An important aspect of orthoepy is emphasis , that is, the sound emphasis of one of the syllables of the word. Stress on a letter is usually not indicated, although in some cases (when teaching Russian to non-Russians) it is customary to put it.
Distinctive features of Russian accent are its diversity and mobility. The difference lies in the fact that the stress in Russian can be on any syllable of a word ( book, signature- on the first syllable; lantern, underground- on the second; hurricane, spelling - on the third, etc.). In some words, the stress is fixed on a specific syllable and does not move during the formation of grammatical forms, in others it changes place (compare: ton - tons And wall - wall- to the walls And wallam).
The last example shows the mobility of the Russian accent. This is the objective difficulty of mastering accent norms. “However,” as K.S. rightly notes. Gorbachevich, - if the variety of places and mobility of Russian stress create some difficulties in its assimilation, then these inconveniences are completely compensated by the ability to distinguish the meaning of words using the place of stress (flour- torment, coward- Cowardly, loaded on the platform- submerged in water) and even the functional and stylistic consolidation of accent options (Bay leaf, but in botany: Laurus family). Particularly important in this regard is the role of stress as a way of expressing grammatical meanings and overcoming homonymy of word forms.” As scientists have established, most words in the Russian language (about 96%) have a fixed stress. However, the remaining 4% are the most common words that make up the basic, frequency vocabulary of the language.
Here are some rules of spelling in the area of stress that will help prevent corresponding errors.
Stress in adjectives
In full forms of adjectives, only fixed stress is possible on the stem or on the ending. The variability of these two types in the same word forms is explained, as a rule, by a pragmatic factor associated with the distinction between rarely used or bookish adjectives and adjectives of frequency, stylistically neutral or even reduced. In fact, less frequently used and bookish words are often stressed on the base, while high-frequency, stylistically neutral or reduced words are stressed on the ending.
The degree of mastery of a word is manifested in the variants of stress: circle And mug Oh, spare And spare, near-Earth And near-Earth, minus And minus Oh, clean And purification Such words are not included in the Unified State Examination tasks, since both options are considered correct.
And yet, the choice of stress location causes difficulties most often in short forms of adjectives. Meanwhile, there is a fairly consistent norm, according to which the stressed syllable of the full form of a number of common adjectives remains stressed in the short form: Beautiful- beautiful- beautiful- Beautiful- beautiful; unthinkable - unthinkable- unthinkable- unthinkable- unthinkable and so on.
The number of adjectives with movable stress in the Russian language is small, but they are often used in speech, and therefore the stress norms in them need comments. The emphasis often falls on the stem in the form of masculine, neuter and plural. numbers and feminine endings: right- rights- right- RIGHTS- rights; GRAY - gray- gray- sulfur- sulfur; slim- built- slim- slim- slimA.
Such adjectives usually have monosyllabic stems without suffixes or with simple suffixes (-k-, -n-). However, one way or another there is a need to turn to a spelling dictionary, since a number of words “stand out” from the specified norm. You can, for example, say: length And LONG, FRESH And fresh, full And FULL etc.
It should also be said about the pronunciation of adjectives in the comparative degree. There is such a norm: if the emphasis in the short form of the feminine gender falls on the ending, then in the comparative degree it will be on the suffix -ee: strong- stronger, sick- sick, alive- livelier, slimmer- slimmer, right - right; if the accent in the feminine gender is on the basis, then to a comparative degree it is preserved on the basis: beautiful- more beautiful, sad- Sadder, disgusting- Nastier. The same applies to the superlative form.
Stress on verbs
One of the most intense stress points in common verbs is the past tense forms.
The stress in the past tense usually falls on the same syllable as in the infinitive: sit- She was sitting, moaning - moaning. hide- hid, started - started. At the same time, a group of common verbs (about 300) obeys a different rule: the emphasis in the feminine form goes to the ending, and in other forms it remains on the stem. These are verbs take. be, take, twist, lie, drive, give, wait, live, call, lie, pour, drink, tear etc. It is recommended to say: live- lived- lived - lived- lived; wait- waited- was waiting- waited - waitedA; pour - lil- poured- Lily- LilA. Derived verbs are also pronounced in the same way. (live, take, finish, spill and so on.).
The exception is words with the prefix You-, which takes the emphasis: survive- survived, poured out - poured out, caused- Called.
For verbs put, steal, send, send The emphasis in the feminine form of the past tense remains on the basis: stole, sent, sent, stole.
And one more pattern. Quite often in reflexive verbs (in comparison with non-reflexive ones), the emphasis in the past tense form goes to the ending: begin- I began, I began, I began, I began; accepted - accepted, acceptedb, Accepted, Accepted.
About verb pronunciation call in conjugated form. Recent spelling dictionaries quite rightly continue to recommend stress on the ending: You call, they call, they call, they call, they call. This tradition is based on classical literature (primarily poetry), speech practice of authoritative native speakers.
Accentin some participles and gerunds
The most frequent fluctuations in stress are recorded when pronouncing short passive participles.
If the stress in the full form is on the suffix -yonn- then oh but remains on it only in the masculine form, in other forms it goes to the ending: carried out- carried out, carried outA, carried outO, carried out; introduced- imported, imported, imported, imported. However, native speakers sometimes find it difficult to choose the correct stress location and in the full form. They say: “introduced” instead introduced,"translated" instead translated etc. In such cases, you should consult the dictionary more often, gradually practicing the correct pronunciation.
A few notes on the pronunciation of full participles with a suffix -T-. If the suffixes are indefinite -o-, -well- have an accent on them, then in participles it will move one syllable forward: hollow- hollowed, pricked- chopped, bend- Bent, Wrap- wrapped.
Passive participles of verbs pour And drink(with suffix -T-) are distinguished by unstable stress. You can speak: spilled And spilled, spilled And spilled, spilled(only!), spilled And spilled, spilled And spilled; finished And finished, finished And finish it, finish it And topped up, topped up And additionally, additionally And additional drinks.
Participles often have stress on the same syllable as the indefinite form of the corresponding verb: having invested, given, filled, taken, washed down, exhausted(NO: exhausted) , starting, raising, living, watering, putting, understanding, betraying, undertaking, arriving, accepting, selling, cursing, shedding, permeating, drinking, creating.
Stress in adverbs should mainly be studied by memorizing and referring to a spelling dictionary.
Nouns
alphabet, from Alpha And V AND that
AIRPORTS, motionless stress on 4th syllable
bows,
beard, Vin.p., only in this form singular. stress on 1st syllable
accountants, gen.p.pl.h., motionless stress on 2nd syllable
religion, to confess faith
citizenship
hyphen, from German, where the stress is on the 2nd syllable
dispensary, the word came from English. language through the French language, where the blow. always on the last syllable
agreement
document
blinds,
significance, from adj. zn A cleaned
X's, im.p. plural, motionless emphasis
catalog, in line with the words dial ABOUT g, monol ABOUT g, necrol ABOUT g etc.
quarter, from it. language, where the stress is on the 2nd syllable
kilometer, on a par with the words centime E tr, decim E tr, millim E tr...
konus, konus, motionless stress on the 1st syllable in all cases in singular and plural.
taps, motionless stress on 1st syllable
flint, flint, hit. in all forms on the last syllable, as in the word fire
lecturers, lecturers, see word bow(s)
localities, gen.p.pl., on a par with the word form p ABOUT honors, h E darling... but news E th
garbage chute, on a par with the words gas pipeline ABOUT d, nefteprov ABOUT d, water supply ABOUT d
intention
obituary, see catal ABOUT G
hatred
news, news, but: see m E ness
Nail, nail, motionless stress in all singular forms
adolescence, from ABOUT Trock Teen
partner, from French language, where is the blow. always on the last syllable
briefcase
dowry, noun
appeal, in line with the words poses Y in, from Y in (ambassador), cos Y in, but: ABOUT review (for publication)
orphans, im.p.pl., emphasis in all forms of plural. only on the 2nd syllable
facilities, im.p.pl.h.
tableYar, in the same poison with the words small I r, up I r, schools I R…
convening, see prize Y V
Cakes, cakes
scarves, see b A nts
chauffeur, in line with the words kiosk Yo p, control Yo R…
expert, from French a language where the stress is always on the last syllable
Adjectives
true, short adj. w.r.
old
significant
more beautiful, adj. And adv. in comparative art.
most beautiful, superior.st.
bleeding
kitchen
dexterity, short adj. w.r.
mosaic
visionary, short adj. zh.r., on a par with the words smazl AND wow, fuss AND wow, chatty AND va..., but: prozh ABOUT rliva
plum, derived from sl AND va
Verbs
pamper, on a par with the words indulge, spoil, spoil..., but: darling of fate
take-takeA
take-under
take-take
take up
turn on, turn on,
turn it on, turn it on
join in - join in
burst-burst
perceive-perceived
recreate-recreated
hand it over
drive-drive
chase-chased
get-got
get-got
wait-wait
get through - get through,
They're getting through
dose
wait-waited
live-lived
seal
borrow-borrowed, borrowed,
busy, busy
locked-locked (key, lock, etc.)
call-call
Call, call, call,
exclude-exclude
exhaust
put-klaL
sneak-sneak
bleed
lie-lie
pour-lila
flow-flow
Lie-lied
endow-endow
overstrained-strained
to be called-to be called
tilt-tilt
pour-poured
narvat-narwhal
Litter-LitterIt
start-started, started, started
Call-callIt
Make it easier - make it easier
wet yourself
hug-hug
overtake-overtaken
RIP-RIPED
encourage
take heart, take heart
aggravate
borrow-borrow
Angry
surround-surround
SEAL, on a par with the words formed A yeah, normal A yeah, sort it A ugh...
To be defiled - to be defiled
inquire - inquire
depart-departed
give-gave
Unlock-Unlock
recall-recalledA
respond-responded
Call back-call backIt
overflow-overflow
fruit
Repeat-repeat
call-called
call-call-call-call
water-water
put-put
I understand, I understand
send-sent
arrive-arrived-arrivedA-arrived
accept-accepted-accepted
force
tear-tear
drill-drill-drill-drill
remove-remove
create-created
rip off
Litter-Litter
remove-remove
speed up
deepen
strengthen-strengthen
It's a pinch-it's a pinch
Participles
spoiled
included-on, see downgrading Yo ny
delivered
folded
busy-busy
locked-locked
populated-populated
spoiled see ball ABOUT bathroom
feeding
bleeding
profited
acquired-acquired
poured
hired
started
brought down, brought down, see incl. Yo new...
encouraged-encouraged-encouraged
aggravated
definite-determined
disabled
repeated
divided
understood
accepted
tamed
lived
removed-removed
bent
Participles
sealed
starting
Adverbs
Don't
envious in the meaning of the predicate
ahead of time, colloquial
after dark
more beautiful, adj. And adv. in comparative art.
Orthoepic rules cover only the area of pronunciation of individual sounds in certain phonetic positions or combinations of sounds, as well as features of the pronunciation of sounds in certain grammatical forms, in groups of words or individual words.
It should be highlighted:
a) rules for pronunciation of individual sounds (vowels and consonants);
b) rules for pronunciation of combinations of sounds;
c) rules for pronunciation of individual grammatical forms;
d) rules for pronunciation of individual borrowed words.
The differentiation of styles in the literary language in the field of vocabulary and grammar is also manifested in the field of pronunciation. There are two types of pronunciation style: conversational style and public (book) speech style. Conversational style is ordinary speech, dominant in everyday communication, stylistically weakly colored, neutral. The absence of a focus on perfect pronunciation in this style leads to the appearance of pronunciation variants, for example: [pr O s "ut] and [pr O s"ът], [high O ky] and [high O k"ii]. Book style finds expression in various forms of public speech: in radio broadcasting and sound films, in reports and lectures, etc. This style requires impeccable linguistic design, strict preservation of historically formed norms, and the elimination of pronunciation variations. In cases , when differences in pronunciation are due exclusively to the area of phonetics, two styles are distinguished: full and conversational (incomplete). The full style is distinguished by a clear pronunciation of sounds, which is achieved by a slow pace of speech. The conversational (incomplete) style is characterized by a faster pace and, naturally, less thorough articulation of sounds .
In the Russian literary language, due to certain sound laws (assimilation, dissimilation, reduction) In words, the pronunciation of individual sounds and their combinations was established, which did not correspond to the spelling. We write what, whom, went, studied, but we must pronounce [ what ], [cavo ], [hadil ], [student ], etc. This is generally considered to be the pronunciation norm of the literary language, which was established long before the appearance of the rules of orthoepy. Over time, pronunciation rules were developed that became mandatory for literary speech.
The most important of these rules are the following:
1. Vowel sounds are pronounced clearly (in accordance with their spelling) only under stress ( conversationAND li, xABOUT dim, cmE ly, bE ly, nABOUT Sim). In an unstressed position, vowel sounds are pronounced differently.
2. The vowel o in an unstressed position should be pronounced as a sound close to a [ VA Yes], [XA RA sho], [ToA force], [mountainsAT ], and write - water, good, mowed, city .
3. Unstressed e, i should be pronounced as a sound close to i [ VAND sleep], [passAND private], [plAND satiate], [PAND RAND smatreli], and write - spring, sowing, dance, reviewed .
4. Voiced consonants (paired) at the end of words and before voiceless consonants in the middle of a word should be pronounced as their corresponding paired unvoiced [ duP ], [mountainT ], [breadP ], [MaroWITH ], [daroSh ka], [grisP ki], [aboutZ bah], [smallD bah], [reWITH cue], and it is written - oak, city, bread, frost, path, fungi, request .
5. The sound g should be pronounced as a plosive, except for the word God, which is pronounced aspirated. At the end of words, instead of r, there is a paired voiceless k [ otherTO ], [booksTO ], [bootsTO ], [moTO ], and it is written - friend, books, boots, could etc.
6. Consonants s, z before sibilants zh, sh, ch should be pronounced as long sibilants [ AND burn], [AND feverish], [beLJ worn out], but it is written burn, with heat, lifeless . At the beginning of some words sch sounds like sch [SCH astier], [SCH no], [SCH italy], and it is written - happiness, counting, counting .
7. In some words the combination chn pronounced like [ caneShN A], [boredShN A], [Me andShN itza], [squareShN IR], [NikitiShN A], [SavvySh on], [laundryShN and I], but it is written of course, boring, scrambled eggs, birdhouse, Nikitichna, Savvichna, laundry . In some words, double pronunciation is allowed - bakery -[buloShN and I], lactic - [moloShN th], but only bakery, dairy is written. In most words, the combination chn is pronounced in accordance with the spelling (eternal, dacha, durable, night, stove).
8. Words that should be pronounced as [ what], [shtoby].
9. When a series of consonants collide - rdc, stn, stl, etc., usually one of these sounds is not pronounced. We write: heart, honest, stairs, happy , and we pronounce [ seRC e], [whatCH th], [leCH itza], [nowSL willow].
10. The endings -ogo, -it should be pronounced as ava, iva [ redAVA ],[synWILLOW ], [kavo], [chIVO], and write red, blue, whom, what.
11. Endings -tsya,-tsya(study, studies) are pronounced like - tsa [teachCC A], [daringCC A], [meetingCC A].
12. Letters at the beginning of words uh - e are written in accordance with pronunciation (this, echo, standard, experiment; ride, eat, huntsman).
In a number of foreign words after consonants and And is written e, although pronounced uh(diet, hygiene, atheist, atelier, muffler, coffee, pince-nez, parterre), exceptions: sir, mayor, peer. After other vowels, e is more often written and pronounced (poetry, poet, silhouette, maestro, but: project, register).
In a number of foreign words, after consonants that are pronounced softly, it is written and pronounced e(museum, technical school, academy, dean, decade, cologne, plywood, tempo).
In Russian words after f, w, c pronounced uh, but it is always written e(iron, even, six, quieter, whole, at the end).
13. Double consonants, both in native Russian words and words of foreign origin, are in most cases pronounced as single consonants (that is, without their extension).
We write : Russia, Russian, eleven, public, made, chord, cancel, accompaniment, assistant, carefully, balloon, Saturday, gram, flu, class, correspondent, tennis, etc., and we pronounce these words without doubling these consonants, for with the exception of a few words in which double consonants are written and pronounced (bath, manna, gamma, etc.).
In orthoepy, there is a law of reduction (weakening of articulation) of vowels, according to which vowel sounds are pronounced without change only under stress, and in an unstressed position they are reduced, that is, they are subject to weakened articulation.
In orthoepy, there is a rule according to which the voiced consonants B, V, G, D, Zh, 3 at the end of a word sound like their paired voiceless P, F, K, T, Sh, S. For example: forehead - lo[p], blood - cro[f"], eye - eye[s], ice - le[t], fright - fright[k]. (The sign " denotes the softness of the consonant).
In orthoepy, the combinations Зж and Жж, located inside the root of the word, are pronounced as a long (double) soft sound [ZH]. For example: I’m leaving - I’m leaving, I’m arriving - I’m coming, later - it’s burning, reins - reins, rattling - rattling. The word “rain” is pronounced with a long soft [SH] (SHSH) or with a long soft [ZH] (ZHZH) before the combination ZhZH: dosh, dozhzha, dozzhichek, dozhzhit, dozzhem, dozzhevik.
Combinations of MF and ZCH are pronounced as a long soft sound [Ш"]: happiness - happiness, count - schet, customer - customer.
In some combinations of several consonants, one of them falls out: hello - hello, heart - heart, sun - sun.
The sounds [T] and [D] are softened before the soft [V] only in some words. For example: door - door, two - two, twelve - twelve, movement - movement, Thursday - Thursday, solid - solid, branches - branches, but two, courtyard, supply.
In the words “if”, “near”, “after”, “unless” the sounds [S] and [Z] are softened and pronounced: “if”, “took”, “posle”, “razve”.
In the words ordinary, majestic, especialN-Nyn and others, two “Ns” are pronounced.
The reflexive particle SY in verbs is pronounced firmly - SA: washed, boyals, dressed. The combination of ST sounds before the soft sound [B] is pronounced softly: natural - natural, majestic - majestic.
In ordinary colloquial pronunciation, there are a number of deviations from orthoepic norms. The sources of such deviations are often the native dialect (pronunciation in one or another dialect of the speaker) and writing (incorrect, letter pronunciation corresponding to spelling). So, for example, for natives of the north, a stable dialect feature is okanye, and for southerners - the pronunciation of the [g] fricative. Pronunciation in place of the letter G at the end of the family pad. adjectives sound [g], and in place h(in words of course that) sound [h] is explained by the “literal” pronunciation, which in this case does not coincide with the sound composition of the word. The task of orthoepy is to eliminate deviations from literary pronunciation.
There are a lot of rules in orthoepy and to master them you should consult the relevant literature.
Word stress
Russian stress is the most difficult area of the Russian language to master. It is distinguished by the presence of a large number of pronunciation options: loop and loop, cottage cheese and cottage cheese, rings and rings, beginnings and beginnings, means and means. Russian accent is characterized by diversity and mobility. Variability is the ability of stress to fall on any syllable of Russian words: on the first - iconography, on the second - expert, on the third - blinds, on the fourth - apartments. In many languages of the world, stress is attached to a specific syllable. Mobility is the property of stress to move from one syllable to another when changing (declension or conjugation) of the same word: water - water, I go - you walk. Most words in the Russian language (about 96%) have movable stress. Variability and mobility, historical variability of pronunciation norms lead to the appearance of accent variants for one word. Sometimes one of the options is sanctioned by dictionaries as corresponding to the norm, and the other - as incorrect. Wed: shop, - incorrect; the store is correct.
In other cases, the options are given in dictionaries as equal: sparkling and sparkling. Reasons for the appearance of accent variants: The law of analogy - a large group of words with a certain type of stress influences a smaller one, similar in structure. In the word thinking, the emphasis moved from the root thinking to the suffix -eni- by analogy with the words beating, driving, etc. False analogy. The words gas pipeline, garbage chute are pronounced incorrectly by false analogy with the word wire with the emphasis on the penultimate syllable: gas pipeline, garbage chute. Development of the ability of stress to differentiate the forms of words. For example, with the help of stress, the forms of the indicative and imperative moods are distinguished: restrain, force, take a sip and restrain, force, take a sip. Mixing stress patterns. This reason operates more often in borrowed words, but can also appear in Russian ones. For example, nouns in -iya have two stress patterns: dramaturgy (Greek) and astronomy (Latin). In accordance with these models, one should pronounce: asymmetry, industry, metallurgy, therapy and veterinary medicine, gastronomy, cooking, speech therapy, drug addiction. However, in living speech there is a mixture of models, as a result of which variants appear: cooking and cooking, speech therapy and speech therapy, drug addiction and drug addiction. The effect of the tendency towards rhythmic balance. This tendency appears only in four- to five-syllable words.
If the interstress interval (the distance between stress in neighboring words) turns out to be greater than the critical interval (the critical interval is equal to four unstressed syllables in a row), then the stress moves to the previous syllable. Accent interaction of word-formation types. The variants in the cases spare - spare, transfer - transfer, platoon - platoon, push - push, tidal - tidal, otvodny - otvodny are explained by the accentual interaction of denominal and verbal formations: transfer - from transfer, transfer - from translate, etc. Professional pronunciation: spark (for electricians), mining (for miners), compass, cruisers (for sailors), boy (for salesmen), agony, bite, alcohol, syringes (for doctors), armhole, leaves (for tailors), characteristic (for actors), etc. Trends in the development of stress. In two- and three-syllable masculine nouns, there is a tendency for stress to shift from the last syllable to the previous one (regressive stress). For some nouns this process has ended. Once upon a time they said: turner, competition, runny nose, ghost, despot, symbol, air, pearl, epigraph. In other words, the process of stress transition continues to this day and is manifested in the presence of options: quarter (incorrect quarter), cottage cheese and additional. cottage cheese, contract and extras. contract, dispensary (wrong dispensary), catalog (catalogue not recommended), obituary not recommended (obituary). In feminine nouns also of two- and three-syllables, there is a shift in stress from the first word to the next (progressive stress): kerza - kerza, keta - keta, foil - foil, cutter - cutter. The source of the appearance of variants can be stresses in words with different meanings: linguistic - linguistic, developed - developed, chaos - chaos, flap - flap. Insufficient mastery of exotic vocabulary: pima or pima (shoes), high boots or high boots (shoes), shanga or shanga (in Siberia this is what they call cheesecake). Thus, the norms of modern Russian literary pronunciation are a complex phenomenon.
VI. NORMS OF MODERN RUSSIAN SPEECH
Word orthoepy– international: it exists in many languages and means the same thing – a system of pronunciation rules. Translated from Greek orthos– “straight, correct”, a epos- "speech"; “Orthoepy” literally means “correct speech.”
As is known, the main distinctive quality of a literary language is its normativity. Each sphere of the literary language has its own system of norms, mandatory for all its speakers (for example, lexical, morphological norms). If the system of spelling norms provides a uniform spelling, then orthoepic (pronunciation) norms are designed to unify pronunciation.
The orthoepic norm is the only possible or preferred option for correct, exemplary pronunciation and correct stress placement. Compliance with spelling norms is a necessary sign of cultural, literate speech.
There are many norms in the language that represent the only pronunciation possibility. Most of the phenomena of the sound structure of language are realized uniformly at the level of the norm. So, for example, in place of the spelling O A vowel close to [a] is always pronounced: in hell a" (water"), [a]kno"(window"), and in place of spelling a, i, e– vowel close to [and]: [h"i]sy"(watch"), [p"i]ti"(five"), [in "and]dy"(leading"). In pronunciation, the voiced paired consonants at the end of the word must be deafened: go "ro[t](city), du[n](oak); pronoun What pronounced like [what].
However, many orthoepic norms are embodied simultaneously in several versions: bu"lo[sh]aya And bakery(bakery); vi[zh"]a"t And vi[zh]a"t(squeal); do[w "sh"] And up to[pcs"](rain); [se"]siya And [with "e"]ssia, cottage cheese"g And your "horn, o"tdal And back"l, etc.
How do pronunciation variations arise?
Pronunciation norms of the modern Russian language developed in the first half of the 18th century, but initially as norms of the Moscow dialect, which only gradually began to acquire the character of national norms.
Russian literary pronunciation was consolidated and acquired the character of a national norm in the first half of the 19th century. But already in the second half of the 19th century, the Moscow norm had a competitor - St. Petersburg pronunciation, which gradually strengthened its claims to the role of a general literary model. St. Petersburg pronunciation did not become an orthoepic norm, it was not recognized by the stage; it was the Moscow norm that the artists of the St. Petersburg imperial theaters followed. Some features of St. Petersburg pronunciation subsequently had a significant impact on the development of the system of Russian literary pronunciation.
However, Moscow pronunciation, while retaining its main features (for example, akanye), in many cases has lost its former role as a pronunciation canon.
Indeed, many features of the “exemplary” Moscow pronunciation are now practically lost in the literary language. For example, according to the old Moscow orthoepic norm, most verbs of the second conjugation are in the 3rd person plural. numbers were pronounced with endings -ut, -ut(i.e. the same as verbs of the first conjugation): words "[shu]t, ho"[d"u]t, hva"[l"u]t. The change in pronunciation here followed the path of convergence with spelling. Now they say: words "[shъ]t, ho"[d"ъ]t, khva"[l "ъ]t, i.e. closer to writing -am, -yat.
According to the old Moscow norm, after consonants k, g, x in the adjectives “lonely”, “strict”, “quiet” and verbs like “tapping”, “scaring away”, “waving”, a sound is pronounced that is close in pronunciation to a very short [a] (in transcription it is usually rendered as [ъ]). They said: one "[kj]y, stro"[gj]y, ti"[khj]y; post"[kj]vat, otpu"[gj]-wat, razma"[khj]vat. In the poetry of the last century, this feature of pronunciation was widely used in exact rhymes. These endings were often written using O. Therefore, in M. Yu. Lermontov’s poem “Sail” one should read:
The lonely sail turns white
In the blue sea fog!..
What is he looking for in a distant land? ..
What did he throw in his native land?..
Nowadays, spelling pronunciation is spreading for similar adjectives and verbs: one"[k"i]y, stro"[g"i]y, ti"[x"i]y; post [k"i]vat, let go"[g"i]vat, smear[x"i]vat.
The competition between hard (Old Moscow) and soft (Old Petersburg) pronunciation of reflexive particles (in the personal forms of the verb and in the past tense) is now practically consolidated with the victory of the soft version. The soft pronunciation of reflexive particles has become generally accepted: battle "[s"], gathering "l[s"a], but not battle "[s], gathering"l[sa], as was typical of the old Moscow norm.
Thus, the former opposition of Moscow pronunciation to St. Petersburg has lost its previous meaning and it can be argued that a single pronunciation norm has formed in the modern Russian language.
Development of Russian orthoepy
Introduction
Orthoepy as a science
Development of Russian orthoepy
Variation of stress (accentological aspect)
Accentological options
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
The relevance of this topic lies in the development and formation of modern trends in the Russian language and linguistics. Modern technologies make it possible to study this topic using new approaches.
The historical development of orthoepy, as one of the areas of linguistics, allows us to look for an answer to long-existing expressions (their correctness and incorrectness of pronunciation).
The invasion of Rus' by enemies was the cause of drastic changes in the pronunciation and spelling of words and phrases. Much during the historical period of development was erased by time and irrelevant; Russian reforms made it possible to more actualize the Russian language and unify its composition.
The modern Russian language, which has a long historical basis, should reflect both words from European languages and a historical basis.
The purpose of this work is to trace the development of orthoepy and accentology; and also determine what problems these disciplines study.
1. Orthoepy as a science
Each literary language exists in two forms - oral and written - and is characterized by the presence of mandatory norms - lexical, grammatical and stylistic. At the same time, the written form of the language is also subject to spelling and punctuation norms (i.e., spelling rules), and the oral form is subject to pronunciation, or orthoepic, norms.
The word orthoepia is of Greek origin: orthos - correct, epos - speech. It denotes both a set of pronunciation rules and the science that studies these rules. Orthoepy is the study of the norms of oral speech: the rules of pronunciation of individual sounds and their combinations, the patterns of stress placement.
Good literary pronunciation is one of the important indicators of the general cultural level of a modern person. “The correct pronunciation of a word is no less important than the correct spelling. It is known that incorrect pronunciation distracts the listener’s attention from the content of the statement, thereby complicating the exchange of information... The role of correct pronunciation has especially increased in our time, when oral public speech at meetings and conferences, on radio and television has become a means of communication between thousands and millions of people "
It is especially important to disseminate correct Russian literary pronunciation, since the Russian language is not only the language of the Russian people, but also a means of interethnic communication of all peoples of Russia and one of the international languages of our time.
This is facilitated by special reference and teaching aids, scientific and popular science publications, and regular radio and television broadcasts. However, the central figure in the dissemination of spelling skills was and remains the school teacher. Therefore, a student at a pedagogical university himself must master the norms of orthoepy, clearly imagine in which direction the language norm is developing in the field of stress and pronunciation, and be able to distinguish variants of the norm from non-normative, incorrect pronunciation.
2. Development of Russian orthoepy
Russian literary pronunciation developed gradually, mainly on the basis of Moscow pronunciation norms. In the XIV century. Moscow became the center of the Russian state, therefore the pronunciation and many other norms of the emerging Russian literary language were formed on the basis of the Moscow dialect. The Moscow orthoepic norm was finally formed by the end of the 19th century. This was the pronunciation of the native Moscow intelligentsia.
By the second half of the 19th century. Petersburg pronunciation also formed. If Moscow pronunciation was based on the characteristic features of a living folk language and supported by theatrical tradition (the Maly Theater was the greatest authority in the field of Moscow pronunciation), then St. Petersburg pronunciation was characterized by the preservation of writing features in oral speech, bookishness, and “literalism.” In addition, the St. Petersburg pronunciation was affected by some features of the Northern Great Russian dialects, including the so-called ekanye. Petersburg pronunciation was not recognized by the theater and did not become a literary norm, but some of its features subsequently had a noticeable impact on the development of Russian literary pronunciation.
Before the Great October Socialist Revolution, the influence of the pronunciation skills of such large cultural centers as Kazan and Nizhny Novgorod on oral literary speech was also noticeable. Therefore, there were pronunciation variations, local differences in pronunciation, which prevented the unification of spelling norms.
After October, a change in the social composition of the Russian intelligentsia caused a temporary weakening of the culture of oral literary speech. However, as the masses of speakers mastered the literary language, as their general culture increased, they gradually acquired the pronunciation norms of the literary language. Currently, orthoepic norms have become more uniform, more unified than in the pre-October era. The number of pronunciation variants has decreased. All kinds of pronunciation “idioms” have disappeared or are gradually disappearing, that is, special pronunciation of individual words or their forms that do not correspond to the general orthoepic norms of the language. The most significant differences between Moscow and St. Petersburg (Leningrad) pronunciation have been erased. This happened due to the loss of many specific features of pre-revolutionary Moscow pronunciation.
The result was a convergence of Moscow and Leningrad pronunciation. When people nowadays talk about the “Moscow norm,” they mean the old, pre-October Moscow pronunciation. It was preserved in Moscow in the speech of the older generation of Muscovites back in the 20s and 30s. XX century, but in the post-war period it underwent intensive processing. Now even Moscow theater actors and radio and television announcers are noticeably moving away from specifically Moscow norms.
Some minor differences in the pronunciation of Muscovites and Leningraders still remain, but they are not regular and do not determine the nature of the pronunciation as a whole: in Moscow hiccups are more pronounced, in Leningrad ekanye is sometimes still found, cf.: [r'ie]ka and [r' f]ka, [n'e] middle and [n'e] middle; in Moscow, assimilative softening of consonants is more often observed: [z"d"e]s, [s"n"a]t; stronger is the reduction of vowels of non-upper rise: [gъл^ва], [горът].
In the speech of the inhabitants of the Volga region and the North, a rounded pronunciation may still be preserved.
However, these deviations from the literary norm are irregular and generally do not affect modern orthoepy.
Thus, the main pattern of development of pre-modern Russian orthoepics is the elimination of local pronunciation features, the establishment of uniform orthoepic norms for all speakers of the Russian literary language.
The unification of literary pronunciation occurs largely under the influence of writing: pronunciation in many cases becomes closer to writing. This is due to the strengthening of the social role of written speech in the conditions of universal literacy achieved in the Soviet Union. We learn many linguistic facts not from the oral speech of others, but from books and newspapers. The loss of specific features of the old Moscow pronunciation is primarily due to the influence of the graphic appearance of the word. This is the pronunciation of [l] after hissing (w) and [z] in the first pre-stressed syllable (heat, naughty, steps); the pronunciation of soft back-lingual ones before [i] in adjectives and verbs (quiet, flexible, strict; tap, scare away, wave) ; distinction in the pronunciation of the endings of the 3rd person of the plural of verbs of the 1st and 2nd conjugations (they will say, take out, lay, cackle, but hear, walk, praise, love); pronunciation of a solid long [zh:] in the roots of words ( reins, yeast, squeal); pronunciation of soft [s"] in the postfix -sya (-s) (decided, took, bathed).
3. Variation of holding
(accentological aspect)
The diversity and mobility of the Russian accent create significant difficulties in its assimilation. However, these features of the Russian accent make it possible to use it to distinguish between different words (homographs) that have the same spelling: sharpness (blades) and sharpness (witty expression), ushko (a term of endearment for the word ear) and ushko (hole), atlas (geographical) and atlas ( silk fabric), sharply (sharpen) and sharply (witty), baldly (cut) and baldly (keep the checkers bald), wrinkle (forehead) and wrinkle (about clothes): the dress wrinkles in the "shoulders; chaos (in mythology) and chaos (disorder), pickaxe (Protestant church) and pickaxe (tool); fells (a lumberjack fells a pine tree) and knocks down (people are falling down the street, smoke is pouring out, snow); flour (suffering) and flour (grains ground into powder); cowards ( afraid) and cowardly (runs, jogs), submerged (on the platform) and submerged (in the water), etc.
Using the place of stress, grammatical forms of words that coincide in spelling (homoforms) are also distinguished: blood test (R. p.) - in the blood (P. p.); will not shake hands (R. p.) - clean hands (I. p. plural); trim (perfective) - trim (imperfect); load (indicative mood) - load (imperative mood); coat is small (short form of adjective) - slept little (adverb); around (TV of the noun circle) - around (adverb or preposition) - silently (adverb) - silently (gerund); stand freely (adverb, circumstance) - he was free to leave (state category, predicate); it’s tricky to say (adverb, circumstance) - it’s tricky to figure it out (category of state, part of the predicate to figure it out).
Being an important distinctive means, Russian variegated and mobile stress eliminates the monotony of speech and promotes its rhythmic organization. In particular, thanks to the different places of stress, Russian poetic speech is distinguished by its exceptional richness of rhythms and the variety of musical construction of verse.
4. Accentological options
Accentological variations within the literary norm are an inevitable consequence of the evolution of language. As a rule, they do not differ in either semantic or grammatical meanings. For example: thinking - thinking, barge - barge, born - born, flooded - flooded, true - true, to the hut - to the hut, to the bridge - to the bridge, etc. Such equivalent (in meaning, but not use) accentological doublets in the modern Russian language there are a lot - more than 5,000 commonly used words." The variability of stress ensures a less abrupt and painful transition from the old literary norm to the new. For example, the emphasis "cemetery" was generally accepted in the literary language of the 19th century, the new variant "cemetery" gradually began to come into use in the end of the 19th century. The old version is still used in poetry. In the 18th - 19th centuries the accent turner was the norm. Fluctuations (turner and turner) began at the end of the 19th century and continued until the 30s of the 20th century. Now everyone is talking turner, but you can also find a cooper and a cooper.
The reasons for the change in stress are various. Sometimes dialect stress competes with the literary one (cf. lit. keta and Far Eastern keta). The stress in some little-known, exotic words fluctuates (pima - pima, unty - unty).
Stress variations are common in many borrowed words, which is due to the influence of different source languages, and in some cases, intermediary languages. So, in the 30s. The variants revolver and revolver (later - only revolver) were normative, since this word was traced back to different source languages - French and English. Borrowed in the 18th century. from the German language the word alcohol was pronounced alcohol, but later, under the influence of the French language, alcohol began to be pronounced. Under the influence of the Polish language, which was an intermediary in borrowing, the emphasis in the words document, department, heretic, climate fluctuated (now only document, heretic, climate).
Some accentological variants originate or persist in a professional environment: agony (among doctors), atom, atomic (among physicists), spark (among drivers), complex numbers (among mathematicians), report (among sailors), chassis (among pilots), mania (at doctors). In the speech of miners, the obsolete "in modern literary language" accent "prey", in the speech of sailors - compass, has been preserved. Many outdated accents are preserved in poetry. From professional speech, the stresses wind, text, cutter, boy have come into the literary language. Now in the speech of teachers, the stress has become widespread teenage, although it is not recognized by spelling dictionaries.
At the same time, church pronunciation (price, endures, protects), seminarian (teacher, library, plural, catastrophe), class variants (noble principle or principle and heterogeneous, including seminarian, principle or principle) have long been forgotten.
The accentological features of borrowed words are often ignored if the borrowing is carried out using an intermediary language. So, through Latin in the 16th-18th centuries. such dissimilar names as England, France, Nor-ge were borrowed, which in Russian received the same type of structural and accentological design: England, France, Norway. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. through the French language, many words were borrowed from various Western European languages, which in Russian received an emphasis on the last syllable, characteristic of the French language, including the English Liverpool, Milton; Hamlet, Shakespeare, Newton, etc.
Words borrowed through the Turkic medium usually have stress on the last syllable, even if this stress does not correspond to the original one: Mohammed, Ahmet (cf. Arabic Ahmad, Muhammad).
For the Russian language, the stress on the last two syllables is most typical, therefore, most often the stress of the source language remains unchanged in words of French, Polish and Turkic languages. Words borrowed from Germanic, Baltic and Finno-Ugric languages, in which the stress on the first syllable predominates, are perceived as borrowed longer, and in the process of mastering the Russian language they often experience fluctuations in stress. In some borrowed words, fluctuations in stress last for centuries, as they are supported by dictionary tradition and poetic speech.
In the 20th century the number of fluctuations in stress in borrowed words compared to the 19th century. decreased, which indicates their mastery of the Russian language.
Currently, new fluctuations arise in previously borrowed words, caused by the desire to bring the stress of a foreign word closer to the stress in the source language (cf.: Hamlet -> - Hamlet, Los Angeles - Los Angeles, Peru - Peru, Newton-Newton, Bacon -Bacon, etc.).
“Newly borrowed words, as a rule, follow the stress of the source language, because in most cases the time for vibrations to arise in them has not yet come. This must be preceded by a certain period, during which the words must “take root” in the language, become known to the majority of native speakers and “find” an analogue among the words included in the vocabulary system.”
The influence of territorial and social dialects, interlingual contacts, etc. are extra-linguistic factors of change and fluctuation in stress. However, more important are the reasons of an intralingual nature: the influence of analogy, the tendency towards dissimilarity of grammatical forms and an increase in the distinctive role of word stress.
Under the influence of analogy, the stress in the short forms of passive participles is leveled out: feminine forms are increasingly pronounced with an emphasis on the base, like all other forms, and not on the ending, as they were pronounced before: sold, taken, inclined (instead of the only previously acceptable sold, taken , inclined).
The emphasis in derived stems is increasingly moving away from the emphasis in producing ones: whirlwind - whirlwind (in dictionaries it is also indicated to whirlwind), luxury - luxurious, tiger - tiger, brake - brake (old accents luxurious, tiger, brake), think - thinker, rid - deliverer, console - comforter (in the 18th - early 19th centuries: thinker, deliverer, comforter). The emphasis has been shifted to the suffix -enie in the words calculation, straightening, appointment, melting (in 18th century dictionaries: calculation, straightening, purpose, melting). The original emphasis of the words intention, provision, concentration is retained, although violations of the literary norm are common: provision, concentration, intention. The emphasis in the words thinking, discovery, vulgarization, simplification (linguistic term) and simplification fluctuates within the literary norm.
A very important pattern of stress changes has been established: Russian stress in polysyllabic words gravitates towards the center of the word, and the most common words do not have more than three unstressed syllables in a row.
Outdated accentological options are fixed in stable phrases, in phraseological units: run your hand over your forehead (either on the forehead or on the forehead), hang it on the wall (climb the wall), the lip is not a fool (but the lower lip), the onset of morning (from morning to morning), twelve languages (twelve languages), about versts (two versts), worried about the destinies of his sons (what destinies!), cooks porridge (the head is boiling), to the horses (command: on the horses!), bought a goose (as if from a goose water), did not know the need (no need).
At the same time, assigning accentological variants to different meanings of polysemantic words often turns out to be unstable. Increasingly, the distinction between options such as rolling a barrel and rolling on a bicycle, knocking down and snowing, breaking through the door and striking the hour, etc. is being lost, and the more productive option (rolling, knocking, punching) is expanding the scope of use.
Conclusion
The concept of orthoepy and accentology in the modern Russian language has begun to worry literary scholars and linguists.
The correctness and incorrectness of the pronunciation of certain words can be characterized by knowing the history of the Russian language, the system of influence of other linguistic schemes on the Russian language.
Accentological aspects of the development and formation of the Russian language allow us to study the dialectical side of word forms.
The use of modern methods of linguistics allows us to form modern knowledge about the development of the Russian language. Scientific manuals devoted to this topic allow us to explore this topic in a modern context.
The historiography of the Russian language traces the centuries-old history of the formation of the Russian language, pronunciations and spellings of the symbol-sound scheme. The role of historical periods characterizing the modifications of the Russian language is traced.
The Mongol-Tatar invasions, Swedish influence, as well as the type of settlement, local dialects and colloquial forms played a huge role in the development and formation of orthoepy.
List of used literature
Avanesov R.I. Russian literary pronunciation. - 5th ed. - M-, 1972.
Bulakhovsky L. A. Russian literary language of the first half of the 19th century - M., 1994.
Gorbachevich K. S. Norms of the modern Russian literary language. - M., 1998.
Kolesov V.V. Development of word stress in modern Russian pronunciation. - In the book: Development of the Russian language after the Great October Socialist Revolution. L., 1997.
Obnorsky S.P. Selected works on the Russian language. - M., 1990
Panov M.V. On pronunciation styles. - In the collection: Development of the modern Russian language. M., 1993.
Panov M.V. Modern Russian language: Phonetics. - M., 1999.
Development of phonetics of the modern Russian language. - M., 2001.
Russian literary pronunciation and stress: Dictionary-reference book. /Ed. R. I. Avanesova and S. I. Ozhegova. - M., 1990.
Dictionary of accents for radio and television workers. / Comp. F.L Ageenko and M.V. Zarva; edited by D. E. Rosenthal. - 4th ed. - M, 2001.
Superanskaya A.V. Stress in borrowed words in modern Russian. - M., 1968.
Superanskaya A.V. Emphasis in proper names in modern Russian. - M., 1966.
Tekuchee A.V. Teaching the Russian language in dialect conditions. - M., 1994.
Ushakov D.N. Moscow pronunciation.-Rus. speech, 1968, No. 2.
Shcherba L.V. On the norms of exemplary Russian pronunciation. - In the book: Selected works on the Russian language. M., 1997.
Similar abstracts:
Principles of classification of speech sounds. Characteristics of basic phonetic units. The concept of phoneme as a unit of language. Orthoepic and accentological norms. Errors in the pronunciation of some grammatical forms. Rules for pronunciation of borrowed words.
The problem of correct speech in transitional eras. Normative and non-normative forms of the national language. Main features and variants of the literary language. Concept and types of norms. Orthoepic rules and pronunciation styles. Examples of accentological options.
Orthology is the science of speech culture. Three components: normative, communicative and ethical. The use of communicative qualities in speech interaction. Phonetic and orthoepic norms of the Russian language. A set of rules of oral speech.
Norm as one of the central linguistic concepts. The concept of a language norm and its functions. Written and oral norms of the modern Russian language. Sources for updating the literary norm. Colloquialisms and jargons. Language norms and speech practice.
Orthoepic norms of the Russian literary language regulate the correct pronunciation of sounds in various phonetic positions, with other sounds, in certain grammatical forms and individual words. A distinctive feature of pronunciation is uniformity. Spelling errors can negatively affect listeners’ perception of speech. They can distract the interlocutor’s attention from the essence of the conversation, causing misunderstanding and irritation. Pronunciation that corresponds to orthoepic standards facilitates the communication process and makes it more effective.
Orthoepic norms determined by the phonetic system of the language. Each language is characterized by its own phonetic laws governing the pronunciation of sounds and the words they create.
The basis of the Russian literary language is the Moscow dialect, however, in Russian orthoepy, the so-called “younger” and “senior” norms are distinguished. The first reflects the distinctive features of modern pronunciation, the second draws attention to Old Moscow spelling norms.
Basic rules of pronunciation
In the Russian language, only those vowels that are under stress are clearly pronounced: garden, cat, daughter. Those vowels that are in an unstressed position may lose clarity and clarity. This is the law of reduction. Thus, the vowel “o” at the beginning of a word without stress or in pre-stressed syllables can be pronounced like “a”: s(a)roka, v(a)rona. In unstressed syllables, an unclear sound can be pronounced in place of the letter “o”, for example, like the first syllable in the word “head”.
The vowel sound “and” is pronounced like “y” after a preposition, a hard consonant, or when pronouncing two words together. For example, “pedagogical institute”, “laughter and tears”.
As for the pronunciation of consonants, it is guided by the laws of deafening and assimilation. Voiced consonants facing a dull sound are deafened, which is a characteristic feature of Russian speech. An example is the word “pillar”, the last letter of which is stunned and pronounced like “p”. There are very, very many such words.
In many words, instead of the sound “ch”, one should pronounce “sh” (the word “what”), and the letter “g” in endings is read as “v” (the words “mine”, “nobody” and others).
As mentioned above, orthoepic norms deal with the pronunciation of borrowed words. Usually such words obey the norms existing in the language, and only sometimes can they have their own characteristics. One of the most common rules is to soften the consonants before “e”. This can be seen in words such as “faculty”, “cream”, “overcoat” and others. However, in some words the pronunciation may vary (“dean”, “terror”, “therapy”).
Orthoepic norms– these are also norms for setting stress, which is not fixed in the Russian language. This means that in different grammatical forms of the word the stress may differ (“hand” - “hand _
9. Stress norms in modern Russian
Accent- This is a mandatory feature of the word. This is the highlighting of a syllable in a word by various means: intensity, duration, tone movement. Russian stress is unfixed (various places) and mobile (moves in different grammatical forms of one word). Stress serves to distinguish the grammatical forms of a word. Sometimes stress serves as a sign by which the meanings of a word differ (homographs). In the accentological norm, there are such concepts as proclitic and enclitic. A proclitic is an unstressed word adjacent to a stressed word in front. An enclitic is an unstressed word attached to the back of a word. In addition, there are words in the language with so-called double stress, these are accentological variants. Sometimes they are equal, often one may be preferable.