combination with metaphor (" This cat is a tiger"). Among the ancient Indian rhetorical figures (alankar) there is a figure similar to the hyperbole dating back to ancient rhetoric - this is atishaya (exaggeration) and its variety - atishayokti (exaggerated statement). This figure is born when there is a desire to describe some property (of a subject) that goes beyond the ordinary. Yes, shine and whiteness women's clothing And female body, indistinguishable in the radiance of moonlight, is figuratively conveyed in “Kalidasa” with the help of this rhetorical figure: “ When women go on a date wearing wreaths of white jasmine, anointing their bodies with sandalwood ointment, and wearing a linen dress, they cannot be distinguished in the moonlight».

But in order not to violate the aesthetic measure in art, as Pseudo-Longinus rightly noted, the artist “ it is necessary to know the limit to which in each individual case the hyperbole can be brought».

Examples of hyperbole in architecture: the grandiose pyramid of Cheops, because for the practical purpose of burial and memorial fixation of the grave, a mound or crypt is sufficient; hyperbole of the entrance gate - the triumphal arch simultaneously symbolizes the greatness of the deeds of those in whose honor it was created.

IN litotes The quantitative, but already downplaying, nature of rhetorical operations also appears. Litota reduces the phenomenon, speaks about less in order to say about more. Litotes are: miniature - in painting, hut on chicken legs - in architecture.

Brought to the limit, litotes turns into silence ( The best way to say less is to say nothing at all). Silence can also be hyperbolic in nature: due to strong emotion, speech ends in silence, and written text- ellipsis. Sudden cessation of speech - interruption or temporary cessation - suspension. In temporary forms of art, suspension can be expressed not only in silence, but also in freeze frames (cinema) or in a silent scene (theater). A well-known example of such silence is a silent scene in the comedy by N.V. Gogol "The Inspector General". The gendarme reports the arrival of the real auditor, and then follows the author’s remark: “The spoken words strike everyone like thunder. The sound of amazement unanimously emanates from the ladies' lips; the whole group, having suddenly changed their position, remains petrified.”

Allegory- allegory, transfer of meanings from one circle of phenomena to another, transfer by similarity from the literal meaning to the non-literal meaning of a judgment, thought or the whole system judgments. Thus, in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” Boyan’s playing of the harp is conveyed through an allegory:

Then ten falcons were launched into the flock of swans;
Whose falcon flew, the song was first sung:
Whether old Yaroslav, or brave Mstislav...
(translation by V. Zhukovsky).

In the finale of I. Bergman’s film “The Seventh Seal”, in a traditional allegorical form (skeleton with a scythe), death appears to the heroes and takes them away from life. And in “Strawberry Field” by the same director, the dial of a street clock without hands appears as an allegory of the end of times in the dream of the sick hero.

In the fable, an allegorical deviation from the logical norm occurs through personification (the king is a lion) or through a narrowing synecdoche (the cunning one is a fox, the hard worker is an ant).

Euphemism- replacement of rude, forbidden, indecent or overly harsh expression with a softer, more acceptable ethically, socially, aesthetically. In this case, the meaning of the euphemism is preserved, but random semantic shades are added to it. So, in one of the poems by E.A. Baratynsky uses the less harsh expression “abode of night” to designate “the grave”, “the next world”, thereby achieving greater artistic expressiveness.

The figure of euphemism is widely used in cinema.

Among the ancient peoples, there were taboos prohibiting mentioning this or that phenomenon, so it was necessary to give concepts about them using allegorical expressions or euphemism. It can be assumed that allegory and euphemism are the oldest rhetorical figures that arose even before the development of artistic consciousness itself.

Antiphrasis differs from irony in the absence of a comedic element in criticism. An example of this rhetorical figure is when a deplorable point of view is said to be: “ Good position!»

Negation- a rhetorical figure used to figuratively characterize a phenomenon “from the opposite”, by communicating what it is not. For example, M.Yu. Lermontov characterizes his lyrical hero as follows:

No, I'm not Byron, I'm different
A still unknown chosen one,
Like him, a wanderer driven by the world,
But only with a Russian soul.

Using rhetorical figures of the fourth type, the authors of a literary text, deliberately violating logical connection and even sometimes mocking the logic of reality, in a certain sense they pay tribute to it, because they take advantage of the redundancy of information about it. For example, " a knife without a blade that lacks a handle"(G.K. Lichtenberg) is an object that exists only in language, through which we get the opportunity to see a special reality.

Rhetorical figures provide such a paradoxically unexpected combination of initial signs and words, in which a dialectical leap occurs and a qualitatively new thought arises, which is not directly contained in any of the original signs and does not arise from their simple extra-rhetorical addition.

Attaching a global-philosophical, universal-existential meaning to rhetorical figures, Tesauro believed that they constitute the very basis of the thinking mechanism of that genius that spiritualizes both man and the Universe. These ideas are continued in modern views on rhetoric, as a result of which the actual artistic significance of rhetorical figures is underestimated. Correctly noting the presence of tropes in science, Yu.M. Lotman makes a broad conclusion that they “ belong to creativity in general»: « ...tropes are not an external decoration, a kind of appliqué imposed on a thought from the outside - they constitute the essence creative thinking... their sphere is also wider than art. It belongs to creativity in general. So, for example, all attempts to construct spatial physical models of elementary particles, etc., are rhetorical figures (tropes). And just as in poetry, in science, an irregular convergence often acts as an impetus for the formulation of a new pattern.».

In general, this is true, but with the only caveat that in science, tropes and rhetorical figures are an additional, optional means. In art they are indispensable, they are “the very essence”, figures of figurative thinking, and not of any creative thinking.

The power of rhetorical figures lies in the fact that, while being carriers of conceptual meaning, they at the same time have a visual nature. Thus, it is rhetorical figures that create a “bridge” in our thinking, a jumper between the activities of the left and right hemispheres, one of which provides conceptual, and the other visual, concrete-sensory thinking. This duality, the ambivalence of rhetorical figures (conceptuality and “visibility”, conceivability, concrete sensibility) allows them to live in both verbal (prose, poetry) and fine arts (painting, sculpture), as well as in its other types built on the interaction of visual and verbal principles (theater, cinema, etc.). Through the intonational side of their verbal nature and through the closeness of its concrete-sensual side, rhetorical figures turn out to be significant for musical thinking.

« In the system of poetic language, figures and tropes are the main nodes in which the energy tension of the stylistic body of the text is concentrated“, rightly notes M.Ya. Polyakov. To read rhetorical figures, the main thing is to understand what figurative meaning a given sign formation receives in a given context.

So, the artist, with the help of the indicated four types of rhetorical figures, violates the “zero stage” of speech, thus creating artistic speech, conveying artistic meaning and having a specifically aesthetic impact.”

Borev Yu. Aesthetics.

Antithesis(see tropes) is a syntactic figure if parts of a sentence are opposed, and not individual words (antonyms) (No Parisian clothes - a harsh sweater and a long gray skirt tied with a wide belt(about M. Tsvetaeva)).

Anaphora– repetition of identical words or consonances at the beginning poetic line or a prosaic phrase, for example: I look for the future with fear, // I look for the past with longing(M. Yu. Lermontov).

Asyndeton- intentional omission coordinating conjunctions to give the phrase more dynamics. For example: Booths, women, Boys, shops, lanterns, Palaces, gardens, monasteries, Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens, Merchants, shacks, men, Boulevards, towers, Cossacks, Pharmacies flash past; fashion stores, balconies, lions on the gates...(A.S. Pushkin).

Introductory words and phrases- a word, combination of words or sentences not related to other words; can express the writer’s feelings (joy, regret, surprise, etc.) in connection with the message: fortunately, joyfully, unfortunately, horror and etc.; also express the speaker’s assessment of the degree of reality of what is being communicated (confidence, assumption, possibility, uncertainty, etc.): of course, undoubtedly, it seems, it goes without saying, certainly, it would seem and etc.; indicate the connection of thoughts, the sequence of presentation and the source of what is being communicated: therefore, in particular, for example, in addition, therefore, firstly and etc.; in my opinion..., in my opinion..., they say, I remember, they say and etc.; represent an appeal to the interlocutor or reader in order to attract his attention to what is being communicated, to instill a certain attitude towards the facts presented: see, understand, imagine, please, suppose, suppose and etc.; show the degree of normality of what is being said (it happens, it happens, as usual etc.), express the expressiveness of the statement (in fairness, in conscience, it’s funny to say etc.) For example: “Watch your comrades during a debate, discussion, polemic - you will, of course, be convinced that they behave differently”(L. Pavlova).

Question and answer move (hypophora)- this is a segment of monologue speech that unites a rhetorical question(or a series of questions) and the answer to them; question of thought. The question-and-answer move consists of the speaker, as if anticipating the listeners’ objections, guessing them possible questions, he formulates such questions himself and answers them himself. This technique involves the recipient in the dialogue and makes him a participant in the search for truth. It is also used as an effective means in hidden polemics. Example: Tens of thousands of soldiers disappeared without a trace, not a shred of flesh remained from them, they were truly missing. It is impossible to bury them! And what? Not consider a single war in history over? Isn’t it easier to assume: you didn’t understand what Suvorov said!

Gradation- a turn of poetic speech consisting of a deliberate grouping homogeneous members sentences in a sequential order of increasing or decreasing semantic or emotional significance; a means that allows you to recreate events and actions, thoughts and feelings in the process, in development (from small to large - direct gradation - or from large to small - reverse gradation.), to convey the growing intensity of feelings, experiences. For example: “Oh, wow, what a shame!.. It’s impossible to describe: velvet! silver! fire!"(N.V. Gogol); I called you, but you didn’t look back, I shed tears, but you didn’t condescend(A. Blok). Gradation can become a compositional technique for constructing the entire text (for example, in the fairy tales “Terem-Teremok”, “Kolobok”, “About the Grandfather and the Turnip”).

Inversion- violation of the sequence of speech, the generally accepted order of words, rearrangement of parts of the phrase; gives the phrase a new expressive shade, a special solemnity to the sound and meaning of the sentence: A sick spirit is healed by chants(E. Baratynsky).

Multi-Union- deliberate repetition of identical conjunctions. For example: And the heart beats in ecstasy, And for him, Divinity and inspiration have risen again, And life, and tears, and love(A.S. Pushkin).

Parallelism- comparison of natural phenomena and human life. For example: “The graves are overgrown with grass; the pain is overgrown with long ago”(M. Sholokhov).

Parcellation- stylistic device of use incomplete sentences(sentences in which one or more members are missing The forest bird has already flown away. The swamp moved behind her.); breaking a whole sentence into separate parts (Maybe our hero became a millionaire. Or an artist. Or just a cheerful beggar) enhances their semantic weight and gives speech a special emotionality.

Subtext- unspoken directly in the text, but as if arising from individual remarks, comments, details, etc., the author’s attitude to the material being presented. In a scientific style or in business papers, subtext would be a flaw that interferes with the perception of the objective content of the text, but in a work of art or journalism it is an integral part.

A rhetorical question- a question addressed to the reader that does not require an answer; used to attract and enhance reader attention; enhances the emotionality of the statement. They perform the same role appeals, exclamations. For example: “Why don’t people fly? I say, why don’t people fly like birds?”(A. N. Ostrovsky “Thunderstorm”); “What lofty prose this is! And they will quote it so many times!”(I. Andronikov). Rhetorical appeal differs from ordinary address in that it calls inanimate object, which is addressed: Greetings, desert corner,… (A.S. Pushkin).

Syntactic constructions conversational style - constructions used primarily in colloquial speech, which is characterized by the use of simple and incomplete sentences. The structures of colloquial speech are compressed, succinct, and laconic. Violation of style attracts the reader's attention. Short, choppy sentences, skipping individual words give speech dynamism, ease, looseness, create the effect of “impromptu”, unpreparedness, a feeling direct communication, dialogue. The use of interrogative sentences, characteristic of oral speech, enlivens, facilitates the reader’s perception of the material, and serves to polemically sharpen the proposed problems. For example: “Corporationization is the transfer of the workshop into the ownership of the team. Reaction? No! The workshop was essentially owned by the workers anyway. Another option. Privatization in one hand. The main question is which ones? To shadow structures or to one of the employees?”

Syntactic parallelism- homogeneous syntactic construction of sentences. For example: "Your mind is deep, that the sea// Your spirit is high, that the mountains.“The stars are shining in the blue sky, The waves are splashing in the blue sea, A cloud is moving across the sky, A barrel is floating on the sea” ( A.S. Pushkin); The diamond is polished by the diamond, // The line is dictated by the line(S. Podelkov).

Default- a figure of speech in which the statement is deliberately not completed so that the reader himself can fill in the missing words, and can also be a means of expressing a special emotional state. An ellipsis is often a sign of silence. For example: Now he will get to you... Oh, if only it weren’t for these relatives!..

Ellipse- speech construction, in which a word or several words are missing that are easily restored either by context, or according to a specific situation, or thanks to communicative experience speakers. Helps strengthen emotional intensity statements, giving it laconicism. For example: “It’s true, a peasant [walks], two women [follow] him...”(A.S. Pushkin).

Epiphora- stylistic figure repetition; repetition at the end of a segment of speech of the same word (lexical epiphora), word form (grammatical epiphora) or synonymous word (semantic epiphora) Example: “Scallops, all scallops: a cape made of scallops, scallops on the sleeves, epaulettes made of scallops, scallops below, scallops everywhere.”(N.V. Gogol).

1.3 MORPHEMICS. WORD FORMATION (task B1 Unified State Exam test)

Morphemics- a branch of linguistics in which the system of morphemes of a language and the morphemic structure of words and their forms are studied. Morpheme- This minimal significant part of a word (root, prefix, suffix, ending).

Word formation- a section of linguistics in which the formal semantic derivative of words in a language, means and methods of word formation are studied.

Syntactic means verbal ingenuity (figures of speech)

Speech (rhetorical, stylistic) figures are any language means, giving speech imagery and expressiveness. Figures of speech are divided into semantic and syntactic.

Semantic figures speeches - are formed by combining words, phrases, sentences or larger sections of text that have special semantic significance.

These include:

• · comparison- a stylistic figure based on the figurative transformation of a grammatically formalized comparison. Example: The faded joy of crazy years is heavy on me, like a vague hangover (A.S. Pushkin); Below him is a stream of lighter azure (M. Yu. Lermontov);
• · ascending gradation- a figure of speech consisting of two or more units placed in increasing intensity of meaning: I ask you, I really ask you, I beg you;
• · descending gradation - a figure that creates a comic effect by violating the principle of increase. Example: A lady who is not afraid of the devil himself and even the mouse (M. Twain);
• · zeugma- a figure of speech that creates a humorous effect due to grammatical or semantic heterogeneity and incompatibility of words and combinations: He drank tea with his wife, with lemon and with pleasure; It was raining and three students, the first - in a coat, the second - at the university, the third - at bad mood;
• · pun- a figure representing a play on words, a deliberate combination in one context of two meanings of the same word, or the use of similarities in the sound of different words to create a comic effect. Example: There are no colors in her creations, but there are too many of them on her face (P. A. Vyazemsky);
• · antithesis- a stylistic figure based on the opposition of compared concepts. The lexical basis of this figure is antonymy, the syntactic basis is parallelism of constructions. Example: It's easy to make friends, hard to separate; The smart one will teach, the fool will get bored;
• · oxymoron- a figure of speech consisting of attributing to a concept a sign that is incompatible with this concept, in a combination of concepts that are opposite in meaning: a living corpse; young old men; hurry up slowly.

Syntactic figures speeches - are formed by a special stylistically significant construction of a phrase, sentence or group of sentences in the text. In syntactic figures of speech, the main role is played by the syntactic form, although the nature of the stylistic effect largely depends on the semantic content. By quantitative composition Syntactic constructions differ between figures of subtraction and figures of addition.

TO figures decrease relate:

• · ellipsis - a stylistic figure, consisting in the fact that one of the components of the statement is not mentioned, is omitted in order to give the text more expressiveness and dynamism: The foxes decided to bake a rabbit, and the rabbit jumped out of the oven onto the stove, then onto the bench and out the window from the bench (Ya.A. Kozlovsky);
• · aposiopesis- deliberately incomplete statement: He will return and then...;
• · prosyopesis- omission of the initial part of the statement. For example, using a patronymic instead of a given name and patronymic;
• · rest in peace- a combination of two sentences characteristic of colloquial speech into one statement containing a common member: There is a man sitting there waiting for you.

TO figures additions relate:

• · repeat- a figure consisting of the repetition of a word or sentence with the purpose of emphasizing, strengthening a thought;
• · anadiplosis(pickup) - a figure of speech constructed in such a way that a word or group of words is repeated at the beginning of the next segment: It will come, big as a sip, - a sip of water during the summer heat (V.A. Rozhdestvensky);
• · prolepsa- simultaneous use of a noun and a pronoun replacing it. Example: Coffee, it's hot.

Based on the location of the components of a syntactic structure, a figure of speech such as inversion is distinguished. Inversion - this is a rearrangement of the syntactic components of a sentence, violating their usual order: He dug up worms, brought fishing rods; Your fences have a cast iron pattern (A.S. Pushkin).

Expanding the function of a syntactic construction lies at the heart of the rhetorical question.

Rhetorical question - the sentence is interrogative in structure, but narrative in purpose of the statement. A rhetorical question is a rhetorical figure that represents a question for which there is no answer. Essentially, a rhetorical question is a question to which an answer is not required or expected due to its extreme obviousness. In any case, an interrogative statement implies a very definite, well-known answer, so a rhetorical question is, in fact, a statement expressed in interrogative form. For example, asking a question "How many more We we will tolerate this injustice?" does not expect an answer, but wants to emphasize that "We we tolerate injustice, and too much for a long time" and seems to hint that "It's time already stop her tolerate And undertake something By this about".

A rhetorical question is used to enhance the expressiveness (emphasis, emphasis) of a particular phrase. A characteristic feature of these phrases is convention, that is, the use of the grammatical form and intonation of the question in cases that, in essence, do not require it. A rhetorical question, as well as a rhetorical exclamation and rhetorical appeal, are peculiar turns of speech that enhance its expressiveness - the so-called. figures. Distinctive feature These phrases are their convention, that is, the use of interrogative, exclamatory, etc. intonation in cases that essentially do not require it, due to which the phrase in which these phrases are used acquires a particularly emphasized connotation, enhancing its expressiveness. Thus, a rhetorical question is, in essence, a statement expressed only in interrogative form, due to which the answer to such a question is already known in advance. Example: Can I see beauty in the new shine of a faded dream? Can I again clothe the nakedness with the cover of a familiar life? - V.A. Zhukovsky.

Obviously, the meaning of these phrases is to assert the impossibility of returning “dreams of faded beauty,” etc.; the question is a conditional rhetorical turn. But thanks to the form of the question, the author’s attitude towards the phenomenon in question becomes much more expressive and emotionally charged.

Stress placement: SYNTAXIC FIGURES

SYNTACTIC FIGURES or stylistic(from Latin figura - image, appearance) - in ancient rhetoric the term “figure”, transferred from the art of dance, denoted unusual syntactic figures of speech that served to decorate it. The real meaning of S. f. in that they individualize speech, give it an increased emotional coloring, while receiving specific expressive meaning only in context, depending on the general syntactic structure of speech (cf. the laconicism of Pushkin’s prose and the complex periods of L. Tolstoy’s prose).

Classical stylistics offered extensive lists of symbolic forms; Numerous classifications were reduced to their external sorting. They distinguished S. f. additions, reductions, consonances, contrasts, changes.

K S. f. additions include different types of repetition: doubling(“Dreams, dreams, where is your sweetness?” - Pushkin), anaphora- unity of command (“I look at the future with fear, I look at the past with longing.” - Lermontov), epiphora("The rain is pouring incessantly, the rain is languid." - Bryusov), ring(“The sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy.” - Pushkin), joint(epanaphora) - repetition of the end of a phrase or line at the beginning of the next ("Oh spring without end and without edge, without end and without edge dream!" - Blok), gradation, or menopause("Not an hour, not a day, not a year will pass..." - Baratynsky), accumulation- a synonymous combination (“left, escaped, ran away...” - Lomonosov) and many others. dr. K S. f. belongs to syntactic parallelism, i.e. repetition not of words, but of a syntactic model (“Ulans with colorful icons, dragoons with ponytails..." - Lermontov), ellipsis, abbreviations, “skipping” words (“Who goes where, and I go to the savings bank.” - Mayakovsky) in various varieties. Of the S. f., attributed to the unsuccessfully distinguished group of “consonance”, the following are known: the so-called. annomination, a combination of words of the same root, but grammatically different (“Our years run, changing, changing everything, changing us.” - Pushkin), antanaclasis- repetition of a word in different meanings(“...the wife is alone in the absence of her husband...” - Pushkin), etc. S. f. opposites - comparison opposites (“I am a king, I am a slave, I am a worm, I am a god.” - Derzhavin), chiasmus- inverted parallelism (“Some eat to live, others live to eat”). S. f. changes: inversion- unusual word order (“A storm is a rebellious impulse...” - Pushkin), anacoluthon- intersection of various syntactic constructions (“And Bonarotti? Or is this a fairy tale and the creator of the Vatican was not a murderer?” - Pushkin), etc.

In such a grouping, the logical principle of unity of division is grossly violated; the groups are divided into different planes, so that there are “repetitions” and “consonances” at the same time. There was no place for such frequent S. f. as rhetorical exclamation And a rhetorical question(“Where are you, my horse, golden saber, young Polonyanka’s braids?” - Tikhonov). The accumulation of terms denoting many dozens of S. f. only obscured their real commonalities and differences: for example, the so-called. polysyndeton- polyunion (“The voice of the lyre breathed into the vein, and the tears of the inflamed maiden, and the thrill of my jealousy, and the brilliance of glory, and the darkness of exile, and the beauty of bright thoughts, and vengeance, the stormy dream of fierce suffering.” - Pushkin) is not much different from multiple prepositions(“along the old road along Kaluzhskaya...” - Tsvetaeva). Many stylistic devices even in antiquity raised doubts - whether to classify them as figures or paths(cm.). If we use the term “S. f.”, of course, much remains outside its boundaries that were previously included in the figures - irony, hyperbole, litotes etc.

V. Nikonov.

Sources:

1. Dictionary of literary terms. Ed. From 48 comp.: L. I. Timofeev and S. V. Turaev. M., "Enlightenment", 1974. 509 p.

Syntactic figures can be divided into figures additions, subtractions, placements and rearrangements.

1. Addition figures(deliberately lengthy speech) based on displays

repeatability. The main technique for constructing a deliberately lengthy speech is amplification, consisting of repetition. Units that are homogeneous in content or form are forced: synonyms, hyponyms, comparisons, epithets and periphrases, etc.: The lady checked in her luggage / A sofa, a suitcase, a suitcase, / A painting, a basket, a cardboard / And a small dog(Marshak). The clarifying function uses adjunction– abundant distribution of any member of the sentence:

Where is our first meeting?

Bright, sharp, secret,

On that memorable summer evening

Sweet, as if random? (E. Belogorskaya)

Pleonasm– “a figure of amplification based on relations of identity or almost complete identity of words or phrases correlated with the same objects and phenomena” (T.G. Khazagerov): They came up with the concept " people" to deceive individuals of people. One of the values polysemantic word people -‘the same as people’ [Ozhegov, p. 355]. The paradoxical nature of the statement is based on playing on different meanings of the first word: not only People, but also ‘the population of the state, the inhabitants of the country’, ‘nation, nationality, nationality’, ‘ main labor force population of the country’ [ibid.]. The concepts of “people” and “people” M.M. Zhvanetsky ironically contrasts: for the bureaucratic elite, the people are not people, but a formless “mass” with which they can do whatever they want.

Amplification is often characterized by syntactic parallelism - a homogeneous syntactic construction of sentences and their parts with different lexical content. Syntactic parallelism can be complete or incomplete. Incomplete covers only part syntactic structure each of the compared segments of speech; for example, just the beginning (anaphora). IN complete parallelism extends to these segments entirely: (5)

What is he looking for in a distant land?

What did he throw in his native land?(Lerm.)

This was an example of complete direct parallelism.

But he might be reverse, mirror. This phenomenon is called chiasmus(from the Greek letter "xi" X). Here the second sentence or phrase is constructed in reverse order morphological forms members of the proposal.

leaf fall ( TV case) Autumn rustled, / Winter filled with frosts(Tv.p.) . (Sholokhov).

Chiasmus is Blok’s favorite stylistic device. Here it is as if the verse is opening and twisting, forming a ring structure of a phrase, and each of the words becomes communicatively significant.

Attentive eyes look

And my heart beats, excitedly, into my chest.

Another example:

Let them call. Forget it, poet!

Come back to beautiful comforts!

No! It's better to perish in bitter cold!

There is no comfort! There is no peace!

Period– a hybrid figure formed by a statement ( complex sentence or SSC), which is clearly divided into 2 parts: protasis and apodosis. Protasis is characterized by an ascending movement of tone and is divided into a number of homogeneous elements (columns). Apodosis is characterized by a descending tone: (7)

Your eyes, of course, are narrow, / And your nose is flat, and your forehead is wide, / You don’t babble in French, / You don’t squeeze your legs like silk, / In English before the samovar, / You don’t crumble bread with a pattern, / You don’t admire Saint-Mars, / You don’t appreciate Shakespeare a little, / You don’t plunge into daydreaming, / When there’s no thought in your head... / You don’t gallop into the meeting... / What do you need? - Exactly half an hour, / While the horses were harnessed for me, / My mind and heart were occupied / by your gaze and wild beauty. ( Pushkin. Kalmychka).

Anaphora is based on the repetition of a significant element (phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases) at the beginning of each segment of speech (“Wait for me” by K. Simonov). Another example: (6) Open the prison for me, / Give me the radiance of the day, / A black-eyed maiden, / A black-maned horse.(Lerm.).

More rare addition figures are epiphora(repetition of linguistic elements at the end of the speech segment): They bring him vodka. Vodka burns him. Vodka disgusts him.(Gogol. Evenings on a farm near Dikanka), anadiplosi s (contact repeat: linguistic elements the ends of one syntagma are repeated at the beginning of another syntagma); This technique is especially good for creating a slow motion effect: He fell on the cold snow, / On the cold snow, like a pine tree, / Like a pine tree in a damp forest, / Chopped under the resinous root.(Lermontov. Song about the merchant Kalashnikov );

epanadiplosis: using the same word at the beginning and end of a statement: You don’t love people, you don’t even love your children. Elections are a hectic and expensive business, and are elections necessary?simploca (epanaphora)- combination of anaphora and epiphora; symbolizes the natural connection of prerequisites, beginning and result, in addition, it can symbolize movement in a circle: Kondrat Trifonovich takes the greasy cards and begins to play grand solitaire. He wonders whether his rye will be born on his own, but it doesn’t work out. He wonders whether Agatha will stay with him - It doesn’t work out. He wonders whether his estate will be sold at public auction, but it doesn’t work out. (S.-SH .) , Epanalepsis ‑(Greek ‘fall after again’) – repetition of a word or part of a statement after intermediate words: I swear to tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth!Epimone (epiphoneme) from Greek ‘delay, stop ’ - a figure consisting of the use of an explanatory or exclamatory sentence after an affirmative one with the same general content to give the first greater weight = Russian . He again went to the boss damn him!

These addition figures can be accompanied by parcellation:

Here epiphora + parcellation.

The repetition of a verse or group of verses at the end of a poetic stanza or song verse is called refrain(chorus - in the song).

Syntactic convergence (I.V. Arnold) is a group of several elements that coincide in function and are united by the same syntactic relation to the word or sentence that subordinates them. This can be a group of homogeneous members of a sentence or subordinate clauses as part of a complex sentence. Often syntactic convergence is complicated by stylistic devices: repetition, parallel structures, polysyndeton, alliteration, gradation, etc., thus developing into stylistic convergence as the accumulation at a certain point in the text of a bunch of different stylistic devices in one stylistic function(Riffaterre).

Synth effect convergence can be based on the semantic and grammatical heterogeneity of syntactically homogeneous members. This phenomenon called syllepsis– this is a deliberately illogical listing of objects; a number of homogeneous members of a sentence, where, in contrast to normative usage, homogeneous elements consist of words that do not coincide in meaning (i.e., the words belong to different lexical-semantic groups): (10) Everyone has their own troubles at home: wife, apartment, salary; There are a lot of informers. Among them are pilots, salesmen, designers, patients, just men and women.(Zhv.). The satirical effect here is created by the chaotic listing in a homogeneous row of the names of people by profession, appearance, state of health, etc.; Well, women are divided into young and rest. Among the rest are smart, wise, with a man's mind, with feminine charm, loving wives, mothers, production workers, pilots, paratroopers and whoever else is there(Zhv.); He began to wait for the waiter or to talk to someone.(Zhv.) - Here, in a homogeneous row, words of different parts of speech. The weather was good outside and there was a girl in a white dress; He washed his clothes diligently and with soap.

Very interesting are the types of syllepsis that are formed using syntactic application, when words from a homogeneous series realize different meanings polysemantic nuclear word: The chicken laid an egg, and the students laid a monument in the square. This phenomenon is called zeugmoy . There are interesting cases when homogeneous elements realize a free and phraseologically related meaning keyword: They sent the horses and the chairman to the fields, and they themselves went to dance ( Zhv.) – here is the word send (horses and obscenities) implements 3 meanings depending on the object: 1) direct somewhere; 2) convey in words feelings for someone; 3) strive to separate from someone. If the object is an animal, then the meaning of the word send- direct, if the person is phraseologically related. He swallowed the insult and a piece of boiled pork; Drivers Larionov and Kutko, using weaknesses and a counter plan, as well as an empty car, took on additional obligations and ordered to live long(Live. Meeting at the distillery).

Another addition figure is gemination. It depicts multiplicity, variety of objects and phenomena, duration, repetition and intensity of actions. Gemination is a contact repetition of the same words or phrases at least three times: Give freedom, freedom, freedom - / And I don’t need happiness(Lerm.).

In this regard, they also play an important role polysyndeton and a figure of decrease - asyndeton.

In the narrow sense of the word polysyndeton– multi-union. In the broad sense - polyunion and multiple clauses. This figure has 2 visual functions: a description of slow motion, slowly occurring events, as well as a description of various events: ...And for him rose again / And deity, and inspiration, / And life, and tears, and love(P.)

Asyndeton– non-union, has opposite functions. It depicts the rapid change of events, as well as their monotony and monotony: (11) ...Flies, flies, looks back / Doesn’t dare; instantly ran / Curtains, bridges, meadows, / An alley to the lake, a forest, / Broke the siren bushes, / Flying through the flower beds to the stream, / And, out of breath, on a bench / Fell(Pushkin. Evgeny Onegin). The only union here symbolizes the stopping of Tatyana’s run. And here is an example of a combination of polysyndeton and asyndeton, where the first conveys a slow flow of life. And the second is its monotony, monotony: (12) In the wilderness, in the darkness of confinement ( asyndeton) / My days passed quietly / Without a deity. Without inspiration, / Without tears, without life, without love(polysyndeton). Pushkin.

Morphemes can also be repeated. This phenomenon is called homeology.

Possible (13)

Repetition of inflections (homeotelevton): : Damask steel sounded, grapeshot screeched, / The fighters’ hands were tired of stabbing, / And the cannonballs were prevented from flying / A mountain of bloody bodies;

Homeoeopton: root repetition, repetition of identical or similar suffixes and prefixes (expressive agreement): From the face yushch them, idly chatting yushch theirs, / Obagrya yushch their hands are bloody / Lead me to the camp of destruction yushch them / for the great cause of love(Nekrasov)

Decrease figures based on the display of uniqueness,

inability to display large countable quantities, long segments, etc. In this regard, decreasing figures reflect, first of all, the dismemberment of a set into separate parts, very heterogeneous in their significance. Hence their ability to display jumping from detail to detail, flickering, speed of movement, depicting speed mental processes. Decrease figures include ellipsis, asyndeton, aposiopesis and prosyopesis.

Ellipsis in stylistics is the omission of an implied element within a sentence. The figurativeness of the ellipse is associated with the characteristic of the speed of change in the situation. More often, the verbal predicate is omitted, which allows you to focus attention not on the movement itself, but on the external circumstances accompanying it or objects associated with it: Tatiana in the forest; the bear is behind her(Pushkin). The figurativeness of the ellipse increases if not only the name of the process itself is omitted, but even the object itself: The law prohibits taking his [a peasant's] life. But is it instant?(Radishchev)

Aposiopesis- a figure of decrease based on reticence, the supposed omission of a word or phrase at the end of a sentence. The lack of agreement hints at the unexpectedness of the interruption of speech, caused by a feeling of shame, anger, strong excitement, shock. Unlike an ellipse, omitted components are restored with great difficulty and not always unambiguously: I don’t need cherevikovs - I don’t need cherevikovs... - Further she [ Oksana ] didn’t finish and blushed. Gogol. The intonation contour of aposiopesis in writing corresponds to an ellipsis. A type of aposiopesis is apokopa - the reproduction of a segment of speech in which the last syllable or syllables are unspoken due to a sudden and unintentional break (extreme excitement, death, shock): I saw: the moon bent over the corpse, / And the dead lips whispered: “Grena...”(Svetlov). Sometimes deliberate omission last syllable is associated with a transparent hint at the meaning of the unsaid: I love you…

Prosiopesis- a figure of decrease based on the omission of a segment of speech, text, preceding a given statement. The pass is easily restored due to the fact that it represents well-known catchwords. Phraseologisms, proverbs, situations. In writing, this figure is usually preceded by an ellipsis or a special intonation at the beginning of the statement. Often used in newspaper headlines: ...On ships, on lines, and on other long matters...(Lighthouse.)

PLACEMENT FIGURES are a means of accentuation of a word or part of a statement. The idea of ​​an unusual placement is achieved due to a violation of contact, i.e. location at a distance from what should be nearby. This purpose is served either simply pause, which does not correspond to the usual syntactic or semantic division (parcelation, synaphy and chant), or a pause filled with intervening alien lexical-syntactic content (tmesis, diacope, parentesis and anapodaton).

Parcellation– a figure of placement, consisting in dividing the initial integral structure into 2 intonationally separate segments: the basic structure and the parcel (in postposition). The dissection is accompanied by an intermittent rhythm (excessive pause) and intonation of explanation, implemented in the parcel. A dot is placed at the place of the pause in the letter: Write TV stories. TV novels. TV conversations. Teleplays.(Andronikov). I'm filming. I spoil it. Children are the flowers of life. At the grave of his parents.

Sinaphia– transferring part of a phrase or word from one stanza to another (emphasis technique):

I broke the siren bushes,

Flying through the flower beds to the stream,

And, out of breath, onto the bench

Fell...

“Here he is! Evgeniy is here! A.S. Pushkin

Tmesis– a placement figure characterized by a violation of contact repetition as a result of wedging another word between repeating components: Free at last! Free at last! O God Almighty! Free at last!(from the inscription on the grave of Martin Luther King).

Parentesa- insertion inside a sentence of a word, phrase or other sentence that is not grammatically connected to it: …(14) His enemies, his friends / (Which, perhaps, are the same thing) / He was honored in this way and that(P.). The insertion may be so long that a repetition of the previous text is necessary. This type of parentesis is called Anapodaton: A citizen lay in wait for this cat at the moment when an animal with a thieving look (what can you do, that cats have such a look? This is not because they are vicious, but because they are afraid that one of the creatures stronger than them - dogs or people - did not cause them any harm or offense. Both are very easy, but there is honor. I assure you, there is no, yes, no), yes, and so, with a thieving look, the cat was going to rush for some reason into burdocks(Bulgakov).

Emphase– emotionally enhanced accentuation, modal underlining of a word using:

· emphatic stress, i.e. lengthening vowels or consonants in a word: Fist is my position. Fist - Mordovo rrrr from!(Nekrasov);

· letter pronunciation(term by L.V. Shcherba): How not to turn from a victim into a [blame]‑ “Streets of Broken Lanterns”

· syllabic parcellation: Shay-boo! Shay-boo!

· diakope – another nominative unit is inserted into a word or phraseological unit: I - Rah, I - ma, I - neither,- I- new (from the magazine “Satyricon”)

syllable repetition: That’s why Vologda is always dear to me -where-where-where, Vologda- where

PERMUTATION FIGURES convey not only a change in direction, but precisely movement in reverse direction. The idea of ​​this is achieved through violation usual order following (what should be later is placed earlier, and vice versa). This includes figures inversion And hysteroneproterone. Inversion example: The centurion brought his young wife to his house. The young wife was good. The young wife was rosy and white.(Gogol). Hysteronproterone is a figure based on the rearrangement of words and consisting in an arrangement that does not correspond to the temporal or logical sequence of the described phenomena. Typically reflects disordered thoughts and feelings caused by strong emotion. The component that comes first is sometimes subject to metaphorical rethinking: ...We will die / And rush into the thick of the battle(Virgil). Here the logical and temporal sequence suggests the reverse order - ‘let’s rush and die’, but we'll die means ‘forgetting about everything that connects with life’. Stale cognac, watered-down bread... A. Shaganov. Cut into pieces, broken into shreds... (c) A. Vasiliev, "Spleen"

Hypallaga is defined by us both as a semantic-syntactic rearrangement, based on the redistribution of static and procedural features of the subject, and as a result of this rearrangement, for example: “ IN sandy steppes Arabian land Three proud palm trees grew high ” (Lermontov 1972: 147)< “росли высокие пальмы”; “I I'm listening my penates always rapturous silence ” (Mandelshtam 1990: 68)< “восторженно слушаю тишь”; “She is walking along a path up the mountain. Sunset reflection on the face and on the wedding ring Sliding orange ” (Severyanin 1988: 59)< “скользит оранжевый отблеск”.

Some of the figures are hybrid: zeugma combines addition and subtraction, aposiopesis– decrease in placement. The hybrid figure is simple chiasmus– reverse, mirror-symmetrical arrangement of words in each of the 2 parts of the statement: My God, what spiritual misery! Cards and saber, saber and cards... ( Sholokhov). Here addition is combined with permutation.

Anacoluthon(from ancient Greek ἀνακόλουθον - “inconsistent”, “inappropriate”) - a rhetorical figure consisting of incorrect grammatical agreement of words in a sentence, made through an oversight or how stylistic device(stylistic error) to give a stylistic characteristic to the speech of a character. Anacoluth is excretory in nature and plays its role against the background of grammatically correct speech. Anacoluth is used in particular to characterize the speech of a character who does not speak the language very well (a foreigner, a child, or simply a person of little culture).

Colonel Skalozub in the comedy “Woe from Wit” by A. S. Griboyedov says instead of “I am ashamed, as an honest officer”:

Or in Tolstoy L.N. the chairman of the court, a man apparently brought up in French, says : Would you like to ask a question?

Or in M. Bulgakov, Professor Preobrazhensky points out the presence of an error in the statement of the proletarian Shvonder:

“We, the management of the building,” Shvonder spoke with hatred, “came to you after a general meeting of the residents of our building, at which the issue of densifying the apartments of the building was raised...” “Who stood on whom?” - Philip Philipovich shouted, - take the trouble to express your thoughts more clearly.- Michael Bulgakov dog's heart

Anacoluth is also widely used as a means of humorous, satirical depiction: Approaching this station and looking at nature out the window, my hat flew off. Chekhov A.P. complaint book

I recently read from a French scientist that a lion's face does not at all resemble a human face, as scientists think. And we’ll talk about this. Come, do me a favor. Come at least tomorrow, for example. Chekhov A.P. Letter to a learned neighbor

However, grammatical irregularity, attracting attention to itself, can give speech a more expressive character, and therefore writers of different eras and movements resort to anacoluth in the author’s speech to create an emotional emphasis:

The smell of shag and some sour cabbage soup from there made it almost unbearable life in this place- Pisemsky A.F. Senile sin

The one that the bull on Lesbos suddenly saw, roared and, swirling towards her from the hill, poked his horn, entering under her arm.- Soloviev S. V. Amort

Anakolufu is close solecism(from Ancient Greek σολοικισμός (Latin soloecismus), from the name Ancient Greek Σόλοι (Latin Soloe)) - syntactically wrong turn speech that does not distort the meaning of the statement; wrong syntactic phrase, an error in the choice of grammatical forms for any syntactic construction. Solecism, as a rule, occurs when the rules for agreeing the members of a sentence or the rules for agreeing main and subordinate clauses are violated.

Examples of violation of agreement between sentence members: “ Those who need sanatorium treatment must be provided with it” (instead of “... will be provided with it”).

“One or two of my comrades” (instead of “...or two of my comrades”).

“What time is it?” (instead of “What time is it?”).

An example of a sentence agreement violation: “ I am ashamed, like an honest officer"(A.S. Griboyedov. Woe from Wit).

Example of other solecisms in Russian:

"If you wanted"

Inconsistent participial turnover:

« Arriving in Belev, we luckily came across good flat "and others (D. I. Fonvizin. Letters to relatives)

« Although I am not a prophet, but when I see a moth hovering around a candle, I almost always succeed in prophecy"(I. A. Krylov. Plotichka)

« You will agree that, having the right to choose weapons, his life was in my hands, and mine was almost safe: I could attribute my moderation to generosity alone, but I don’t want to lie"(A.S. Pushkin. Shot)

« At first he was surprised and wanted to understand what it meant; then, making sure that he could not understand this, he became bored"and others (L.N. Tolstoy. Anna Karenina)

« Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat flew off"(A.P. Chekhov. Book of Complaints)

« Unable to balance on skis and with no experience on ice, his chances of returning to civilization would be slim."(Roald Amundsen. South Pole/ Translation from Norwegian by M. P. Dyakonova, edited by M. A. Dyakonov)

Hyperbaton - a figure consisting of highlighting the topic of a statement by placing it at the beginning or end of a phrase, usually with a break syntactic connection(in which way the hyperbaton is close to the anacoluth).

« I am a researcher of the stars, planets and their laws, what does the truth of God require of me? “You have very skillfully increased the insight of your vision, so that you can see in the heavens what is invisible to the simple eye, strive to also skillfully increase the insight of your hearing, so that you can clearly hear and proclaim to others how the heavens will tell the glory of God.” Saint Philaret, Metropolitan of Moscow and Kolomna.

Here the first sentence contains a hyperbaton: " I am a researcher of the stars, planets and their laws, which is what the truth of God requires of me?”, which consists of placing the topic of the statement at the beginning and specially designing it with a break, but not a violation of the syntactic connection.

Literature

Main

1. Golub I. B. Stylistics of the modern Russian language / I. B. Golub. – M.: Russian language, 1997. – 256 p.

2. Kozhina M.N. Stylistics of the Russian language / M.N. Kozhina. – 3rd ed. - M.: Nauka, 1993. – 289 p.

3. Culture of Russian speech: Encyclopedic dictionary-reference book / Ed. L. Yu. Ivanova, A. P. Skovorodnikova, E. N. Shiryaeva and others - M.: Flinta: Nauka, 2003. - 840 p.

4. Rosenthal D. E. Practical style Russian language / D. E. Rosenthal. – M.: MSU, 1987. – 312 p.

Additional

5. Vinogradov V.V. Stistics. Theory of poetic speech. Poetics / V. V. Vinogradov. – M.: Nauka, 1963. – 323 p.

6. Gvozdev A. N. Essays on the stylistics of the Russian language / A. N. Gvozdev. – M.: Russian language, 1965. – 297 p.

7. Efimov A. N. Stylistics of the Russian language / A. N. Efimov - M.: Russian language, 1969. - 222 p.

8. Culture of Russian speech: Textbook for universities / Ed. L.K. Graudina and E.N. Shiryaeva. – M.: Languages ​​of Slavic culture, 1998. – 420 s.