Methods of teaching history in tables and diagrams. Curriculum and Linear Structure

Methods of teaching history in diagrams, tables, descriptions

Korotkova M. V., Studenikin M. T.

The revision of the content of school history education, its liberation from everything outdated and from existing stereotypes, led to significant changes in the methods of teaching history. These changes affected the entire educational process: goals, methods, forms, teaching aids. There is an active search for ways to stimulate student independence as part of optimizing the entire educational process.

This manual takes this trend into account. It was developed in accordance with the temporary state standard and consists of six sections. The manual takes into account both modern and pre-revolutionary experience in teaching history. After an introductory historiographical and methodological overview, the main factors in the learning process are examined. The main attention is paid to the analysis of students’ cognitive abilities, ways to develop their interest in history, and ways to solve this problem are revealed. Based on the results of research in the field of psychological processes, schemes have been developed for students’ cognitive capabilities when teaching history and the development of schoolchildren’s motivation and interest in the subject.

Only taking into account the cognitive capabilities of students and their interest in the subject is it possible to select the content of historical material and fruitful joint activities of teachers and students in history lessons. It includes techniques for studying theoretical and factual material, chronology and cartography, and written sources. Schemes and tables have been developed for the use of these techniques in the learning process.

These diagrams and tables help highlight the basic knowledge and skills that students must master in the process of studying a course on methods of teaching history. In particular, these are methods of scientific research, the main factors of the learning process, their objective connections; goals of school history teaching; content of educational complexes, etc. Diagrams and tables provide an opportunity to methodically correctly work with a history textbook; put into practice methodological approaches to the selection of the content of educational material; determine the level of knowledge and skills of students and outline tasks for their further development.

In general, this manual will help the history teacher and trainee:

Identify the level of knowledge and skills in history of students of a particular class and age;

Specify learning objectives by grade, course, section and topic;

Put specific tasks training and determine the effectiveness of their implementation at different stages;

Select historical content for the lesson in accordance with the goals and objectives of learning, the cognitive capabilities of students;

Correlate the content of training with the methods and techniques used;

Develop tests logical tasks, notes with reference signals;

Apply the most effective methods, forms and means of teaching;

Anticipate and identify learning outcomes by making adjustments to your pedagogical activity.

The central place in the book is occupied by the problem of a history lesson and the teacher’s preparation for it. The learning process is shown as a joint activity of teacher and students, pedagogical cooperation in mastering historical content, techniques and skills. Among them are skills in working with a textbook, as well as chronological, cartographic, planning and a number of others.

Structurally, the book consists of sections and topics. For each topic, positions are highlighted - these are diagrams and tables, descriptions of them, as well as lists of recommended literature. The appendix contains possible questions for the exam, test tasks for self-testing and answers to them, as well as the teacher’s requirements for himself taken from the pre-revolutionary publication. Their implementation in a modern school will help organize and conduct a high-quality and highly effective history lesson.

“METHODOLOGY FOR TEACHING HISTORY IN DIAGRAMS AND DESCRIPTION TABLES Practical guide for teachers Preface The revision of the content of school history... "

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M.V.KOROTKOVA, M.T.STUDENIKIN

METHODOLOGY FOR TEACHING HISTORY IN

DIAGRAMS TABLES DESCRIPTIONS

Practical guide for teachers

Preface

The revision of the content of school history

whom education, freeing him from everything outdated, from the word

existing stereotypes have led to significant changes

in methods of teaching history. These changes affected

the entire educational process: goals, methods, forms, teaching aids.

There is an active search for ways to stimulate student independence as part of optimizing the entire educational process. This manual takes this trend into account.

It was developed in accordance with the temporary state standard and consists of six sections. The manual takes into account both modern and pre-revolutionary experience in teaching history. After an introductory historiographical and methodological overview, the main factors in the learning process are considered. The main attention is paid to the analysis of students’ cognitive abilities, ways to develop their interest in history, and ways to solve this problem are revealed. Based on the results of research in the field of psychological processes, schemes have been developed for the cognitive capabilities of students when learning history and the development of motivation and interest in the subject among schoolchildren.

Only taking into account the cognitive capabilities of students and their interest in the subject is it possible to select the content of historical material and fruitful joint activities of the teacher and students in history lessons. It includes techniques for studying theoretical and factual material, chronology and cartography, and written sources. Schemes and tables have been developed for the use of these techniques in the learning process.

These diagrams and tables help highlight the basic knowledge and skills that students must master in the process of studying a course on methods of teaching history. In particular, these are methods of scientific research, the main factors of the learning process, their objective connections; goals of school history teaching; content of educational complexes, etc. Diagrams and tables provide an opportunity to methodically correctly work with a history textbook; implement in practice methodological approaches to selecting the content of educational material; determine the level of knowledge and skills of students and outline tasks for their further development.

In general, this manual will help a history teacher or trainee:

· identify the level of knowledge and skills in history of students of a particular class and age;

· specify learning goals by grade, course, activity and topic;

· set specific learning objectives and determine the effectiveness of their implementation at different stages;

· select historical content for the lesson in accordance with the goals and objectives of learning, the cognitive capabilities of students;

· correlate the content of training with the methods and techniques used;

· develop tests, logical tasks, notes with reference signals;

· apply the most effective methods, forms and means of training;

· anticipate and identify learning outcomes by making adjustments to your teaching activities.

The central place in the book is occupied by the problem of the history lesson and the teacher’s preparation for it. The learning process is shown as a joint activity of teacher and students, pedagogical cooperation in mastering historical content, techniques and skills. Among them are skills in working with a textbook, as well as chronological, cartographic, planning and a number of others.

SECTION I. TRAINING METHODS

STORIES AS PEDAGOGICAL

SCIENCE Topic 1. Objectives of the methodology for teaching history Objectives and functions of the methodology for teaching history.

The main factors in the process of school history teaching.

The concept of “methodology” in pedagogical science.

Connection of methods of teaching history with other sciences.

Methods of scientific research in school history teaching.

The word “methodology” translated from ancient Greek means “way of knowledge”, “path of research”. A method is a way to achieve a goal or solve a specific problem. History teaching methodology is a pedagogical science about the tasks, content and methods of teaching history. She studies and researches the history teaching process in order to improve its effectiveness and quality. The methodology considers the question of how history should be taught.

Thus, methods are understood as methods of activity; they, for example, can be verbal, printed, visual, practical. The essence of the methods is that they answer the question of how to teach and determine the bilateral activities of the teacher and the student.

The main factors of learning are 1) goals determined by the state and society; 2) the content and structure of historical education, enshrined in standards and programs and, on the basis of them, set out in school textbooks; 3) scientific and methodological organization of the learning process (forms, methods, methodological techniques, means of teaching and learning); 4) cognitive abilities of students; 5) learning outcomes.

The concept of “methodology” has always been interpreted differently by scientists. Some, recognizing the methodology as a pedagogical science, considered it as a particular didactics in which general principles apply, the same for all subjects. General pedagogical principles, in their opinion, are illustrated by examples from history. This point of view was expressed by P.S. Leibengrub and F.P. Korovkin.

Others considered the methodology to be a special pedagogical science, because it solves all the problems of teaching and personal development through the content of the subject - the science of history. The primacy of the content also determines the features of teaching methods and means. This is what A.I. Strazhev, A.A. Vagin and P.V. Gora thought - “the three pillars of the methodology.”

Still others - V.N. Bernadsky, N.V. Andreevskaya - considered the methodology not a science, but a collection methodological recommendations, tips, recipes. Most of all, the practical side of the matter prevails in the methodology. Today this point of view is expressed in a new term - technology.

The methodology of teaching history is closely related to other sciences and, above all, to history - its basic discipline, which makes it possible to develop the content of training. The purpose of the methodology is to select basic data historical science and, having processed and adapted them didactically, include them in the content of school courses.

This science reveals the characteristics of students’ cognition and their cognitive actions. In addition, in the analysis of the process of teaching history, some methods of psychological and pedagogical research are used.

Methodology is closely related to pedagogy, since it is its branch. Pedagogy determines teaching methods, educational goals, and methods of scientific research. Taking these methods and goals from pedagogy as a basis, the methodology introduces its specific historical content into both the educational process and scientific research.

The main methods of scientific research into history teaching methods are pedagogical observation and formative experiment (experimental lessons).

The Latin word "experimentum" means "test", "experience".

Such experience comes as a result of experiencing certain factors and learning conditions.

Pedagogical observation involves studying the practice of teaching history without influencing the learning process. The researcher visits and analyzes history lessons, studies the results of testing and student surveys available at school, notes and protocols open lessons teachers, gets acquainted with best practices based on materials from school methodological associations. However, if the researcher tests and surveys students using his materials, then this will already be a confirmatory experiment.

A formative experiment involves the active intervention of the experimenter in the learning process. Based on the set goal and objectives of the research, he first prepares methodological developments and then tests their effectiveness in history lessons. Most often, the organization of training is checked.

In this case, a different organization of learning is introduced in experimental classes than in control classes.

THE CONCEPT OF “METHODOLOGY” IN PEDAGOGICAL SCIENCE

– – –

TASKS AND FUNCTIONS OF HISTORY TEACHING METHODS

METHODS - A BRANCH OF PEDAGOGICAL SCIENCE, RESEARCH

THE PROCESS OF TEACHING HISTORY WITH THE GOAL OF INCREASING

ITS EFFECTIVENESS AND QUALITY

– – –

Vagin A.A. Methods of teaching history. - M., 1972.

Questions of methods of pedagogical research: Sat. scientific works. - M., 1973.

Korotkova M.V., Studenikin M.T. Methods of teaching history: Book of authorized presentation. - M., 1993.

Okon V. Introduction to general didactics. - M., 1990.

Organization and methodology of experimental pedagogical research. - M., 1983.

SECTION II. MAIN STAGES

FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT

HISTORICAL EDUCATION

AND TEACHING METHODS

Topic 2. Development of methods of teaching history in Russia in the 18th – early 20th centuries.

Written sources historical knowledge XVI - first half of the XIX century.

Goals of education in Russian school in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Textbooks of the noble direction.

Textbooks of the liberal bourgeois direction.

Main directions in teaching history.

Methods and means of teaching history in the 18th-19th centuries.

The formation of methods of teaching history in the last quarter of the 19th century.

Methods of the late 19th century.

Methods and means of teaching history at the beginning of the 20th century.

The diagrams examine in detail the first written sources of historical knowledge. The origin of historical and methodological thought dates back to the period of the appearance in Russia of collections containing historical information. These are “Azbukovniks” of the 15th-17th centuries. and “Synopsis” (“Review”) - a textbook that appeared in Kyiv in 1674. “Synopsis” and “Azbukovniki” adapted the presentation of material to the interests of readers, but were not textbooks.

In the first half of the 18th century. Only general history was studied and teaching, due to the absence of its own teachers and textbooks, was carried out on foreign languages. In general history textbooks of the 40s and early 60s, events were presented either monographically according to the medieval scheme of four monarchies - Assyro-Babylonian, Persian, Macedonian (Greek) and Roman - or synchronistically, but in very small periods. The material in the textbooks was presented in question-and-answer form and had to be memorized by the students, and the role of the teacher was reduced to guiding “learning by heart.”

In the 18th century Russian history is gradually beginning to take hold in schools. This was facilitated by the generalizing work of M.V. Lomonosov “Ancient Russian History”. Many people recognize his “Brief Russian Chronicler with Genealogy” (1760) as the first school textbook on Russian history.

A special place in the transformations of Russia in the 18th century. occupies the reform of 1786 to create public schools. In accordance with the Charter of Public Schools of 1786, a classroom teaching system was introduced in schools, the use of blackboards and chalk, Russian historical maps, and textbooks began.

In the 70s XVIII century national history is separated from everything common. However, it was with general history that historical education began and in the last grade, when repeated, it ended with national history. There was no special connection between the courses. At the same time, highlighting Russian history in special course did not lead to its removal from general history courses. History became a school subject only at the end of the 18th century, but in gymnasiums it remained as an addition to the philological course. Russian history as a separate academic subject was only included in the curriculum of the main public schools.

The monarchical concept of N.M. Karamzin is reflected in Russian textbooks of the first half of the 19th century. on the history of the ancient world and the Middle Ages - I.K. Kaidanov and S.N. Smaragdova, on Russian history - N.G. Ustlyarova. The authors of the textbooks took the position of idealistic philosophy, which was based on psychological pragmatism. The subject of history was considered “the deeds and destinies of people,” and all events were explained by the psychologists of outstanding personalities - generals, sovereigns, etc.

In 1845, works by a high-ranking official, Yazvinsky, appeared. He proposed recording the most important facts over centuries on sheets of different colors, divided into 100 cells (century and years). The cages had valves that allowed the digit to be opened and closed. At first this technique was met with great enthusiasm, but gradually interest in it disappeared.

Another method - rhyme generalization - was proposed by the director of the St. Petersburg German School Gottlieb von Schubert. Its essence is that the facts of history were rhymed and, chanting, memorized. Much attention was paid to the survey, which was carried out by assistant teachers - auditors.

A number of schools used the so-called grouping method of combining material or the Biederman method (1860).

Nowadays this approach to the study of historical material is called thematic.

In the middle of the nineteenth century. The most common method of teaching in the classroom was the teacher's brief commentary on the text assigned for home. The teachers did not pay attention to revealing the internal connections between the facts presented and did not use documentary material. The survey of schoolchildren served as a knowledge control function. Visual aids were not used, and textbooks were published without illustrations.

The prominent historian M.M. Stasyulevich expressed the opinion of the need to replace the rehearsal method with a real one (translated from Latin res - business). This is a method of working with documents from a textbook without using a textbook in school teaching.

Working with the anthology was supposed to serve the development of students’ critical thinking and develop their research skills.

The author of the first Russian methodology for teaching history in terms of the depth and scientific nature of the presentation can be considered Ya.G. Gurevich, who published in 1877 in the “Pedagogical Collection” a thorough work entitled “Experience in the Methodology of History.” In his work, Ya.G. Gurevich paid considerable attention to elementary teaching of history.

In 1881, the “Methodology of History” by the German teacher G. Disterweg was translated and published. The author touched upon the question of the truth of scientific knowledge, calling when teaching history not to strive for anything other than the truth - no matter whether it is pleasant or unpleasant, whether it coincides with the views of religious and political parties or not. Disterweg's ideas were developed in the methodology of the German teacher Krieger. His book was translated, significantly expanded and revised by methodologists I. Vinogradov and A. Nikolsky and published under the names of these authors with the title “Methodology of History According to Krieger.” The authors believed that this science should occupy a central place in the public school. They proposed introducing new teaching methods into practice.

The biographical method involved the “description” of outstanding personalities and through this the study of certain facts and events; the collectively categorical method was associated with the grouping of historical material into main ideas or problems, taking into account significant dates calendar On memorable dates, entertaining and accessible stories for children were written and studied on these dates. The real or textbook method was based on reading and discussing primary sources from anthologies, with the goal of introducing students to the “spirit” of the era being studied, the life of the people, and the matter itself.

There were also progressive and regressive methods. If the progressive method involved the study of events in chronological sequence, starting from antiquity, then the regressive method, on the contrary, began the study of events from the present, gradually delving into the past of Russian history.

In the future, it was used only when repeated.

Methodists of the 19th century were of particular importance. devoted to studying their native history. In the book “On teaching national history”

A.V. Dobrynin noted that the purpose of its study, in addition to knowledge and the development of thinking abilities, should be to instill in students love for the fatherland, respect for the great Russian people who worked at different times for the benefit of their state. The presentation of history must be deeply meaningful and connected in the presentation of facts. We must avoid general and abstract judgments.

In Kazan in 1891, S. Lamovitsky’s book “The School Method and Its Relation to the Academic Subject of History” was published. According to the author, historical content “is not studied for its own sake; it is not a goal, but a means through which it is necessary to produce a certain educational influence on students” and, above all, to contribute to their development.

At the beginning of the 20th century. Among the many methodological and methodological trends, two main ones can be noted - evolutionary and sociological. The founder of the evolutionary direction was N.I. Kareev, a liberal positivist and member of the Cadet Party. He, like other representatives of the evolutionary movement, believed that the fundamental basis of the historical process is determined by social ideals (they are expressed by people, become generally recognized, and guide society). History is natural process, which is based on social ideas and legal laws. History has no leaps; it develops smoothly, evolutionarily, in an ascending line.

Representatives of the sociological trend - R.Yu. Vipper (right wing), N.A. Rozhkov (left wing) - believed that history is created by the masses, but spontaneously, the individual does not influence the course of its development. History is a natural process, but this regularity is fatal, predetermined in nature. It is necessary to study mainly social relations, and to form historical and sociological concepts. In school courses, according to R.Yu.Vipper, movement should be studied human society, typical phenomena for the era are considered.

Teachers of the early twentieth century. strived for a lesson structure that would stimulate the independent cognitive activity of students and create their need for knowledge. Some saw this path in the study of visualization, others in the work of students on reports and abstracts, and still others in the use of historical sources.

Some generally preferred the labor method of training.

When teaching history to schoolchildren, they tried to create specific images. For this purpose, maps and paintings, reading books with illustrations were published. Excursion work and local history research became an organic part of the learning process. As already noted, attention was paid to developing students’ ability to think and work independently.

At the beginning of the 20th century. old forgotten teaching methods are being introduced, new ones are appearing. Among them are real, laboratory, and dramatization methods. The real method is to work on the basis of historical sources. When introducing this method into practice, the systematic study of the history course and the use of the school textbook were ignored. It was supposed to be replaced with a short summary.

N.A. Rozhkov and S.V. Farforovsky proposed to introduce a laboratory teaching method, i.e. bring all cognitive activities of the student closer to the research methods of historical science. In their opinion, this can be achieved if all training is based on the study of primary sources, following the same path as scientific researchers. Thus, the student will be introduced to the research laboratory. The search for intensifying learning paths also led to the improvement of the abstracting system developed by methodologists B.A. Vlakhopulov and N.P. Pokotilo.

WRITTEN SOURCES OF HISTORICAL

KNOWLEDGE OF THE XVI-FIRST HALF OF THE XIX CENTURIES.

– – –

“Synopsis”, 1674. A manual on the history of Russia and Ukraine “The Royal Chronicler”, Illustrated sheets with a brief summary of the end of the 17th century. in copied text for princes

– – –

N.G. Kurganov “Pismovnik”, Historical songs, mythological, second half of the 18th century. stories about ancient heroes “Plutarchs”, end of the 18th century - Collection of historical biographies in the first half of the 19th century. famous people of different eras and nations

– – –

Soloviev S.M. 1860 Educational book of Russian history Ilovaisky D.I. 1860 Brief sketches of Russian history

TEXTBOOKS OF THE LIBERAL BOURGEOIS

DIRECTIONS

– – –

Kareev N.I. 1900 Educational book on the history of the Middle Ages Vipper R.Yu. 1906 Textbook of ancient history Platonov S.F. 1909 Textbook of Russian history or secondary school

– – –

Mass teaching of history in Russian schools - since the 60s of the 18th century; Russian history as an independent subject - since 1786; transition to a classroom system - from the 80s of the 19th century

FORMATION OF HISTORY TEACHING METHODS

IN THE LAST QUARTER OF THE 19TH CENTURY

– – –

Vinogradov I., 1885 Methods of history according to Krieger Nikolsky A.

Dobryakov A.V. 1888 On teaching national history Krolyunitsky A. 1890 Experience in an elementary history course

– – –

Aleshintsev I.A. History of gymnasium education in Russia in the 18th-19th centuries. - St. Petersburg, 1912.

Averyanova G.D. The problem of organizing the content and methods of teaching in the Russian gymnasium. - M., 1973.

Ganelin Sh.I. Essays on the history of secondary school in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. - L., 1954.

Memo by S.M. Solovyov to the Council of Moscow University on teaching history in gymnasiums // Teaching history at school. - 1988. - No. 4.

Erik P.D. Teaching history in Russian schools in the 18th century. // Teaching history at school. - 1960. - No. 4.

Konstantinov I.A. Essays on the history of high school. Gymnasiums and real schools (from the end of the 19th century to 1917). - M., 1956.

Methods of teaching history in secondary school / Ed.

N.G. Dairy. - M., 1978. - Part 1. - Ch. 1.

Methods of teaching the history of the ancient world and the Middle Ages in grades V-VI / Ed. F.P.Korovkina, N.I.Zaporozhets. - M., 1970.

Methods of teaching history in high school. - M., 1986.

Smagina G.I. From the history of teaching Russian history in the 18th century // Teaching history at school. - 1990. - No. 4.

Studenikin M.T. Active methods of teaching history in Russian school at the beginning of the twentieth century // Teaching history at school. - 1994. - No. 2.

Studenikin M.T. Domestic methods of teaching history in the last quarter of the 19th century // Scientific works of MPGU. - Series of social historical science. - M., 1995.

Shakhanov A.N. Issues of secondary historical education in creative heritage S.M. Solovyova // Teaching history at school. - 1989. - No. 6.

Topic 3. Development of school history education and methods of teaching history in Russia in the 20th century.

“Illustrative school of action” at the beginning of the 20th century.

“Labor school of work” in Russia in the 20s.

Principles and structure of historical education in school in the 30-50s.

Development of the technique in Soviet times.

Since 1917, school history education in Russia has undergone radical changes. Both the old teaching methods and the old textbooks are considered unsuitable for teaching the younger generation.

Instead of civil history It is proposed to study labor history and sociology. Based on this, revolutionary changes in the field of historical education begin. The first stage in the development of school history education begins in 1917 and continues until the early 30s. At this time, the old content of historical education is being eliminated and history as an academic subject is being replaced by a social studies course. Within the framework of social science, there are only individual elements of a history course with an ideological selection of facts and Marxist coverage of them.

IN new school Exams, penalties, student assessments, and homework were canceled. The transfer of students from class to class and graduation from school should have been carried out based on feedback pedagogical council about the performance of educational work. Instead of classes, it was recommended to introduce small groups - “brigades”; instead of lessons - laboratory “studio” classes.

Teaching methods are being radically revised. It is based on the “illustrative school of action,” which first appeared in Western countries and has found application in our country. On the basis of this school, a “labor school of work” is being developed in the USSR. If in the bourgeois school there was a motto “from knowledge to action,” then in the labor school everything became the opposite - “from action to knowledge.” Specific work pushed students to enrich themselves with knowledge and develop learning skills.

In 1920, an attempt was made to introduce a model history curriculum. However, it was not accepted even in a comprehensive form with the inclusion of law, political economy and sociology, information on the history of class struggle and the development of the theory of scientific socialism. Since 1923, subject teaching was eliminated and a brigade method of teaching was introduced based on complex programs that existed until 1931.

The situation with historical education changed in the 30s.

A new stage is coming, characterized by the restoration of history as an independent subject. The Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks gives instructions to abandon the laboratory team method. The main form of organization of educational work is determined by a lesson with a solid composition of students, with a strictly defined schedule of classes (Resolutions of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On primary and secondary schools” of September 5, 1931 and “On educational programs and regime in primary and secondary school" dated August 5, 1932). It was proposed to restore a systematic history course in school in order to equip schoolchildren with a solid knowledge of the fundamentals of science. To train teachers, history departments in universities were restored, and departments of methodology appeared.

In 1939, updated history programs were published. They also operated in the 50s. The programs consisted of two parts - on general history (the ancient world, the Middle Ages, modern history) and on the history of the USSR. Sections of general history were studied from grades 5 to 9. The history of the USSR was presented twice: first in the form of an elementary course in the elementary grades, then in the senior classes of secondary school in the form of a systematic course.

When considering the principles and structure of historical education in the Soviet school of the 50s. You should pay attention to the allocation of partial concentrations in teaching history.

These concentrations have a fundamental difference from the concentrations in teaching history in Russian gymnasiums. The concentrations in the previous school pursued the goal of deep, conscious knowledge of history, being used at three stages of education. Concentrations in the Soviet school were of a forced nature, associated with the ideologization of education.

At the end of the 50s. Historical and methodological thought followed the line of strengthening ties with psychological and pedagogical sciences.

Methods of learning and teaching were improved, recommendations were given on how to present the material, how to have a conversation, how to use a map, a picture. But as before, the question of what the student does in class and how he learns history was almost never raised.

In the 60-70s. Research continues on the methodology of teaching history by such scientists as A.A.Vagin, D.N.Ni Kiforov, P.S.Leibengrub, F.P.Korovkin, P.V.Gora, N.G.Dairi. The development of methods for teaching history came from the development of teaching tools and techniques and the provision of methodological assistance to the teacher in finding effective ways to teach students. The goal was to teach schoolchildren to independently acquire knowledge and navigate the growing flow of information. In didactics, the problems of enhancing the activity and independence of schoolchildren in the educational process, increasing the educational role of teaching, intensifying the lesson, and introducing problem-solving in teaching were developed.

In the 60-80s. The goal of developing the activity and independence of students in history lessons comes first. All more attention focuses on the problem of activating the cognitive activity of students, developing their working methods and skills, and raises the issue of developmental education.

So, A.A. Yanko Trinitskaya, N.I. Zaporozhets study the mental operations of students; employees of the MPGU department - levels of cognitive activity, work methods, skills and methods of cognitive activity, are developing a structurally functional approach to the selection of content, techniques and teaching aids. Specialists from the Institute of Content and Teaching Methods N.G. Dairi and I.Ya. Lerner raise questions about the problematic nature of teaching and the development of students’ historical thinking and, in connection with this, about the place and role of cognitive tasks. In solving these problems, I.Ya. Lerner saw the most important way to develop independent creative thinking students Thus, in the 80s. The most important goal of the learning process is the development of the student’s personality.

– – –

Activation of cognitive activist Gora P.V.

ness of students; formation of skills;

developmental training; problematic learning; cognitive activity; Dairi N.G.

development of historical thinking;

classification of teaching methods; knowledge about the methods of cognitive activity Leibengrub P.S.

ness; basic level of education;

multi-level training programs Korovkin F.P.

– – –

Current issues in teaching history in high school. - M., 1984.

Buschik L.P. Essay on the development of school history education in the USSR. - M., 1961.

Vendrovskaya R.B. Essay on the development of school history education in the USSR. - M., 1961.

Zhavoronkov B., Geinike A., Hartwig A. History and society teaching at school: Methods of work. - M., 1923.

Koloskov A.G. Development of school history education in the USSR // Teaching history at school. - 1988. - No. 2.

Kudryavtsev A.E. Stages of historical education in labor school // Teaching history at school. - 1990. - No. 2.

Methods of teaching history in secondary school: A manual for teachers / Ed. ed. F.P.Korovkin. - M., 1978. - Part I.

Methods of teaching history in high school. - M., 1986.

Nosachenko I.M. Study of brigade organization of labor // Teaching history at school. - 1987. - No. 1.

On teaching the history of the USSR from the 60s to the early 80s: From the experience of teachers in Leningrad // Teaching history at school. - 1988. - No. 4.

Topic 4. Modern problems and trends in the development of history education

Syllabus and the linear structure of history education.

Modern structure of historical education.

Concentric models of teaching history.

Structure and content of history standards.

Historical education in specialized types of schools in Russia.

Trends in history education in foreign schools.

In accordance with the law of the Russian Federation “On Education” in the 90s. The introduction of compulsory (basic) nine-year education began. The school began to move from a linear to a concentric structure of education. The first concentration consisted of a basic school (grades 5-9), the second - a complete secondary school (grades 10-11). The first concentration began to introduce the study of national and world history from antiquity to the present day on the basis of a civilizational approach.

The education strategy first provided for the study of the history of Russia in the context world history, and subsequently the creation of a unified course called “Russia and the World”.

The second concentration introduced the courses “History of Russia from ancient times to the present day,” “Major milestones in the history of mankind,” and “History of world civilizations.” For repetition and deepening at a higher level theoretical level What was previously studied was supposed to be studied in modular and integrated courses. Currently, there is an increasing need to create historical and social science courses built on a problem-based principle.

The idea of concentrates is not new. In the 19th century German methodologists proposed a system based on the so-called “three stages” theory. At the first stage they suggested studying biographical material and personifying history. At the second stage, the history of individual peoples was studied on the basis of ethnographic and cultural material. At the third stage, students were already familiarized with the entire history of the events.

In the early 60s. in our country there was essentially a concentric system. At the first stage, it was supposed to study episodic stories only on the basis of descriptions of facts. At the second stage of training, an elementary course of history from antiquity to the present day was introduced, revealing cause-and-effect relationships. In graduate classes, systematic courses were introduced, which were studied on the basis of sociological and philosophical generalizations.

The advantages of the concentric system are obvious: after primary school, young people received a holistic, albeit elementary, understanding of the historical process; the age characteristics of children were taken into account when selecting material; all sections of history had almost the same amount of time to master. But the linear system has advantages that are disadvantages of the concentric one: a chronological sequence of courses, students receive the most complete and complete understanding of the periods of history, saving study time due to the absence of repetitions, maintaining a sustainable interest in the subject due to the novelty of the material.

In the 90s decided to abandon the traditional programs for Russia and introduce a state standard based on the Western model, which determines the mandatory minimum of historical education and quantitative criteria for assessing the quality of education. The temporary state standard sets out the basic requirements for the historical education of students in secondary school. The explanatory note defines the goals of teaching history at school, the object of studying history (the past of mankind) and the main system characteristics object ( historical time, space, movement).

The standard contains a mandatory minimum in history, i.e.

basic content. The knowledge included in this part should be generally accepted in terms of its educational value. The basic content of history is recorded with such a degree of detail that would exclude or minimize the possibility of its arbitrary interpretation. The standard should take into account the capabilities of the mass school, but it should also leave the opportunity to create any programs based on it. The mandatory minimum is the core that any student must master.

At the same time, the standard also contains a basic component - the minimum knowledge that a teacher must give. The basic content is broader and deeper than the minimum required level of mastery. The standard also requires requirements for minimum level preparation. This section presents skills, in full and in accordance with their sequence of development. The technology of verification work in the standard contains standard tasks for verification, criterion-oriented tests.

In a modern school, the student receives greater freedom of action in the learning process; his individual abilities, capabilities, needs and interests are taken into account more. The issue of choosing a school, a teacher, forms of education, textbooks and aids, the pace and sequence of studying historical content is gradually moving to the forefront.

Programs of different levels of training are being introduced, providing basic and in-depth knowledge, taking into account the development of interests of students, including future professional ones. Increasingly, psychology is used in teaching history, both pedagogical and historical, for the purpose of in-depth and meaningful knowledge of history.

When considering trends in teaching history in a foreign school, it should be taken into account that only possible directions are offered that are not all-encompassing. Advanced teachers and scientists who are engaged in improving the educational process most often work in these areas. In addition to the trends under consideration, there are others, but all of them are designed mainly for the formation of a creative personality.

P. Bell offers the following ways to study history: 1. You identify the phenomenon and select the most important problems from the program according to the criteria: important for considering the era; help to understand the current state of the state, its place among other states and peoples; contribute to disputes; awaken interest in the past and future. 2. For each issue, a selection of texts is given, showing the main points of view: fragments of speeches; arguments of the parties; statistical data.

3. The teacher's consistent story plays a secondary role. 4. The textbook serves as a guide, a reference book.

CURRICULUM AND LINEAR STRUCTURE

SCHOOL HISTORICAL EDUCATION

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Creative and educational education in Germany

COPY

EDUCATION

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Alibekova G.Z. Orientation and selection of schoolchildren for teaching professions in the USA. - M., 1991.

Batsyn V.K. On the reform of historical education in modern Russian school // Teaching history at school. - 1997. - No. 8.

Temporary requirements for the mandatory minimum content of basic general education // Teaching history at school. - 1998. - No. 7.

Vyazemsky E.E., Strelova O.Yu., Korotkova M.V., Ionov I.N.

Vyazemsky E.E., Strelova O.Yu. Methods of teaching history at school. - M., 1999.

Glasser W. School without losers / Trans. from English - M., 1991.

Gribov V.S. American textbook about our history // Teaching history at school. - 1990. - No. 1.

Dneprov E.D. School reform between "yesterday" and "tomorrow". - M., 1996.

Kasparzhak A.G., Levit S.V. Basic curriculum and Russian education in an era of change. - M., 1994.

The concept of historical education in secondary school // Teaching history at school. - 1989. - No. 6.

Lindenberg K. Teaching history. - M., 1997.

Material for the concept of school history education // Teaching history at school. - 1989. - No. 6.

Mironov V.B. Age of Education. - M., 1990.

Nikandrov N.D. School affairs in the USA: perspective of 2000 // Soviet pedagogy. - 1991. - No. 11.

Pedagogical thought in Western countries at the present stage. -M., 1991.

Ryabov Yu.A. The problem of humanizing the content of historical education in modern stage. - L., 1991.

Trial over the education system: Strategy for the future / Ed. W. D. Johnstan; Per. from English - M., 1991.

Ferro Mark. How are stories told to children around the world? - M., 1992.

Ediger M. About teaching history // Teaching history at school. - 1991. - No. 5.

SECTION III. SCHOOL FACTORS

THE PROCESS OF TEACHING HISTORY

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History teaching goals.

Functions of teaching history.

Conceptual models for teaching history.

Ways for a teacher to determine lesson goals.

Structural and functional analysis of educational material.

Empirical and theoretical levels of educational knowledge of historical material.

History, like any school subject, has its own learning goals, the definition of which should be based primarily on the interests of the student’s personality and its development. Public interests should not suppress the interests of the individual, much less prevail over them.

The most important specific function of teaching history is the function of social memory. It makes a person a citizen of this particular country, a follower of its traditions and customs. In the process of teaching history, the historical thinking of the individual, his historical consciousness, is formed.

Institute secondary school the following are defined most important goals teaching history:

· students mastering the basics of knowledge about the historical path of mankind from ancient times to our time;

· development of the ability to comprehend events and phenomena of reality on the basis of historical knowledge;

· formation of value orientations and beliefs of students based on understanding the ideas of humanism, historical experience, and patriotism;

· development of interest and respect for the history and culture of the birth.

Today, experts have identified several different models of teaching history, depending on the goals that are set. Academic or classic model teaching the subject is based on the study of all facts, processes and phenomena of universal history equally, but taking into account the consideration of the achievements and values of various civilizations and peoples. In the mosaic model, history does not represent a single course, but is studied on separate issues. For example, when studying Russian history, only a small proportion of facts on modern and contemporary history are used as a mosaic. The progressivist model aims to study modular courses, which are associated with the progressive development of society.

The most popular model today is the cultural historical approach as part of civilization.

In this case, history is studied in the form of clichés that have been selected and polished by world culture. These are unique cultural and everyday worlds, in the depths of which quite noticeable phenomena of world history took place.

Based on the general learning goals, more specific goals of sections, topics and lessons are determined. As a rule, to identify educational goals, the teacher carefully analyzes the program, textbook, and manuals. This analysis of the content of historical material is called structural and functional.

Under the structural analysis of P.V. Gora understood the logical processing of the lesson content by the teacher, the selection from its content of the main historical facts, theoretical provisions and theoretical conclusions and generalizations arising from the analysis of the facts. These conclusions and generalizations can be formulated in a textbook or not formulated, but hidden in the facts and their connections. Functional analysis is a determination of the educational, educational and developmental possibilities of the theoretical provisions, conclusions and main historical facts of the lesson identified during the structural analysis.

What are the main historical facts? These are the facts that left in public life a noticeable mark that had a significant impact on the development of society.

Having great historical significance, the main facts convey the main factual content of the lesson. They recreate a picture of events that are of decisive importance in the development of the historical process. From the analysis of the main facts, the main conclusions and generalizations follow. The content and connections of the main facts may contain important theoretical information necessary for the formation of ideological ideas and concepts in students. Theoretical provisions are not equal in their significance. They may contain the main thing and the non-main thing, subordinate to the main thing.

Among the main facts there are also those that do not carry much theoretical load. But they are valuable for their imagery, brightness and emotionality. Studying them evokes emotional empathy in schoolchildren, arousing interest in history and promoting the development of reconstructive and creative imagination.

In addition to the main facts, the lesson involves non-main educational material - non-main historical facts, cartographic, chronological and other information studied at the empirical level. Often they are important for the education of students, the development of interest necessary for the activation of mental activity.

Factual material, depending on the age of the students, can be studied both at the empirical and theoretical levels. Empirical knowledge of history involves students acquiring knowledge in a ready-made form based on “living contemplation” of a historical phenomenon. In other words, the teacher carries out systematization and generalization based on the main fact of the lesson, highlighting the essential features of the concept. Thus, the process of cognition proceeds from facts to theoretical conclusions. And, on the contrary, at the theoretical level the process of cognition proceeds from theory to theory. In this case, theoretical knowledge itself acts as a tool of cognition. This knowledge is used to explain and understand the essence of historical events and phenomena. To conduct a structural and functional analysis, P.V. Gora developed a special table.

First during structural analysis highlight the content of the main thing, then, as a result of functional analysis, consider the expected results of the empirical study of the main facts and theoretical study all the components of the main thing.

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By studying our ancestors, we learn about ourselves. Without knowledge of history, we must recognize ourselves as accidents, not knowing how and why we came into the world, how and why we live in it, how and what we should strive for. (V.O. Klyuchevsky.)

CONCEPTUAL MODELS FOR TEACHING HISTORY

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Sensations First signaling system Sensory-emotional stage of cognition Recommended literature Block M.A. Apology of history, or the craft of the historian. - M., 1986.

Brandt M.Yu., Lyashenko L.M. Introduction to history. - M., 1994.

Egorov V.K. History in our lives. - M., 1990.

Elchaninov V.A. History is the teacher of life. - M., 1981.

Erofeev N.A. What is history? - M., 1976.

Zagvyazinsky V.I. Contradictions of the learning process. - Sverdlovsk, 1971.

Korotkova M.V. Controversial problems of teaching history // Teaching history at school. - 1997. - No. 1.

Krever G.A. Studying the theoretical content of history courses in grades 5-11. - M., 1990.

Krever G.A. Empirical and theoretical path of knowledge in teaching history // Teaching history at school. - 1973. - No. 5.

Lerner I.Ya. The learning process and its patterns. - M., 1980.

Lerner I.Ya. Development of students' thinking in the learning process. - M., 1982.

Nechkina M.V. Function artistic image in the historical process. -M., 1982.

Toynbee A.J. Comprehension of history / Transl. from English - M., 1991.

Yamburg E.A. Education by history. - M., 1989.

Jaspers K. The origins of history and its purpose. - M., 1991.

Topic 6. Cognitive capabilities of students when studying history. Individual psychological factors in the organization of students’ cognitive activity.

Motivation for teaching history.

The concept of learning ability.

Levels of cognitive independence of schoolchildren in educational activities.

In modern types of schools, whenever possible, teachers try to take into account the individual cognitive capabilities of students. Individualization is the independent work of each student in accordance with his characteristics and real learning capabilities. The methods, pace of training, and amount of assistance are chosen in relation to these features and opportunities. In a mass school, only elements of individualization are real, when, for example, a teacher uses tasks with the same content for all students, but with different levels of difficulty.

The basis of cognitive capabilities and learning ability is the level of development of cognitive processes: perception, imagination, memory, thinking, attention, speech. They are quite individual and interconnected. The emotional-volitional characteristics of the individual, her character, and temperament also play a big role in learning: choleric people and sanguine people, for example, behave differently in lessons, they have different degrees of fatigue, perception, and emotions. All this affects the overall learning ability of the student.

In the process of learning activities, students are in different cognitive states: they experience creative enthusiasm or apathy, some are content with situational one-time interest and quickly lose it during one lesson, others, on the contrary, experience sustained interest, some are self-confident, others are shy. The teacher needs to know all these individual differences.

Learning ability is related to motivation for learning history. Moti you is a subjective attitude of schoolchildren to learning, which is based on a consciously set goal. All motives can be conditionally divided into social and cognitive. The first are associated with an awareness of the value of history, the desire to achieve a positive assessment and obtain a certain profession, and an orientation towards ways of interacting with people. A special role in the second group is played by procedural motives, i.e. interest in the learning process.

Psychologists believe that positive motivation in learning is caused by: positive emotions, a general stable positive attitude, adequate self-esteem of the student, confidence in one’s abilities, and an active position in activities.

It is important to identify and apply individual capabilities in a timely manner. practical activities. In the course of teaching history, the same cognitive processes develop as in the study of other school disciplines. The exception is imagination, the development of which is greatly facilitated by history and literature lessons.

Among the motives in teaching history, one that stands out is understanding the social significance of studying history. It should be borne in mind that it can only manifest itself in older school age taking into account learning ability.

Learning ability is receptivity to learning. Learning ability is divided into general - the ability to assimilate material, and special - the ability to assimilate certain types of material, as well as sciences, arts, etc. Learning ability depends on many intellectual properties of a person, in particular, independence of thinking, semantic memory, the ability to comprehend homogeneous phenomena, to achieve the desired results in the shortest possible time. Learning ability is related to the level of development of students’ historical thinking, their imagination, feelings and emotions, memory and speech, and cognitive interest. The level of development of learning ability itself is determined by the student’s independent knowledge capabilities.

Cognition will depend on the complexity and difficulty of the material.

By complexity, didactics understand an objective characteristic of the material - the number of links in a logical scheme, the number of aspects of historical development in a story. The difficulty of mastering is always subjective and depends on learning ability - the correspondence of the content of the material to the stock of knowledge and skills of the students, their personal qualities. The difficulty of mastering will be different for students: a) prone to logical thinking;

b) able to reason; c) those who love formalization.

The topic examines three levels of cognitive independence of schoolchildren. The most complex, but also the most attractive, creative level of cognitive activity. It is characterized by an independent research search for new knowledge and methods of activity. The organization of creativity is possible only on the basis of previous experience of transformative activity.

INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS

ORGANIZATIONS OF COGNITIVE ACTIVITY

STUDENTS

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Understanding the social significance of studying history Positional evaluative motives The desire to take a certain position in society, achieving results Motives for cooperation and communication Orientation towards ways of interacting with other people

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Butuzov I.D. Differentiated approach to teaching history. - Novgorod, 1972.

Mountain P.V. Increasing the effectiveness of teaching history in high school. - M., 1988.

Zaicharnik B.V. Learning ability as a principle for assessing the mental development of children. - M., 1976.

Korotyaev B.I. Teaching is a creative process. - M., 1989.

Lerner I.Ya. Problem-based learning. - M., 1974.

Markova A.K. Motivation for learning and its development in schoolchildren. - M., 1983.

Matyushkin A.M. Problem situations in thinking and learning. - M., 1972.

Makhmutov M.I. Organization of problem-based learning at school. - M., 1977.

Pidkasisty P.I., Korotyaev V.I. Independent activity of students in learning. - M., 1978.

Cognitive processes and abilities in learning / Ed. V.D. Shadrikova. - M., 1990.

Polovnikova N.A. On the theoretical foundations of education on the cognitive independence of schoolchildren in learning. - Kazan, 1968.

Poluyanov Yu.V. Imagination and ability. - M., 1982.

Yakimanskaya I.S. Knowledge and thinking of schoolchildren. - M., 1982.

Yakimanskaya I.S. Developmental training. - M., 1979.

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The main factors in the development of students' cognitive interest in history.

The problem of interest is one of the most important when studying at school. Translated from Latin word interest means “important, important.” This is the selective orientation of a person, his desire to understand an object or phenomenon, to master one or another type of activity. This is the attitude of a person to an object as something valuable and attractive to him. The foundations for the formation of cognitive interest were developed in detail by teachers, in particular G.I. Shchukina. We are interested in this problem in relation to teaching history.

There are three main factors influencing interest:

a) the content of historical material; b) methods, techniques and means of its presentation; c) interpersonal relationships between teacher and students. Specific to history teachers in this matter will be the selection of content. The teacher usually takes into account the nature of the material - factual, theoretical, historical, biographical, local history; its organization - the relationship between theory and facts, main and non-main facts, identification of leading ideas, evidence. As a rule, the lessons involve the study and assimilation of the main historical facts. At the same time, to maintain interest, less important facts, biographical information, etc. should also be included.

To maintain interest in a new topic in the lesson, in a less interesting, but the right material, you can connect a more interesting one or one that previously left a deep impression on the students. The previous positive emotional background will help maintain interest in the facts being studied. Interest is associated with novelty, excitement and entertainment, unexpected comparisons, new aspects of presenting material, a change in activity methods, and an emotional impact on students. Such influence is usually understood as emotional and moral experiences, emotions of surprise, joy, and success.

Organizational factors in the formation of cognitive interest determine the methods, techniques and means of teaching history. Students are interested in heuristic conversation and discussion, participation in educational games, solving problematic problems, and researching documents that are new to them. Scientists devote significant attention to their diversity and variability of application in lessons. The nature of knowledge acquisition and cognitive activity also includes: independence; difficulty and understandability; free choice of tasks and activities; need for self-development. At the same time, there may be the most different shapes activities: individual, class-wide, group, personal role-playing.

Incentives that take into account student interest should be used more often. Among them: positive assessment of knowledge; educational perspective; practical significance; relevance; approval of student activities; attitude towards a positive result; public positive opinion of the team; mutual support. The implementation of these incentives depends on interpersonal relationships in the educational process. These are favorable relationships between teacher and students, trust, goodwill, exactingness, pedagogical tact, cooperation between teacher and student.

When preparing for the lesson, I. Podlasy suggested taking into account the following algorithms for diagnosing it:

Determine the students’ attitude towards the lessons: is there a great need to learn, how interesting is the topic of the upcoming lesson for them, what needs to be done to build on the students’ existing skills.

Compare the volume of upcoming academic work and the capabilities of the students. Determine the level of activity of students based on the nature of the material; students' performance;

level of attention; discipline; motives of activity.

Find out what the nature and amount of stimuli are needed to arouse and maintain interest, activity and high performance class.

The teacher needs to know the reasons for the lack of interest in knowledge. Teachers highlight the following: difficulty understanding educational material; low level of educational work of students; the predominance of extracurricular interests over academic ones; lack of family and living conditions for activities and individual approach; poverty of educational content; poor organization of independent work; lack of faith in one’s own cognitive powers and capabilities; unsettled relationship between teacher and student; misunderstanding of the meaning of studying history.

MAIN FACTORS OF DEVELOPMENT IN STUDENTS

COGNITIVE INTEREST IN HISTORY

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Topical issues of developing interest in learning / Ed. G.I. Shchukina. - M., 1984.

Bodalev A.A. Personality and communication. - M., 1983.

Bondarevsky V.B. Fostering interest in knowledge and the need for self-education. - M., 1985.

Morozova N.G. To the teacher - about cognitive interest. - M., 1979.

Podlasy I. How to diagnose a lesson // Public education. - 1991. - No. 9.

Formation of interest in learning among schoolchildren / Ed.

A.K. Markova. - M., 1986.

Friedman L.M. Formation cognitive interests among schoolchildren. - M., 1979.

Shchukina G.I. Activation of students' cognitive activity in the educational process. - M., 1979.

Shchukina G.I. Pedagogical problems formation of students' cognitive interests. - M., 1988.

Yakobson P.M. Emotional life of a schoolchild. - M., 1974.

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Components of history programs (80s-early 90s).

Connections and their types in teaching history.

Thematic connections in teaching history.

Planning structure.

Planning historical courses.

History educational complex.

The level and content of the federal and national regional components, the volume of the school component of education is determined by the state basic curriculum. In accordance with this plan, the federal component in history is 2 hours per week in grades 5-7 and 9-11; in 8th grade - 3 hours per week. The regional component provides 1 hour in grades 5-9 for civics and 1 hour in grades 1-11 (in Moscow schools, Moscow studies are taught during this time).

Each school develops its own curriculum, taking into account:

a) what minimum content of compulsory education is included in the basic curriculum; b) the maximum weekly workload of students; c) the relationship between the federal and national-regional components; d) the volume of the school component.

The school component, by defining elective classes, reveals the specifics educational institution, features of its programs and curricula. The curriculum names the subjects of study, the sequence of their distribution by year, and the number of teaching hours allocated per year. According to the curriculum, the teacher develops his planning. It can be general - thematic and more detailed - lesson-based.

With thematic planning, the distribution of time for studying sections and topics of the course allows not only to complete the courses in a timely manner, but also to see the teacher’s study prospects, to outline near-term and distant targets, place to repeat basic questions, anticipate results. Here it is determined which blocks of knowledge can be formed for a condensed, concentrated presentation (for certain topics it is important to have backup hours by condensing secondary information); on what topics seminars and tests will be held, excursions will be organized. And yet, the main goal of thematic planning is a theoretical understanding of the content of the topic (main ideas, most important concepts, connections with previously studied topics). Based on the state standard, it is also important to determine the range of knowledge and skills that students with strong, average and weak preparation should master.

Thus, planning is a kind of foundation on which the study of new things is built. Since the program gives an approximate distribution of hours by topic, the actual distribution of teaching time is contained in the teacher’s planning. In addition, it should be taken into account that school textbooks differ significantly from the standards of history courses. To avoid the shortcomings of textbooks, you should plan your history teaching in accordance with state requirements.

The structure of the content of school history education is a list of history courses studied in school from grades 5 to 11. Over the past eighty years, it has changed several times, but mainly retained the linear principle of teaching, chronological sequence, and synchronicity of courses. Only in the 50s. Partial concentrism in the construction of courses was introduced, but did not last long. They returned to it in the early 90s, but at a different level. The structure of the content of school history education and school programs is constantly updated.

Long years school programs were the main state document for the teacher and were mandatory for implementation. This was the case in Tsarist Russia, and in Russia in the 30s and 80s. XX century The programs were structured both monographically and synchronically. If the monographic construction presupposes the study of the history of individual countries, then the synchronic one establishes a connection between individual countries and defines their mutual roles and relationships. What were the main components in the programs of the 80s?

The programs began with an explanatory note, which revealed the goals of teaching history. In the main part, the factual and theoretical material that makes up the content of education was presented in sections and topics. At the end of the topics, the main ideas were given, the concepts required for mastering were indicated, and intra-subject, inter-subject, and inter-course connections were listed. These connections can precede the study of new things, accompany and precede them, which are designed for the future in teaching history. Methodist P.V. Gora identified two groups of thematic connections in history: 1) horizontal connections, by which he understood the relationship between the most important historical events and phenomena from different aspects of social life, which took place, as a rule, in one country in a certain period of time; 2) vertical connections, which are understood as the relationships between the most important homogeneous historical events and phenomena that occurred at different times and in different countries. For each class, the programs identified the basic skills of students, and at the end of the programs, a criterion for assessing knowledge was given, as well as a list of methodological literature and visual teaching aids.

Educational complexes are created for each history course. Educational complexes usually mean all educational and methodological literature, visual and other teaching aids for the course. Basic textbooks and manuals for students are included in the Federal List of Textbooks. The federal list ensures the implementation of the basic curriculum of the Russian Federation.

Methodological manuals can be both detailed lesson-based and thematic, where development of individual course topics is given. Lesson manuals usually offer recommendations for lesson options that take into account different levels of student development. For example, in a lesson on the same topic there may be a figurative story or a heuristic conversation; a teacher’s story with elements of dramatization and personification, or students’ independent work. As a rule, manuals provide a system for working on skills of various types, on concepts, etc. The authors include problem-cognitive tasks in the manuals, recommendations for creating problem situations, and give tasks of a research nature.

COMPONENTS OF HISTORY PROGRAMS

(80 E-EARLY 90 X YY.)

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THEMATIC CONNECTIONS IN HISTORY TEACHING

THE ANCIENT EAST

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ANCIENT GREECE

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ANCIENT ROME

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Andreevskaya N.V. and others. Methods of teaching history at 8-year school. - M., 1970.

Vorozheikina N.I., Solovyov V.M., Studenikin M.T. Stories from native history: Textbook for 5th grade in general education institutions. - M., 1998.

Vorozheikina N.I., Studenikin M.T. Lesson developments for “Stories about native history.” - M., 1998.

Vorozheikina N.I., Studenikin M.T. Workbook to “Stories from Native History.” - M., 1999.

Intrasubject and interdisciplinary connections in teaching history / Ed. A.G. Koloskova. - M., 1990.

Gribov V.S. Scientific and methodological support for the course of modern history // Teaching history at school. - 1997. - No. 4.

Danilov A.A., Kosulina L.G. Russian history. 20th century: Approximate thematic planning of a course for the 9th grade // Teaching history at school. - 1995. - No. 6.

The ancient world through the eyes of contemporaries and historians / Ed.

A.V. Golubeva. - M., 1994. - Parts 1-2.

Historical education in modern Russia: A reference manual for teachers. - M., 1997.

History of Russia from ancient times to the present day. Study course program for senior classes // Teaching history at school. - 1996. - No. 1.

A set of programs on history from ancient times to the present day. - M., 1998.

Korotkova M.V. Controversial problems of teaching history // Teaching history at school. - 1997. - No. 1.

Korotkova M.V., Studenikin M.T. Methods of teaching history. - M., 1993.

Methods of teaching history in high school. - M., 1986.

Ozersky I.Z. Beginning history teacher. - M., 1989.

Approximate planning of history courses and subjects in the educational field “Social disciplines”. - M., 1996.

Software and methodological materials: History. V-IX grades / Comp. T.I. Tyulyaeva. - M., 1998.

Programs for general education institutions. Story. - M., 1997.

History programs for high school (grades 5-11). - M., 1991.

Studenikin M.T. Planning the course “Stories from Native History” // Teaching history at school. - 1998. - No. 4.

Fadeeva D.A. Options for planning a course in the history of the Middle Ages // Teaching history at school. - 1993. - No. 5.

Topic 9. School history textbook as a source of knowledge and a teaching tool Modern textbooks.

Textbooks of the “new generation”.

The main structural components of a history textbook.

The relationship between textual and illustrative components of history textbooks and their types.

Techniques for students’ work with text and illustrative materials in the textbook.

Functional role of a history textbook.

The main source of knowledge and teaching tool is the school textbook. It is required that it cover the basics of science in accordance with the age of students and their level of preparedness. In didactics, the following definition of a school textbook has been established: it is a mass educational book, outlining the subject content of education and defining the types of activities intended for mandatory learning by students, taking into account their age and other characteristics.

Often the textbook acts as the main source for lesson structure. But there are lessons in which it plays an auxiliary role or is not needed at all. Currently, there are many school textbooks with very different structures. The process of creating multi-level textbooks that take into account the differentiation of the learning process is underway.

In textbooks, each chapter can begin with a diagram - a kind of logical summary. In the text of the book, concepts, terms, and keywords are highlighted and explained. The main text includes excerpts from documents, reference apparatus, questions and tasks that differ in type and level of complexity. Questions logically continue or clarify the content. At the end of the topics for high school students, recommendations are given: what you need to remember from previous topics, how to complete the tasks. Questions for generalizations and additional text material are contained at the end of the sections. This material acts as a book to read or serves as a basis for preparing for seminars.

But no matter how different school textbooks are, they have a lot in common. The textbook consists of a text that is determined by a system for selecting facts. All content is divided into sections, chapters and paragraphs. The latter must be equal in size and have a complete, holistic character. The number of paragraphs must correspond to the curriculum for the subject.

The content of the textbook is divided into main (theoretical and factual material), additional (documents, excerpts, references), explanatory (signatures, definitions, notes, comments). The core of the main text consists of knowledge about the most important ideas and concepts, theories, and methods of activity. When analyzing the content of a textbook while preparing for a lesson, it is important for a teacher to identify basic, basic knowledge. This is approximately 1/3 of the content. When explaining in class, 2/3 will make up additional material designed to clearly and convincingly reveal basic knowledge.

As already noted, all the material in school history courses cannot be presented in equal detail. As a rule, a detailed presentation is combined in a textbook with a summary one.

The main facts are given in detail, imaginatively, and supplemented with documents and illustrations. The information needed to connect the main facts is presented in quick reference form, making the textbook less complex.

The complexity of the textbook text can be subject, logical and linguistic. The complexity of historical content depends on the richness of the text with concepts, terms, and theoretical conclusions. According to scientists, to understand the text of a textbook, the number of complementary sentences must be four times greater than the basic ones. Basic ones are necessary for understanding the subsequent material.

The extra-textual components of the textbook include illustrations, questions and assignments, documents, and indexes. Illustrations and diagrams in the textbook are used to create images of the past. They reveal the content of the book by means of figurative and iconic visualization.

The text and illustrations occupy a different position in relation to each other. Additional illustrations are used only in combination with work on the text. Independent illustrations are not related to the text, therefore they are valuable in themselves and can be used for analysis and description independently.

In such illustrations, as a rule, there is some kind of mystery, about a problem. Unlike additional illustrations, equal illustrations cannot exist without text, so work with them can only proceed in parallel. Additional illustrations of the radio may or may not be used.

The main part of the textbook's methodological apparatus consists of questions and assignments for paragraphs. They help students consciously and deeply master the content of the lesson, and give the teacher the opportunity to guide the students’ learning activities.

Usually there are questions of varying complexity, which allows you to differentiate the work of students.

Student work based on the textbook is provided for students from grades 5 to 11 with gradual complication. Middle-level students find definitions of concepts, conclusions and generalizations in textbooks, make sketches of diagrams, simple images, and learn to draw up simple plans. High school students analyze textbooks by different authors, draw up complex plans for topics and sections, use the textbook as a reference guide, write their own versions of presenting certain issues, and compare the presentation of the contents of the textbook with primary sources.

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Vyazemsky E.E., Strelova O.Yu., Korotkova M.V., Ionov I.N.

Historical education in modern Russia. - M., 1997.

Getsov G.G. Working with the book: rational techniques. - Minsk, 1989.

Gritsevsky I.M. Teacher's work with a textbook in preparation for a history lesson. - M., 1987.

Gritsevsky I.M., Gritsevskaya S.O. From the textbook to the creative concept of the lesson. - M., 1990.

Zuev D.D. School textbook. - M., 1983.

Korotkova M.V. On new methodological approaches in modern school history textbooks // Scientific works of MPGU. - M., 1996.

Korotkova M.V., Studenikin M.T. Methods of teaching history. - M., 1993.

Problems of a school textbook: Sat. scientific works. - Vol. 3, 6, 8. - M., 1975-1980.

Sokhor A.M. Logical structure of educational material. - M., 1974.

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Classification of teaching methods.

Reception of educational activities as a historical and methodological category.

Methods and techniques of teaching.

Techniques of mental activity.

Research method in teaching.

Teaching methods are ways of organizing educational material and the interrelated activities of the teacher and students in the learning process. Methods provide an answer to the question: how to teach?

Any teaching method presupposes a goal and a system of actions, means of learning to achieve it, and an intended result.

The object and subject of the teaching method is the student.

Very rarely any one method is used in its pure form. Usually the teacher combines various teaching methods.

Methods in their pure form are used only for specially planned educational or research purposes.

There are different bases for classifying methods. For example, in the 60s. methods were identified based on logical operations- inductive (from facts to theoretical conclusions), analytical, etc.; based on didactic goals - methods of studying the material, consolidating, testing knowledge.

In teaching history, didactics and methodologists most often characterize methods by sources of knowledge (verbal, visual, practical) and by the degree of independence of students’ cognitive activity. Taking into account the levels of cognitive activity of students and the increase in their independence, didactics M.N. Skatkin and I.Ya. Lerner developed a classification of methods.

The reproductive method involves presentation by the teacher and assimilation by the student. ready-made knowledge. All other methods are productive. Productive methods are designed for students’ independent search activities. It can take place in three directions: 1) inclusion of search in cognitive and practical tasks and tasks (working with documents, historical maps, statistical data, participation in archaeological excavations); 2) the teacher’s disclosure of the cognitive process carried out when proving or presenting specific provisions; 3) organizing a holistic study of students under the guidance of a teacher (research of documents, scientific literature based on analysis and generalization of facts).

Let us consider in more detail the classification of methods according to the sources of knowledge acquisition. This classification was proposed by A.A. Vagin, and improved by P.V. Gora. First of all, it is a verbal method. The word is the oldest way of communication. The word is inherent in oral speech and written texts. Therefore, this method of teaching is divided into oral and printed verbal. The verbal method is used in oral teaching when the teacher and students work together and communicate with each other using words. The printed-verbal method involves the use of printed (written) texts together with the spoken word in teaching.

A visual teaching method can be combined with words. The visualization method involves, for example, demonstration and analysis of diagrams, tables, drawings, historical maps, the use of a blackboard and chalk, and on-screen aids. In any technique, this method consists of various elements. Thus, the use of a historical picture includes a preliminary formulation of questions, students examining and analyzing its content, and conducting a final conversation.

The practical method includes actions with educational objects. In the methodology of history, this is the production of layouts, models, drawing diagrams.

An integral part of the methods are the methods of educational activity of the teacher and students. This point of view is held, in particular, by didactician M.I. Makhmutov. Methodological techniques are a set of teaching techniques, i.e. ways of activity of the teacher and ways of activity of students that are adequate to them.

Techniques are understood as actions with objects, as well as verbal or written graphic actions. The reception itself can be seen or heard. Thus, methodological techniques- these are actions aimed at solving a specific problem. These are ways of working that are performed to achieve specific results and that can be expressed as a list of actions. The methods of work (teaching) of students depend on the methods of activity of the teacher.

The materialized side of reception is external manifestations when schoolchildren read, speak, draw, write, draw. Being materialized, the methods of educational work determine the corresponding mental actions that are carried out in organic connection with the methods of educational work and constitute their internal ideal side. While carrying out external materialized actions, the student also carries out mental work.

The methods of mental activity seem to be hidden behind the methods of educational work. The system of methods of mental activity when studying theoretical material includes methods of verbal conceptual thinking. These include: analysis and synthesis, comparison and generalization, proof, identification of the essential, formulation of conclusions, concepts, techniques of imagination and memorization.

The method of mentally dividing a whole into parts is called analysis. The opposite of analysis is synthesis. But this mental operation is realized together with analysis, as well as generalization, systematization, and classification. Synthesis is the mental connection of parts into one whole (discovering the connections between them).

The next method of mental activity is comparison, i.e. establishing common and different. As studies by psychologists show, students in grades 5-7, when making comparisons, are better at identifying features of difference than similarity; it is easier to determine only the special or only the general; similarities are seen more clearly against the background of differences.

When clarifying the essence of concepts, the method of evidence is used. To prove any position expressed as a thesis, arguments are selected. Each argument is intended to substantiate the truth of the thesis. During the proof, one series of conclusions is clearly separated from another.

The source material for evidence can be documents and statistical data.

CLASSIFICATION OF TEACHING METHODS

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Babansky Yu.K. Methods of teaching in a modern secondary school. - M., 1985.

Bernadsky V.N. Teaching methods in high school. - M., 1936.

Vagin A.A. Methods of teaching history in secondary school. - M., 1968.

Mountain P.V. Increasing the effectiveness of teaching history in high school. - M., 1988.

Guzeev V.V. Educational technology: from reception to philosophy. - M., 1996.

Zankov L.V. Visibility and activation of students in learning. - M., 1960.

Kabanova Meller E.N. Educational activities and developmental training. - M., 1981.

Korotkova M.V., Studenikin M.T. Methods of teaching history. - M., 1993.

Kutz S. Student research: determining the topic and planning the work // History. - Weekly supplement to the newspaper “First of September”. - 1999. - No. 5.

Lerner I.Ya. Didactic foundations of teaching methods. - M., 1981.

Methods of teaching the history of the ancient world and the Middle Ages in grades V-VI / Ed. F.P.Korovkina, N.I.Zaporozhets. - M., 1970.

Methods of teaching history in high school. - M., 1986.

Teaching methods in modern school / Ed. N.I. Kudryasheva. - M., 1983.

Talyzina N.F. Formation of cognitive activity of students. - M., 1983.

Topic 11. Structure of the content of historical education. Structure of educational historical material.

The structure of students' historical knowledge.

Factual material in teaching history.

Concepts in school history courses.

Ways of forming concepts.

The main element of the content of historical education is knowledge. They include information and knowledge in the field of history. Knowledge creates scientific picture development of society, give ideas about historical reality and assume human comprehension of it.

The structure of historical knowledge includes knowledge of historical science itself: its content, methods of working with historical material, theoretical and methodological foundations (the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge). In the learning process, students master the elements of historical knowledge, operating with such categories as fact, phenomenon, event, process. They, for example, reveal the essence of events and compare them. What do these categories mean?

The word fact itself, translated from Latin, means something done, accomplished. In history, a fact is considered as a fragment of reality, a specific situation, that took place; the fact is unique, it cannot be reproduced or observed. Historians also highlight the fact of the source.

In the process of learning history, facts are valuable not only in themselves, but they are necessary for determining and comparing historical connections, for their generalization and assimilation into the system. Generalization and systematization of facts is a tool for learning history. From the multitude of studied facts, knowledge is obtained.

From a combination of facts of different orders, an image of a historical event arises. Therefore, when preparing for lessons, it is necessary to select basic and supporting facts, identifying those that students must remember for a long time. As already noted, the main facts that are significant for the knowledge of history and form the leading ideas of the course are revealed more fully and in detail. Non-main facts are summarized. They are needed for communication, for durable memorization of the most important events. Thus, the degree of their coverage depends on the significance of the facts. Each fact presented in the lesson should reveal the essence of the issue and contribute to the understanding of the basic theoretical principles.

Significant single facts are called events.

These include, for example, Battle on the Ice, the uprising of Stepan Razin, the civil war in Russia. These events took place in specific conditions, with the participation of a certain circle of people; they are strictly localized in space and time.

The study of single, unique facts or events helps to understand and assimilate typical phenomena.

Phenomena are general facts (revolution, uprising) without reference to specific events, without specifying the place, time, or participants. In this case, it is meant that a revolution is a qualitative change in the development of society, and an uprising is a mass armed uprising. Historical phenomena often reflect features characteristic of a certain period of history or era, for example, the era of serfdom was characterized by corvée and quitrent.

A process is a consistent change of states in development. In history, these are chains of facts interconnected in time; link they have causes and effects. For example, the industrial revolution is a process characterized by a transition from manufacture to machine production.

Based on the facts being studied, specific ideas are formed in the minds of students, a certain system is formed historical concepts. Researchers of the 50-60s.

XX century were able to prove that in order to form correct, complete ideas in students, it is not enough just to show images accompanied by a verbal explanation. It is also necessary to use techniques that help consolidate and clarify these ideas. Such techniques include verbal description, drawing or graphic reproduction of an object.

Scientists distinguish three types of historical ideas.

These are ideas about the facts of the past (material, socio-political, historical and cultural life of people, etc.); about historical time (duration and sequence of historical events and phenomena); about historical space (linking events to a specific place of action). Techniques for creating historical ideas include describing the content of a historical picture, analyzing an event or fact, plot story, practical activities of students (drawing, working with plasticine, making models).

Insufficient work on the formation of figurative ideas leads to the modernization of history by students. Historical ideas are the basis of historical concepts: the wider the circle and the richer the content of images and pictures of the past, the more meaningful the system of concepts.

Historical concepts are necessary to explain and systematize facts and comprehend other concepts. Methodists A.A. Vagin, V.G. Kartsov, A.I. Strazhev paid attention to the gradual mastery of leading concepts as a result of enrichment and specification of their content. From lesson to lesson, their new sides, essential features, connections, relationships with other concepts were revealed.

The process of concept formation proceeds effectively if the typical features of the created images identified by the teacher are interpreted by students as signs of concepts. Teenagers more easily assimilate the signs of those concepts that can be represented visually. Only later do they convey their content in a more generalized form.

Psychologists A.Z. Redko, L.M. Kodyukova back in the 50s. proved that the assimilation of concepts can only be carried out in a certain sequence: from visual representations - to initial concepts, from less complex ones - to more complex ones; from concepts that can be broadly specified with the help of visual material - to concepts that can be specified only through other concepts.

Work on concepts occurs in several stages. The first of them is carried out mainly in the lower grades.

In the lower grades, in order to facilitate the identification of essential features of concepts, the factual material must be dissected: a few, the most striking typical facts are selected, most accessible to elementary analysis, most clearly reflecting what is essential that is subject to isolation. In his presentation, the teacher gives close-up that new, uniquely essential thing that needs to be isolated. This should serve as material for the formation of a new concept.

At the second stage, essential ones are identified from non-essential features. This technique of “dismembering abstraction”, when the inessential and the essential are isolated from the facts, and the latter is formulated in the form of features and characteristics. In order to better record them, several similar facts or phenomena are also analyzed in order to highlight common essential features. General characteristics become the basis of the future concept.

At the third stage, the term and definition of the concept are given.

Definitions of concepts can be offered in two forms:

1) listing of parts, features; 2) scientific definition through generic concept, a broader group of phenomena to which it belongs this phenomenon. The content of a number of concepts is revealed without definitions, but in more elementary ways. One of them is simply a description of phenomena, pictures characteristic of a given concept (for example, an economic crisis - stores are overflowing with goods, the population cannot buy anything, production cuts and factory closures, the ruin of small entrepreneurs). This can be a simple enumeration of the phenomena included in the concept (for example, a court, an army, etc. - this is the state apparatus). Or just a vivid example with a plot (for example, handing over food to a feudal lord).

Of the two methods of forming concepts that are presented in the diagram, the deductive one predominates in textbooks and teaching today: first a theory is given, then the concepts are revealed with the help of many different facts, gradually enriched from topic to topic, and concretized with factual material.

STRUCTURE OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORICAL MATERIAL

Form of theoretical knowledge

Vagin A.A. Methods of teaching history in secondary school. - M., 1968.

Mountain P.V. Improving the quality of history teaching in secondary schools. - M., 1988.

Gulyga A.V. The art of history. - M., 1980.

Dairi N.G. The main thing to learn in class. - M., 1987.

Krever G.A. Studying the theoretical content of history courses in grades 5-9. - M., 1989.

Lerner I.Ya. Development of students' thinking in the process of learning history. - M., 1982.

Methods of teaching history in high school. - M., 1986.

Nechkina M.V. The function of the artistic image in the historical process. - M., 1982.

Rakitov A.I. Historical knowledge: Systematic epistemological approach. - M., 1982.

Strazhev A.I. Methods of teaching history. - M., 1964.

Topic 12. Formation of students' skills General classification of skills.

Techniques and skills in educational activities.

Basic skills of schoolchildren when teaching history.

Methodology for developing skills.

Ways to develop skills in history lessons.

Didactics and methodologists have different points view of students' skills and abilities. All points of view on the issue of the essence of skills can be reduced to the following: 1) skills are automated actions that play an auxiliary role and are part of a skill; 2) skills - possession of knowledge about the method of activity, the initial stage of skill formation; 3) skills - the ability to achieve the goals of an activity based on knowledge and acquired skills; 4) skills - conscious mastery of the method of activity; 5) skills - conscious mastery of mental operations.

The methodology for developing skills in teaching history includes four stages. First, students acquire knowledge of a specific technique necessary, for example, to compile a comparative table, an answer plan, or develop a logical diagram. Having learned about the sequence of actions that make up this technique, students begin working according to the model under the guidance of the teacher. Gradually their independence increases, especially when acting in similar situations. Students begin to use a familiar technique in new conditions, performing exercises and solving problems. As a result repeated many times They learn all the actions that make up the technique. After this, students can independently transfer the learned actions to new material and in other conditions. Thus, they develop the ability to apply the learned technique in working with new educational content or primary source. The main sign of mastery of a particular skill is the student’s ability to use both materialized and mental actions that make up the technique in a new learning situation on new material and while solving unfamiliar cognitive problems.

Skill cannot be reduced only to knowledge of a method of action or technique; the student needs to design his own activity. The student must take the initiative to complete educational task, find new ways to solve it, i.e. carry out skill transfer. This means the student’s ability to independently perform a known type of task in new conditions, on new educational material. Students master the ability to recreate images of people, analyze historical facts, compare events and phenomena, and find objective connections between facts.

The most reliable and traditionally proven way to develop skills is a system of cognitive tasks and assignments. According to a cognitive task, these are certain educational conditions that require the student to activate all cognitive processes - thinking, imagination, memory, attention, etc.

Traditionally they are divided into figurative, logical and evaluative.

An imaginative task is one that helps students recreate the historical past in images and operate with them. Intellectual or logical tasks are aimed at mastering theoretical knowledge and require primarily the activation of abstract logical thinking. Assessment tasks encourage students to express their value judgments, personal attitude to what is being studied. IN modern system Assessment tasks play a significant role in this regard.

Cognitive tasks of the logical plan are very similar in cognitive tasks. A cognitive task is such conditions in educational situations that not only encourage the student to operate known knowledge in new situations, but also lead to the discovery of new ways of acting with historical material. Methodists sometimes identify them with creative ones, since the tasks are aimed at developing the independent intellectual activity of students. Forecasting tasks are aimed at the ability to build cause-and-effect relationships and reasonably indicate the end result. Alternative tasks require a reasoned choice. Discussion tasks require independent development of solutions based on several points of view. In a task, new knowledge collides with old knowledge. In tasks of reflection and fantasy, it is not the final conclusion that is important, but the process of creative activity.

Exercises are tasks for manipulating and operating with historical dates, terms, concepts, names. In the exercises you need to know the material in order to operate with it. They are good for training and performing techniques according to this pattern. All three types of tasks contribute to the development of history skills. In modern schools, they are included in sets of workbooks for all courses.

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF SKILLS

Educational and organizational:

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Topical issues of methods of teaching history in secondary school / Ed. A.G. Koloskova. - M., 1984.

Mountain P.V. Increasing the effectiveness of teaching history in high school. - M., 1988.

Zaporozhets N.I. Development of students' skills and abilities in the process of teaching history (grades 4-8). - M., 1978. - Ch. 2.

Korotkova M.V., Studenikin M.T. Methods of teaching history. - M., 1993.

Methods of teaching the history of the ancient world and the Middle Ages in grades V-VI / Ed. F.P.Korovkina, N.I.Zaporozhets. - M., 1970.

Lerner I.Ya. Cognitive tasks in teaching history. - M., 1968.

Loshkareva N.A. Formation of a system of general educational skills of schoolchildren. - M., 1982.

Methods of teaching history in secondary school: A manual for teachers / Ed. ed. F.P.Korovkin. - M., 1978. - Part I.

Methods of teaching history in high school. - M., 1986.

Raeva A.I. Psychological foundations management of students' mental activity during the learning process. - L., 1971.

Talyzina N.F. Formation of cognitive activity of younger schoolchildren. - M., 1988.

Topic 13. Techniques for studying factual material. Functions of the teacher’s spoken word.

General techniques for presenting historical material.

Techniques for presenting factual material.

Unconventional methods of studying history.

Organization of students' cognitive activity when studying factual material.

One of the methods of presenting factual material is narration. In teaching history, this is a story about historical events. The narrative provides specific historical characteristics of time, space, and people. The teacher presents historical facts in their originality, which helps students develop an understanding of the specificity of each historical fact in comparison with others.

A plot narrative story is a detailed emotional narrative that has a specific historical plot, often characterized by drama. The main historical facts are recreated in it figuratively, dynamically, excitingly, as in fiction story. The basis of the story, as a rule, lies conflict situation, developing in accordance with the plot scheme of events and actions of the heroes: beginning-climax-denouement. This kind of story is used to describe the most significant events.

Non-traditional forms of plot narration are personification and dramatization, used in middle classes. Personification is a form of plot narration about the actions of a fictional person. It is based on an invented plot about his fate, living conditions, actions, dialogues, etc. A story about the situation of an individual person, his affairs makes it possible to understand the typical phenomena of the life of society.

In dramatization, the narrative is conducted in the form of dialogues between two people trying to resolve a conflict situation.

During the dialogue, the essence of a typical social phenomenon. Often the students themselves are participants in these dialogues. After all, everything that is revealed through active personal participation is always better understood.

Unlike a plot narrative, which has a specific plot, a figurative narrative contains more theoretical ideas and conveys the main historical facts in a calm, conflict-free form. This technique is most often used to describe phenomena and processes. various sides life of society. The technique is usually combined with graphic clarity.

In lessons, when presenting non-main facts, the teacher uses summary narration and simple informative communication. The method of summary narration is characterized by a simple, devoid of figurativeness enumeration of facts, their spatial, temporal and quantitative characteristics. Such brief coverage of facts without their analysis is necessary to establish connections between the main facts and to create a holistic picture of events. With the help of maps, diagrams, graphs, the events of political life, military history, popular uprisings. A simple informative message is used to list facts, dates, names, geographical places that are interconnected with each other and with the main fact of the lesson. As the story progresses, students create calendars of events.

A description is a story that sets out essential features, details, characteristics or conditions. It has an object, but no plot. Description can be pictorial and analytical.

A pictorial description is a method of oral presentation of material, when images of certain facts are created in an emotionally artistic form, i.e. there is a figurative reproduction of facts in the form of complete pictures. This type of description is used to recreate pictures of nature, the way of life of people, the geographical environment, as well as typical phenomena of cultural, social, and economic life.

An analytical description is significantly different from a picture - the technique of a story in which a description is given components, parts, their functional purpose. This technique mainly conveys the external signs of the created holistic images, shows the interaction of their essential aspects and components. It is used to describe tools, weapons, architectural monuments, military and economic facilities, as well as to explain the structure of the state and its military organization. The story is combined with chalk drawings, diagrams and drawings, with a demonstration of layouts and models, and with the use of an overhead projector.

The characteristics of typical representatives of society of a particular period are called figurative: a merchant, a landowner, a worker, a manufacturer, a peasant, etc. Along with figurative characterization, in teaching history, a portrait description is given, which is a description (characteristic) of historical figures.

In addition to non-traditional techniques - personification and dramatization - there are others based on direct speech and the so-called “presence effect”. Close to dramatization and personification is the use of interviews or letters on behalf of participants in events. An imaginary excursion or correspondence trip is a technique in which students become, as it were, eyewitnesses of historical events and get acquainted with people who lived in a particular era. Unlike previous techniques, it includes broad description and narration. Role-playing is a technique and at the same time a form of organizing students’ cognitive activity; it is based on direct “participation”

schoolchildren in historical events. There are retrospective games - students take on the roles of participants in historical events - and business games - the roles of contemporaries studying the historical past are played out.

Training in techniques takes place in several successive stages, as shown in the diagram. First, children describe and narrate similar events and phenomena using a model, and always rely on visualization. Then, having mastered the techniques, they transfer them to non-analogous situations (for example, from the Ancient East they move on to the study of Ancient Greece). It is also advisable to carry out the transfer based on clarity. Only after mastering the transfer of techniques to non-analogous situations do students move on to creative activity. They model new situations, master new unconventional techniques, being fluent in description, narration, and characterization. Only in this case can games be played in the classroom. They include an element of creative activity.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ORAL WORD OF THE TEACHER

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TECHNIQUES FOR PRESENTING THE MAIN

HISTORICAL FACTS

FIGURATIVE

CHARACTERISTIC

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IMAGINARY INTERVIEWING

CHARACTERS' JOURNEY

ROLE-PLAYING GAME

BUSINESS RETROSPECTIVE

ORGANIZATION OF COGNITIVE ACTIVITY

STUDENTS WHEN STUDYING

FACTUAL MATERIAL

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Andreevskaya N.A., Bernadsky V.N. Methods of teaching history at 7-year school. - M., 1947.

Bakhanov K.A. Theatrical games in history lessons // Teaching history at school. - 1990. - No. 4.

Vagin A.A. Methods of teaching history in secondary school. - M., 1968.

Vagin A.A., Speranskaya N.V. Basic questions of methods of teaching history in high school: A manual for teachers. - M., 1959.

Goder G.I. Assignments and tasks on the history of the ancient world. - M., 1996.

Goder G.I. Methodical manual on the history of the ancient world. - M., 1988.

Goder G.I. Teaching history in 5th grade: A teacher's manual. - M., 1985.

Mountain P.V. Methodological techniques and means of visual teaching of history in secondary school. - M., 1971.

Mountain P.V. Increasing the effectiveness of teaching history in high school. - M., 1988.

Grozberg G.P. Historical games in 5th grade lessons // Teaching history at school. - 1990. - No. 4.

Ivanova T.N. History in 7th grade: Role-playing game scenarios. - Cheboksary, 1993.

Korotkova M.V. Problem games in the history lessons of the Middle Ages // Teaching history at school. - 1991. - No. 4.

Korotkova M.V. Formation figurative representations students in the course of the history of the ancient world // Teaching history at school. - 1990. - No. 5.

Korotkova M.V., Studenikin M.T. Methods of teaching history. - M., 1993.

Kucheruk I.V. Educational games in history lessons // Teaching history at school. - 1989. - No. 4.

Methods of teaching the history of the ancient world and the Middle Ages in grades V-VI / Ed. F.P.Korovkina, N.I.Zaporozhets. - M., 1970.

Methods of teaching history in high school. - M., 1986.

Petrova L.V. Non-traditional forms history lessons // Teaching history at school. - 1987. - No. 4.

Shchukina G.I. The role of activity in the educational process. - M., 1986.

Topic 14. Techniques and means of studying theoretical material Techniques for oral presentation of theoretical material.

Written graphic techniques and means of studying theoretical material.

Methods of oral presentation of the theoretical content of educational historical material include explanation, reasoning, comparative and generalizing characteristics. Explanation is one of the common techniques when presenting the main facts and theoretical material. This is that part of the information that must be assimilated in the form of ready-made concepts, judgments, inferences, assessments, and conclusions. Concepts (corvée economy, handicraft production, manufacturing) and cause-and-effect relationships (prerequisites feudal fragmentation) the teacher reveals using an explanation technique. This technique helps to convincingly show internal connections and dependencies, the meaning, essence and significance of historical facts and phenomena. When explaining, a clear separation of one series of conclusions from another is carried out, each of which follows from an analysis of the facts. The essence of historical facts, their connections, as well as the essential features of historical phenomena are revealed in detail.

The explanation method is the most accessible for students, therefore it is used in all classes. With its help, students are told the essence of the events and phenomena being studied, their connections in a ready-made, explained form. Students just need to understand and remember it. Thus, the explanation does not require students to search for something essential, which limits their independent cognitive activity and is a disadvantage of this technique.

Another technique is a reasoning technique used in identifying cause-and-effect relationships and essential features of concepts. This technique allows you to show students the teacher’s reasoning, his thoughts, and give examples of analysis of facts. The teacher, as it were, leads the students’ thoughts along with him, involving them in active cognitive activity. It shows how scientists solved this or that problem, how it should be solved, but does not provide ready-made recipes for solving it.

Reasoning begins and is accompanied by posing questions, which allows students to draw attention to the main meaning of the material being studied. For each question posed, the teacher gives several alternative options, compares facts and opinions. As a result of sequential questioning and answering logic circuit questions, students without difficulty comprehend the theoretical content of the educational material. Reasoning may not give a ready conclusion.

Together with the techniques of reasoning and explanation, such teaching aids as logical diagrams, teaching aids, applications, and text tables are used. The method of reasoning presentation allows students to engage in activity at a transformative level, when, in the course of the teacher’s explanation, they draw up semantic plans, logical diagrams, draw diagrams and graphs, comparative tables, and comment on them.

When presenting the theoretical content of educational material, comparative characteristics are used. Forms of government power, types of farms and much more are compared.

When starting a comparison, one should highlight the essential comparable features of historical objects; then compare the selected features, find their common, special, individual features; in the end - to draw a conclusion. Together with the technique, such teaching aids as text comparison tables and training reminders are used.

The reception of a generalizing characteristic has completely different tasks. It summarizes the theoretical material studied and forms concepts. When generalizing something, they list in a logical sequence the main features of the phenomenon, the most essential things in it. A generalizing characteristic is used when the explanation of a complex historical event and in a generalized conclusion it is necessary to emphasize its essence or identify essential features and connections.

A generalizing characteristic is used for an inductive and deductive presentation of the main facts and concepts in a concise manner, in the form of a listing of essential connections and features. For example, having finished explaining complex material, in a generalization the teacher highlights the essence of the event (technique of induction). Since inductive presentation contributes little to the development of students’ cognitive capabilities, during explanation it is supplemented by deduction and a problematic presentation of facts. Deduction allows you to use the content of generalizing characteristics as theoretical knowledge.

Tables are a “synthetic image” of the topic being studied, according to the apt expression of methodologist A.A. Vagin. They can be comparative, generalizing and thematic: the differences lie in the graphs. Schemes are graphic image material, where individual parts and signs of a phenomenon are indicated by conventional signs, and relationships and connections - by mutual arrangement. Schemes can be essential, which reflect the components of concepts, phenomena, processes, logical, and also in the form of graphs and diagrams.

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Korotkova M. V., Studenikin M. T.

These diagrams and tables help highlight the basic knowledge and skills that students must master in the process of studying a course on methods of teaching history. In particular, these are methods of scientific research, the main factors of the learning process, their objective connections; goals of school history teaching; content of educational complexes, etc. Diagrams and tables provide an opportunity to methodically correctly work with a history textbook; implement in practice methodological approaches to the selection of educational material content; determine the level of knowledge and skills of students and outline tasks for their further development.

In general, this manual will help the history teacher and trainee:

Identify the level of knowledge and skills in history of students of a particular class and age;

Specify learning objectives by grade, course, section and topic;

Set specific learning objectives and determine the effectiveness of their implementation at different stages;

Select historical content for the lesson in accordance with the goals and objectives of learning, the cognitive capabilities of students;

Correlate the content of training with the methods and techniques used;

Develop tests, logic tasks, notes with reference signals;

Apply the most effective methods, forms and means of teaching;

Anticipate and identify learning outcomes by making adjustments to your teaching activities.

Bibliography

To prepare this work, materials were used from the site http://www.portal-slovo.ru/

Korotkova M.V., Studenikin M.T. The revision of the content of school history education, its liberation from everything outdated, from existing stereotypes, led to significant changes in the methods of teaching history. These and

Methods of teaching history in diagrams, tables, descriptions

Korotkova M. V., Studenikin M. T.

These diagrams and tables help highlight the basic knowledge and skills that students must master in the process of studying a course on methods of teaching history. In particular, these are methods of scientific research, the main factors of the learning process, their objective connections; goals of school history teaching; content of educational complexes, etc. Diagrams and tables provide an opportunity to methodically correctly work with a history textbook; implement in practice methodological approaches to the selection of educational material content; determine the level of knowledge and skills of students and outline tasks for their further development.

In general, this manual will help the history teacher and trainee:

Identify the level of knowledge and skills in history of students of a particular class and age;

Specify learning objectives by grade, course, section and topic;

Set specific learning objectives and determine the effectiveness of their implementation at different stages;

Select historical content for the lesson in accordance with the goals and objectives of learning, the cognitive capabilities of students;

Correlate the content of training with the methods and techniques used;

Develop tests, logic tasks, notes with reference signals;

Apply the most effective methods, forms and means of teaching;

Anticipate and identify learning outcomes by making adjustments to your teaching activities.

Methods of teaching history. Lectures

Lecture No. 1

HISTORY TEACHING METHODOLOGY

February 18, 2008

Alexander Leonidovich Korzinin.

test. 16 hours of lectures. 8 topics.

1 topic. Subject and objectives of the course. Theoretical and methodological foundations of the school history course. The formation of historical education in Russia in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Topic 2. Development of school history teaching and methods of teaching history in domestic schools of the 20th century. Comparative characteristics of the linear and concentric structure of school history education.

Topic 3. Methods and techniques for teaching history.

Topic 4. Types of lessons and forms of teaching in middle and high schools.

Topic 5. Methodology for the formation of concepts, chronological knowledge and skills in school history courses.

Topic 6. History learning outcomes. Methods of diagnosis and assessment.

Topic 7. Preparing a teacher for a history lesson. Lesson plan notes, thematic planning.

Topic 8. Innovations in teaching history.

The purpose of the course is to learn how to teach history, to be able to select the main, most significant things from what you are going to present, i.e. certain requirements for the selection of material.

Literature:

Vyazemsky E.I., Strelova O. “Methods of teaching history at school.” Practical guide for teachers. Moscow. 1999.

Vyazemsky E.I., Strelova O. “Theory and methods of teaching history.” Textbook for university students. Moscow. 2003.

Korotkova M.V., Studenikin M.T. “Methodology for teaching history in diagrams, tables, descriptions.” M. 1999.

Studenikin M.T. "Methods of teaching history." M. 2004.

N. John “The Craft of a History Teacher.” Yaroslavl. 2001.

Methods of teaching history in high school. M. 1986.

Handbook for history teachers. Reference and methodological manual. M. 2003.

Topical issues of teaching methods in secondary school.

There are a lot of books.

Topic 1. Subject and objectives of history teaching methods. Theoretical and methodological foundations of the school history course. The formation of historical education in Russia in the 18th and 19th centuries.

The word “methodology” is of ancient Greek origin. Translated, it means “a way of knowing, a path of research.” A method is a way of achieving a goal, solving a specific problem.

Methods of teaching history is a pedagogical science about the tasks, content and methods of teaching history. Science studies and explores the laws of the history teaching process in order to improve its efficiency and quality.

The object of study of the methodology is the content, organization of the form and method of teaching.

The subject of study of the methodology is the pedagogical learning process. Those. teacher teaching and students learning history.

Methodist Singalevich said: in life you often encounter bad teachers. They do not know how to convey their knowledge to others in a sufficient form, since they are not sufficiently familiar with the methodological foundations of communicating historical material to students, and in general have not fully mastered the methodology of the subject.

The methodology is needed in order to be able to correctly present historical material and convey it to others. The methodology provides answers to the questions: why teach, what to teach and how to teach?

Knowing the methodology, you can teach anywhere. Although the population at school and university is different.

The main factors of learning at school:

1. Goals determined by the state and society.

3. Scientific and methodological organization of the learning process. Forms, methods, methodological techniques, teaching tools.

5. Learning outcomes.

Now in more detail.

1. Learning goals were different at different stages of historical education. Much depended on development needs Russian state. In pre-revolutionary Russia, the goals of education meant the formation of a full-fledged historical consciousness students, mastering democratic values, institutions, studying the cultural heritage of our ancestors and humanity as a whole.

Goals do not fall from the sky, they are formed by the state. There is a certain political elite. In part, the goals reflect a certain stage of development of the state. In part, these goals are repeated.

Currently the following goals:

students mastering the basics of knowledge about the historical path of mankind from ancient times to the present day.

development of the ability to comprehend events and phenomena of reality on the basis of historical knowledge.

formation value guidelines and beliefs of students based on the ideas of humanism, historical experience, and patriotism.

education of a person - a patriot of his country, respecting national universal values

integration of the individual into national and world culture.

There are many goals, they are global. Naturally, not every school pursues these goals. Much depends on the personality of the teacher.

3. Teaching methods can be verbal, printed and handwritten, when working with texts during lessons; visual when the film is shown; practical, when they reconstruct something, make it with their own hands.

Teaching methods provide an answer to the question: how to teach, through what to transmit knowledge and information.

The methods allow for two-way activity between teacher and student. A good methodology allows students to effectively form historical knowledge and cognitive skills, scientific views and beliefs, and develop their abilities.

Forms of training.

There are whole-class forms, when the teacher works with the whole class.

Group, when the class is divided into groups.

Individual, when several students are selected from the class and speak during the lesson.

Types of lessons:

repetition-summarizing, seminars, etc.

4. Cognitive capabilities of students.

They are related to the age of the student. The school educates children from 6-7 to 17-18 years old. Accordingly, there is an elementary school, a middle school, and a high school. This should be taken into account when teaching history. The learning process develops students' ability to understand, assimilate and apply historical knowledge in practice.

Definition of ability: it is individual characteristics personalities, which are subjective conditions for the successful implementation of a certain type of activity.

Everyone has their own abilities. Some people find history interesting, others don't. And such students, with different abilities, are found in the same class. Therefore, it turns out that everyone needs an individual approach.

In general, abilities are expressed in the speed, depth and strength of mastering the methods and techniques of studying history.

5. Learning outcomes are directly related to the implementation of set goals and reflect achieved level students' knowledge and skills.

The level of perception means the intellectual level of perception, motivational-volitional, emotional. You can perceive it intellectually, or you can perceive it through emotions and feelings.

Knowledge is expressed in the ability to prove and substantiate one’s own statements, highlight the essential and most important, identify cause-and-effect relationships, use necessary knowledge to resolve problems.

We must keep in mind that the goals have been set and the level of training is there. But the level of knowledge in modern schools in history is quite low now. Many students don't do their homework and don't care about grades. The level of knowledge achieved depends not only on the teacher, but also on the students themselves and their parents.

Learning outcomes are measured by the level of historical education achieved in the lesson, the formation of a scientific worldview, and the education of students in the process of teaching history.

In words, it’s all beautiful and smart. In fact, the level of students is extremely low.

The quality of education is assessed through tests, assignments, and students preparing reports, essays, and scientific articles outside of class hours.

What is the importance of history teaching methods? Allows you to identify the level of knowledge and skills in the history of students of a particular age, specify learning goals, set specific learning objectives, select content in accordance with the goals and objectives of learning, etc.

There are many goals. Teaching methods are closely connected with history itself, with historical knowledge. The purpose of the methodology is to select the most significant, important things that can be successfully perceived by students, and to be able to consolidate this knowledge at school.

It must be borne in mind that the development of school education goes hand in hand with the development of scientific education. All scientific data must be reflected in textbooks. In this regard, textbooks are rewritten, edited, and supplemented.

The methodology is also closely related to historical knowledge.

Content in school is selected in connection with the cognitive capabilities of students. You won’t be able to give very difficult ones at school, because no one at school will understand you. It is necessary to present the material as simply and clearly as possible, and not even to the extent that a school textbook sometimes offers, because the topics are very broad, and the cognitive level of students, unfortunately, is disproportionate compared to the amount of information, so it is necessary to simplify the content, divide it into some fractional units, not to be given in full. The main thing is to give at least the minimum that they can put into practice.

Methodology is closely related to pedagogy.

At our university, the emphasis is on scientific knowledge.

And in Pedagogical University named after Herzen, the emphasis is on the pedagogical learning process. There is also a course on methods of teaching history. But it is read from a pedagogical point of view, how exactly to conduct lessons, how to give material, how to take into account the cognitive capabilities of students.

Teaching history in pre-revolutionary Russia 17-20 centuries.

Formation and development of history teaching.

The origin of historical and methodological science dates back to the 15th century. These are the first shoots. This origin is seen in the appearance of the first collections containing historical information. These collections were called Azbukovniki. They date back to the 15th-17th centuries. These are the most general works, which contained the alphabet, counting and brief information of a general nature.

The first educational book on history is Synopsis - Review. The author of the book is Innocent Gisel. Appeared in Kyiv in 1674. He himself was the abbot of the monastery and belonged to the clergy. The Synopsis contained descriptions of military actions on the part of Russian princes and tsars, and listed the names of princes and tsars, as well as Ukrainian hetmans. This was a fascinating history reference book. Therefore, it cannot be called a textbook. He was in need of the day.

But the Synopsis can be considered as a printed source of information on Russian history. It is believed that the teaching of history first began in two private educational institutions: the Moscow Gymnasium of Pastor Gluck, opened in 1705; The school operated in St. Petersburg and opened in 1721.

Children of boyars, service people, and merchants studied at the Moscow gymnasium at will. They paid money for education.

Feofan Prokopovich’s school had a more liberal composition; history was studied by people of all ranks, but also for money.

Although the first private schools opened in the 17th century, history was not taught there.

Since 1726, state teaching of history appeared. It took place in the academic gymnasium at the Academic University in St. Petersburg. It was created in 1724, in 1725 it began to function according to a decree that created a three-member system: the Academy of Sciences, the Academic University, subordinate to the Academy of Sciences, and the gymnasium at the university.

The academic gymnasium consisted of preparatory German and Latin schools. IN German school 3 years of study, 2 years in Latin. Students entered 5th grade, studied for 5 years, and completed their studies in 1st grade. Those. from 5th grade to 1st. History was studied from 3rd grade.

In the 3rd and 3rd grades, ancient history was allocated 3 hours a week, studied from the Creation of the world and ending with the reign of the Christian emperor Constantine.

In the 1st grade, history was studied 2 hours a week, the study was carried up to the 1740s of the 18th century.

There was no Russian history as a separate discipline. We studied world history, and as part of it we studied a little national history.

In 1747, special disciplines appeared at the Academic Gymnasium - lessons in chronology and heraldry.

It must be borne in mind that there was no systematic history course, there was no classroom teaching. Each teacher taught 3-4 subjects. This makes the quality worse. In addition, teaching was conducted in foreign languages.

In parallel with the teaching of history in schools, educational literature was developed. The first textbooks were translated, and they were on world history. In 1747, the first translation of a textbook on general history into Russian was published. It was called "Introduction to General History." History was presented according to the medieval scheme of monarchies: Assyro-Babylonian, Persian, Macedonian, Greek period, Roman period. The presentation began from the creation of the world, listing the rulers and everything that was done by them. About wars. All this was flavored with a large number of anecdotes so that reading would not be boring. Was a large number of myths that were presented as real facts.

In the 18th century there were a considerable number of private schools. There, chronology, numismatics, heraldry, genealogy, and geography were studied as separate subjects. But the teaching was very primitive. The teaching was based on question-and-answer form. The educational material had to be learned by heart. The teacher spoke clearly from the textbook. Students had to write down word for word and retell it word for word in the next lesson.

In the 1760s of the 18th century, history was taught in religious schools, commercial and art schools, i.e. the number of educational institutions where history was taught expanded.

In general, the teaching of history in schools was closely connected with the development of historical science, with the emergence of new research on history and fundamental works.

History was not in the first place in the plans of educational institutions, but served as an addition to the philological course. In 1st place were languages, philology, and in addition to it - history. History was taught for relaxation and relaxation. Historical knowledge was considered as a storehouse of material from which one must draw examples and models of virtue or vice.

Only on the advice of Tatishchev, who stood at the origins of Russian historical science, history as a subject was first introduced in schools as an independent academic subject, separate from philology. The starting point was the essay by Tatishchev himself, “Russian History from the Most Ancient Times.” This book was used by many contemporaries, including Lomonosov. It served as a starting point for the presentation of historical knowledge.

From the 2nd half of the 18th century, Russian history gradually began to establish itself in schools; it gradually began to separate from the general one.

The first school textbook on Russian history is considered to be Lomonosov’s work “A Brief Chronicler with Genealogy”, 1760. This Chronicler was a brief overview of Russian history from Rurik to Peter 1. It contained a periodization of history and listed the most important events and dates. The presentation of historical material was carried out until the reign of Catherine 2.

In 1769, a new textbook “Image of Russian History” appeared, authored by August Ludwig Schlozer. These were 2 small books for foreigners.

In the last quarter of the 18th century, the amount of educational literature began to grow. This was due to the reform of school education carried out by Catherine II. New books appeared. The most common book in public schools was “On the Positions of Man and Citizen.” But it was more of a social studies textbook. Author Jankovic-Demillevo. It was believed that Catherine 2 had a hand in its compilation. The textbook contained explanations of the concepts of soul, mind, will, love of the fatherland, and marital union.

Under Catherine 2, an important reform was carried out in 1768. Public schools were established in all provinces. They introduced a class-lesson teaching system. The use of blackboards and chalk in lessons was introduced.

At the insistence of Catherine II, a special commission was formed that drew up a plan for writing Russian history for the Public Schools. Those. methodological foundations for teaching history in new educational institutions were needed. The purpose of the technique: to describe every important incident or matter in such a way that it serves either as encouragement or as a precaution for people of present and future times. Those. no longer cooling, but useful.

Yankovic’s textbook “World History, Published for Public Schools” was published Russian Empire" St. Petersburg, 1787.

This book, in addition to historical material, contained recommendations on how to teach a lesson. It was suggested to read the material piece by piece, and the teacher had to explain what was read. Show on the map the places of events, campaigns, migrations of peoples. Ask students questions and briefly review what they learned in the previous lesson. Yankovic proposed presenting the material in his own words, but in a certain connection and with reference to wall maps (land maps). At first these maps were geographical, and at the end of the 18th century historical maps also appeared.

1783 Creation of a Teachers' Seminary in St. Petersburg for the training of teachers of public schools. For the first time, methods of teaching history were included among the subjects taught. This indicates a certain importance, recognized on the part of the government, of the methodology of teaching history, and an increased interest in history.

Yankovic continued to work on publishing educational literature. On his initiative, a wall historical map of the Russian Empire was published in 1793.

New history books were translated. In 1787, A History of the World for the Education of Youth, by Schreck, was translated and published. The book was intended for public schools; it turned out to be more interesting than Yankovic’s “World History”.

In 1799, instead of the outdated Chronicler of Lomonosov, a “Brief Russian History” appeared, composed for use in public schools. Author Timofey Teriak. This textbook included 3 historical maps as an appendix. An extensive and detailed course on Russian history, but with a dry presentation of the material.

In the 1770s of the 18th century, domestic history was separated from general history, although general history was considered in schools as the main one. Domestic history was usually taught in the last grade, and served as the completion of general history.

The technique left much to be desired. The lessons were based on the principle of memorizing the material and repeating it at the next lesson.

History as a separate academic subject was included in the plan of the Public Schools. There were no written homework assignments. The lesson took the form of explanatory reading from a textbook. There were almost no explanations from the teacher. Just read the textbook.

19th century. History education in school usually promoted scientific historical knowledge. Venerable historians, their views served as the starting point for changing the teaching of history in school.

Karamzin believed that knowledge of the present begins with the past. Karamzin was official historiographer. Therefore, in his presentation, history was presented as the result of the activities of monarchs, rulers, and outstanding personalities. Within the framework of this monarchical concept, Karamzin believed that history should serve to instruct and moralize the younger generation, in the spirit of admiration for the throne. This migrated to the textbooks of the 1st half of the 19th century, to the textbooks of Kaidanov and Smaragdov. In their textbooks, the subject of history was the deeds and destinies of great people. All events were explained by the psychology of outstanding personalities, generals and sovereigns.

Methods of teaching history. In the 1st half of the 19th century, works on the method appeared. In 1840-45, works on methods of teaching history appeared by A. Yazvinsky. He suggested writing down the most important facts on sheets of paper of different colors. Students had to draw these sheets into 100 cells. Each cell meant a year, 100 cells meant a century. Game form conducting a lesson.

Rhythmic generalization technique. It was developed by Gottlieb von Schubert, director of a German school. The facts of history were rhymed and sung like songs and memorized.

Grouping method. Lieberman. Various material grouped by topic and discussion took place.

In the mid-19th century, the most common practice was for the teacher to briefly comment on the text of the textbook; there was no disclosure internal connections between the facts, there was no documentary material, no visual aids were used.

Lecture No. 2

Methods of teaching history

February 25, 2008

Studenikin “Methods of teaching history at school.” M. 2002.

We reached the beginning of the 19th century.

Belinsky, Dobrolyubov, and Chernyshevsky made a great contribution to the formation of the methodological system of education in the 1840-60s. What is their merit? The fact is that they said that there must be a connection between history and modernity, that ideas must be extracted from the facts of the historical past. Facts are not an end in themselves. That the presentation of facts cannot be dispassionate, that it is necessary to show the process in its regularity, and history should be taught in schools in such a way as to awaken thought in students.

In the development of the educational method. Historians made a great contribution to literature, in particular S.M. Soloviev “Training book of Russian history.” 1859-60." This book covered not only Russian history, but also general history, which was covered in connection with the history of Russia. But there were no maps, no chronological diagrams. And the book was large.

Textbooks by D.I. were very popular. Ilovaisky. He suggested approaching history as art, and grouping facts with descriptions of private life to make it interesting to read. He believed that instead of memorizing a text by heart, one could practice rehearsing, i.e. performances of students as actors.

M.M. played a major role in the development of the technique. Stasyulevich, professor at St. Petersburg State University, he was the editor-in-chief of the journal “Bulletin of Europe”. He was a proponent of the real method. It consisted of working directly with documents without using a textbook. The emphasis was on independent study of the document to build the student's cognitive abilities.

In 1862-65, thanks to the efforts of Stasyulevich, 3 volumes of the Reader of Documents on the Middle Ages were published. Here were documents from sections social relations, life, culture, etc.

Stasyulevich paid great attention to patriotic and educational goals. He wrote: in a student, the educator should see not a future historian, but only a person enjoying the fruits of historical development without his own moral and mental improvement.

Methodist Gurevich, author of “The Experience of Historical Methodology.” 1877. Believed that the main goal is to interest the reader and instill interest in phenomena folk life. And also to acquaint students with the history of the fatherland, studying the most prominent personalities and events associated with them. These views are still being expressed today. Those. It is important that students find it interesting to listen. It is not necessary to go through the entire program, and this is impossible to do. It is important to select the material in an interesting and emotional way.

According to Gurevich’s approach, only the most striking and characteristic phenomena countries. But this is also an extreme. The theme of the development of monarchical power was taken from the entire history of France. From the history of England only the development of representative institutions. In Poland - nobility.

Vinogradov and Nikolsky wrote such a work as “Methodology of history according to Kripper.” M. 1885. Kripper - German teacher. New teaching methods based on the German methodology were proposed. Method 1 – biographical. The focus was on descriptions of outstanding personalities, their actions, and biography. And through them a description of events.

Method 2 – collective-categorical. The material was grouped taking into account significant dates of the calendar.

Method 3 – real or textbook. When training was carried out only on the basis of primary sources. But these were not archival sources, but their Readers. It is important to introduce students directly to the spirit of the era.

Method 4 – progressive, when events were studied in chronological sequence, since antiquity.

Method 5 – regressive. Events were studied from the present day, and gradually delved into the past.

Lomovitsky believed that the goal of historical education is an educational influence on students. He paid great attention to how to consolidate knowledge. How to “strongly touch the students’ thoughts, call them to more intense activity.”

A method of heuristic teaching, when the teacher sought to “force students to reach a known concept, judgment, conclusion on their own.” When the teacher chews everything and puts it in his mouth, the students do not remember anything. And if along the way they asked questions so that they tried to find answers to the questions, then they remember.

The role of the teacher is not to communicate ready-made knowledge, but to conduct a conversation in order to direct the student’s thoughts to independently find an already known truth.

Before the revolution, school history education and methods of teaching history in secondary schools were actively developing. A lot of important things have been done. But at some point these developments were already forgotten in the Soviet school. Much had to be restored anew.

DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL HISTORICAL EDUCATION IN RUSSIA

METHODOLOGY FOR TEACHING HISTORY IN THE 20th AND EARLY 21ST CENTURIES

COMPARATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LINEAR AND CONCENTRIC STRUCTURE OF SCHOOL HISTORICAL EDUCATION

At the beginning of the 20th century there were a large number of methods for teaching history. Much has been done in the field of study visual aids, maps, paintings. Was walking active work students on reports and abstracts. There was a use of historical sources. We must remember that something new is a well-forgotten old. Before the revolution, many of the methods used now were widely developed. The method of questions and plans that the teacher gave to students at home was widespread. There was active work with the textbook: reading, summarizing, drawing up a plan, writing out concepts.

If we take the development of the Soviet history methodology in the 1970s and 80s and compare it with the pre-revolutionary one, then all sorts of “innovations” were actually already applied in the pre-revolutionary school, but they were forgotten about, and then they tried to pass it off as an innovation.

The real method, the laboratory one, was working with a source, the dramatization method, which involved giving students a short presentation on the topic. It's all interesting and educational. Essay Writing Method for Skill Development independent work. Hiking.

In 1911, a special 2-year program was opened in Moscow pedagogical institute for those who would like to go into teaching. Persons who completed courses at higher educational institutions were accepted there. In this Ped. At the institute, much attention was paid to the methodology course. In the 1st year they studied the methodology 4 hours a week, in the 2nd year – 3 hours.

SCHOOL HISTORICAL EDUCATION IN 1917-EARLY 1930s.

What happened after the Bolsheviks carried out the revolution and created new state bodies? During the work of the 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in October 1917, immediately after the revolution, the People's Commissariat for Education was formed, headed by Lunacharsky. His deputy was famous historian M.N. Pokrovsky.

The Bolsheviks, having come to power, decided to implement a reform of school education. But it was rather an anti-reform, because they decided to abandon the systematic course of history. They suggested replacing history with a course in social studies, and from a Marxist position. This is reminiscent of modern times, because now entrance exams in history have been canceled for many university faculties, and social studies have been introduced.

How was history teaching structured? After 1917, school was taught 7 days a week, seven days a week. But at the same time, 2 days were allocated for excursions. There were no class teachers. Textbooks were not recommended in class. Instead of textbooks there were reference books. Instead of a lesson form, something like conversations was recommended. Exams, grades, and homework were canceled. How were you released from school? Based on feedback from the pedagogical council.

Instead of classes, teams of 10 people appeared. Laboratory classes were introduced instead of lessons.

In October 1918, a regulation was issued on a unified labor school, when not only educational, but also labor activities were carried out within the school. According to this provision, joint and free education for girls and boys was introduced.

The first school was for children from 8 to 13 years old, the second level - from 13 to 17 years old.

Russian history was studied from the age of 3 as part of social studies. There were comprehensive history teaching programs. These programs had the main topics to be discussed: nature, society and work. History was studied as part of the study of society.

Teaching methods practiced in Soviet schools: some were adopted from pre-revolutionary experience.

Laboratory method, when material was collected on individual topics based on sources. Students studied these sources independently. At the final stage, a conference was held, when all previous developments and searches were summarized. For these conferences, special questions were compiled for repetition. They were intended for homework.

The research method was when specific tasks were contracted out. A row is a team of 5-6 students. They took on tasks such as drawing diagrams, maps, making costumes, weapons, and modeling.

For example, topic: studying the village in the past and present. Children studied sources and literature on the topic “village” at school. Then they went to the village and talked with the peasants there, getting acquainted with life. We watched how the peasants lived and what they ate. They then prepared reports on the topic.

The labor method implied the acquisition of knowledge in the process of historical modeling. When they were making an object, they built a model of the pharaohs' pyramid, and read books on this topic. Could you make a model of the home? primitive man, castle of a feudal lord, noble estate.

Until 1933, the history of the fatherland was not studied as a separate course in USSR schools, only within the framework of social studies. I didn’t study it at universities either. Material on Russian history was not taught separately. It was seen as a small part of global history. There were no textbooks or manuals. This is the level of education in schools.

Development of teaching methods in the beginning. 1930s-late 1950s.

In the early 1930s, history was restored as an independent subject. Perhaps this was due to Stalin's victory in the internal party struggle. Perhaps with the beginning of the construction of socialism. Maybe by that time material had been accumulated on how history should be taught from a Marxist-Leninist position.

The main form of organizing educational work was the lesson. This was preceded by the resolutions of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On primary and secondary schools” and “On curriculum and regime in primary and secondary schools” in 1932.

A systematic history course and history departments in universities were restored. Departments of history methods reappeared. Our history department began functioning in this building in 1934. Before that there were warehouses here. A history department was also opened in Moscow.

In May 1934, a decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR was issued on the teaching of civil history in schools of the USSR. The teaching of history was based on the linear principle of presenting events. And in the pre-revolutionary school there was a concentric principle of presenting historical events.

Since 1934, grades 3 and 4 took a short course on the history of the USSR from antiquity. 5th grade – history of the ancient world, the East and Greece; 6th grade – history of the ancient world and the Middle Ages; 7th grade – history of the Middle Ages and the Constitution of the USSR of 1936; 8th grade - new history, history of the USSR until the end of the 18th century; 10th grade - history of the USSR 20th century, and modern history since 1958.

As you can see, the course was inconsistent.

The number of history lessons has increased. In 1934, the magazine “History in Secondary School” began to be published. This speaks to the importance of history.

Preparations were made for the publication of textbooks by history specialists. Party bodies requested that a competition be held for the best textbook. This competition was supervised by the People's Commissar of Education ____nov, and the notes were reviewed by Stalin himself. Zhdanov and Kirov helped him in this. The importance and necessity of new textbooks was so deeply realized.

On March 3, 1936, a decree on history textbooks was issued. For elementary schools, a competition was announced for the best textbook.

In August 1937, the results of the competition were summed up. The jury was headed by Zhdanov himself. Nobody got the 1st prize. But the 2nd prize went to the authors of the textbook for grades 3-4 “A Short Course in the History of the USSR”, authors Kozachenko, Nifontov, Kuznetsov. This textbook had maps and color inserts. But it also had its downsides. He was characterized by dryness, lack of questions and tasks. There were no diagrams or tables. It contained a large number of facts.

In the 1930s, school education developed. But as for the methodology, it lagged noticeably behind historical education. There was no interaction between methodologists and historical scientists. We have lost the habit of practicing methods, since this did not exist before 1934.

The Great Patriotic War.

The first place in teaching history was educational purpose– patriotism and internationalism. From now on, certain topics have become particularly common in study.

The study of German history, especially the expansion of the Germans to the east, attracted interest. This was considered to expose the myth of the cultural mission of the Germans, to show that this mission meant simply aggressive goals. These knights who came to Lithuanian and Russian lands were called nothing more than dog knights.

Many stories appeared about the high military leadership of Alexander Nevsky, Dmitry Donskoy, Suvorov, Kutuzov. Even small brochures were published about the military skill of this or that commander. The books are written in excellent language. We can say that the publication of such books has achieved a certain art in terms of presentation of material and selection of information.

During the Second World War it was done big job to determine the methodological foundations of the school history course. The development of the technique was prepared during the war years.

Great contribution to the development of methods of teaching history in post-war period Methodists Vernadsky, Andrievskaya, Zinoviev, Karpov, Nikiforov contributed.

After Stalin's death, a thaw occurred in public life. IN school education there was a tendency to connect the events of the past with the present. However, later she disappeared. This was necessary to actualize the problem of connections between generations. It was getting ridiculous. IN school textbook the elephants of Hannibal's army were compared with the tanks of modern warfare. This is the analogy that was drawn.

Or they compared the reforms of the Gracchi brothers in Rome with the reforms in people's democracies.

New history textbooks appeared.

In 1954, Kovalev’s textbook on the history of the ancient world for school was published.

In 1957, Korovkin’s textbook on the history of the Middle Ages was published. He was awarded a state prize. Was good textbook Ogibalova and Donskova, which was reprinted in huge editions. And now the trend is that even if the textbook is good, a lot of methodological literature has been written for it, but it is not included in the compulsory program if the author dies. The author died - the textbook is written off. Perhaps this is being done in order to support those authors who are still alive, so that they receive royalties from the publication of books.

At the end of the 1950s, documents began to be included in Soviet textbooks, and workbooks on the history of the ancient world and the Middle Ages began to appear. Contour maps began to appear.

The workbook is very useful document on lessons. You can use it to assign homework.

In 1959 there was a transition from a linear to a concentric system. This was due to the transition to compulsory 8-year education. This was necessary so that students graduating after 8th grade would receive knowledge of the entire history before 8th grade. Those. Before the 8th grade, it was necessary to complete training in general history and the history of the USSR. And for those who remained in school, a new concentration was introduced for them for grades 9-10. They re-studied history, but in a more condensed form.

And under the linear system, students from grades 1 to 10 studied history in separate periods, approaching the present. The linear system was associated with compulsory 10 years of education.

These constant changes, now a linear system, now a concentric one, were associated with compulsory education. Sometimes there was 8-year compulsory education, and sometimes 10-year education was introduced.

The structure of history education, which was established from 1959 to 1964, was built as follows:

4th grade: an episodic course on the history of the USSR, starting with primitive communal society.

5th grade: history of the ancient world.

6th grade: history of the Middle Ages

7th grade: history of the USSR and elements of the new history of foreign countries until mid-century. 19th century.

8th grade: history of the USSR and elements of modern and contemporary history to the present.

9th grade: new history of foreign countries. Part 1. History of the USSR until the end of the 19th century.

10th grade: new history of foreign countries. Part 2. History of the USSR from the beginning of the 20th century to 1937.

Grade 11: History of the USSR from 1938 to the present. Recent history from 1948 to the present.

In the Soviet school of the Stalin era, the course on the history of the USSR during the Soviet period allowed consideration of events in foreign history.

At the end of the 1950s, teaching methods for teaching history were already being actively improved, and methodology was being developed.

1960-80s. The purpose of the textbook is changing. Its role increases during lessons and homework. It now serves not only to consolidate what has been learned, but also to train and educate students. The textbook becomes richer, with various tables, diagrams, reference material, and illustrations.

In May 1965 - a new reform. Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the CPSU Central Committee. Instead of the elementary systematic course of the concentric system, a linear principle is introduced. This was again due to the transition to the 10-year plan. It was necessary to spend not 8 classes at school, but 10 or 11.

We started studying Russian history in the 7th grade. Before this, they taught ancient history, the history of the Middle Ages. And from grade 8 to grade 10 - a course in modern and contemporary history.

In high school, the history of the USSR was combined with modern and contemporary history.

Fundamental research in the field of methodology has appeared. Zaporozhets N.I., Daily N.G., Werner wrote many books on the method.

The structure of history education in the 1990s

In 1992, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Russian Federation Law on Education was issued. This law proclaimed the priority of the individual. There was talk of abandoning the monopoly of party state ideology. Compulsory 9-year education was introduced. There was another transition from a linear system to a concentric one. It still remains in effect.

The first concentrism is basic school, grades 5-9, the study of events in general history, the history of Russia from antiquity to the present day.

Second concentration. Years 10-11 go through world history from antiquity to the present day.

Now 5th grade is studying the history of the ancient world (Rome, Greece, the East). But first, in 4th grade, “Stories based on native history.” 6th grade – Russia and the world in the Middle Ages. Grade 7 – Russia and foreign countries in modern times, until the beginning of the 17th century. 8th grade - Russia and the world in modern times, from the 17th to the 19th centuries. Grade 9 – Russia and foreign countries in modern times, 20 and 21 centuries.

In grades 10-11 they repeat Russian and world history. In 10th grade - from ancient times to the end of the 19th century. In 11th grade - Russia and foreign history in the 20th century.

Comparative characteristics of the linear and concentric systems in school history education.

The meaning is this: if 8-year compulsory education is introduced, before the 8th grade, schoolchildren must go through both general history and the history of Russia from antiquity to the present day.

And in grades 10-11 they repeat this story again, but within the framework of their program.

And if 10-year compulsory education is introduced, then it is not necessary to repeat the events of world history and the history of Russia, you can study it from class to class in separate periods.

During the class, they study Russian history for six months, and world history for a certain period of time for the other six months. In the next class, in ascending order, take the next longest period and consider it. And with these pieces they study history from antiquity to the present day. In high school they study modernity.

In 11th grade from 1939 to 2008.

Under the linear system, the history of Russia was most often studied for a whole year.

The point is that they never repeat the material they have covered.

And with the concentric system, only an 8-year course is compulsory, which means you need to have time to study all of history in 8 grades. Therefore, as a rule, they study the history of Russia and world history for six months. After 8th grade they should already know the whole story.

What to do with those who stayed in school to study further? In grades 10-11, they go through the same story again, but at a gallop.

Lecture No. 3

Teaching history

March 3, 2008

We stopped at the comparison of the linear and concentric systems, the construction of school history courses. I said that each system has its pros and cons. I explained to you what the reasons were for the transition from a linear to a concentric system, depending on the compulsory training. 8-10 year training, and based on this there is a specific teaching system.

As for the positive aspects of the linear structure of the presentation of historical knowledge. First the positives.

The fact is that it consistently reveals the main stages of development of society, from its prehistory to the present. Schoolchildren gradually go through certain periods of history from year to year. These periods are not confused for them, because each period follows one after the other.

A linear system allows you to thoroughly explain cause-and-effect relationships, compare individual facts, and trace patterns.

The third positive point is that teaching time is saved, that is, everything is not repeated twice.

The fourth positive aspect of the linear structure is the ability to compare the development features of countries and regions.

As for the negative points. They balance out the positives.

The first negative point is that the study of early periods occurs in grades 5-8, therefore there is a simplification and adaptation of the material to the age of 10-13 year olds. The history of ancient society, ancient man, the material is adapted accordingly. No one will tell you all the stages of human development. Let's say, no one will tell schoolchildren in the 6th grade. The same history of the Middle Ages is also much simpler to explain than it should be. Therefore, the material of the ancient world and the Middle Ages is simplified. This first negative point.

Second The negative point is that it is impossible to return to this material in higher classes, and somehow it is more difficult to review the material. Because it has already been passed once and they do not return to it. Therefore, in high school, what was covered in early school is forgotten. A white spot appears and is erased from memory if not repeated.

Third the negative point is that when events are studied in such a sequence, and quite quickly, then we can say that an effect occurs that the author of the textbook on the Middle Ages, Donskoy, called “a gallop across Europe.” Here is what he described in this case: “The student, as if from the window of a courier train rushing without stopping, observes milestones flashing before his eyes, measuring the time of centuries, and even millennia, individual villages and buildings passing in front of him, events in the life of peoples, facts of their history . The result of such high-speed movement is known. Schoolchildren do not have time to understand the meaning, remember the facts, or experience the story emotionally.” Here's a comparison with a train. It is really difficult to say whether this is true, but there are negative aspects; what has been learned in the early grades is forgotten.

The fourth negative point is that students graduate from high school without knowledge of the modern history of the fatherland. This means up to 9th grade, 10-11 are senior grades. Students graduate from high school without knowledge of the modern history of the fatherland, but with extensive knowledge of ancient and medieval history foreign countries. Because they go through modern history under a linear system in grades 10-11.

The fifth negative point is that there is separate and asynchronous teaching of general and national history. I have already said that sometimes the history of the fatherland is not studied in half a year, but for example in the 7th grade the history of the fatherland, in the 8th grade the new history of foreign countries, and as a result they do not always fit together these time periods. s e segments, and it is difficult to compare with what happened last year and what is now. In this regard, there is a rather big negative point.

Further, another negative point, as noted, is the construction of national and world history solely on the information principle. But in fact, this is not such a negative point, because this information principle has long been put forward as the main Marxist-Leninist concept. However, this principle allows us to compare similar stages of development in various peoples and countries. It makes it easier to assimilate historical material, and this information principle is more convenient, not to mention the fact that it has not been completely removed now. A number of clarifications have been introduced into it; now they say the feudal system, the capitalist system, so one should not assume that this is the same negative point. Moreover, the new approach, the so-called civilizational one, has not been fully developed and is still being thought out. How to compare, on what basis, in fact, if you pick it up, it begins to fall apart like porridge. Those. is not clearly stated, so it seems that the old approach is better than the new one.

In 1993, there was a transition from the linear-concentric system at school, which is now the main one due to the compulsory 9-year education and the need to study a holistic system of knowledge in several stages.

Now regarding the positive aspects of the concentric system. A concentric system, like a linear one, has its positive and negative aspects.

Positive aspects of the concentric system.

First the positive side: the transformation of historical education into a constant, continuous, increasingly complex process, holistic and complete at each stage.

Second positive point: clearer synchronization of courses in national and world history. Under the concentric system, they study Russian history or world history for six months, as the teacher decides, and foreign history for six months. Thus, they study equal periods of time belonging to the same era, events only among different peoples, domestic history and universal history. Thus, it is possible to compare and contrast the phenomena that we experienced with those that occurred in Europe or America. In this way, the material will be better absorbed and a unified course of history will be presented; this is a positive thing.

Third positive point. An opportunity in high school to return to the events of early history and consider them at a higher problem-theoretical level. In fact, as will become clear later, this is an attempt to pass off wishful thinking as reality.

The next positive point is the opportunity in the last concentration (the circle of historical knowledge) to systematize and generalize all historical material, based on various approaches; formational, civilizational, cultural.

These are positive moments, but they are now over and we are moving on to the negative moments.

The negative aspects of the concentric system are the lack of a new school teaching strategy. Lack of a clear concept of concentrates. There is especially no clear concept for grades 10-11. Inconsistency, inconsistency fundamental ideas. It seems that there is a definition of civilization, but on what basis is this idea of a concentrum based, that it is a qualitative uniqueness of the material and spiritual culture of a people at a certain stage of its development. If during formation there are steps common to everyone, it does not matter whether they are socio-economic or spiritual. Here we are talking about the originality, the dissimilarity of one people from another, but at the same time there are certain similarities in the development of many peoples. But the civilizational approach excludes this. People who follow this approach go to the other extreme; they do not see unity in the semblance. And since there is no unity, there is no definite concept.

They tried to abandon the communist past and removed many important, fundamental things in historical knowledge, which is why a lot of problems arise that have not yet been resolved.

Then there is another problem, a retelling of previously studied events in grades 10-11. That is, they return to the same events again, which is why very often one hears such expressions as “we’ve already been through this.” But most often they don’t remember what exactly happened, they remember that something happened, but this is also a negative point, because after all it happened, which means it was deposited somewhere and when they start repeating the same thing again, it’s no longer the same Interesting.

The third negative point lack of a new educational and methodological fund, textbook program, and manuals.

I have already said that I personally encountered the fact that when I had to study world history from antiquity to the end of the 19th century in the 10th grade, I could not find textbooks for this anywhere. Now Zagladin’s textbook has already appeared, on world history from antiquity to the 19th century, but this textbook has only just appeared, and the transition already took place in 1993, time has passed. True, this idea to repeat in 10th grade from antiquity to the end of the 19th century appeared several years ago. Can you imagine, in the 10th grade we have to repeat the entire history, and domestic history too, from antiquity to the 19th century, within 2-3 hours a week. This is just unreal. But it is provided within the framework of the idea-concentrum.

Despite the fact that the program is the same, schools most often follow a different course, as is convenient or based on the textbooks that are available, or on the tasks that the school sets for itself. I was faced with the fact that public schools The linear system is still preserved. Although a concentration was proclaimed. Because it's more convenient. Now they are going to introduce a linear system again in the near future.

The negative points are that gymnasiums and lyceums have different specializations and this idea of a concentration is not always applicable. Maybe in high school there are some special courses on history, some individual problems are considered, the emphasis is on this, and not on the concentration.

METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING HISTORY AT SCHOOL.

They are based on the textbook because the textbook is the most important source of knowledge. On the other hand, it is also a teaching tool. I will now give you the definition of a textbook, but this definition contains the meaning of what a textbook is. Textbook is a mass educational book that sets out the subject content of education and defines the types of activities intended for mandatory learning by students, taking into account their age and other characteristics.

Functions of the textbook. The first function is informational, revealing the content of education. The second function is systematizing, because the textbook systematizes historical knowledge, and does not just present it as one wants. In a certain system, knowledge is contained in a textbook. The third function is educational. Teaches certain basic historical knowledge. The fourth is educational. The most important function comes last. And you can consider these goals equally. One function is equivalent to the second, so you can remove this numbering. All functions are equally important.

Textbook components. What does the textbook consist of? Consists of text, sections, chapters, paragraphs. Moreover, the paragraphs should be approximately the same length, and the number of paragraphs should correspond to the curriculum for the subject.

Main material: topics, chapters, paragraphs. Additional reference material, there may be tables, genealogical diagrams, a dictionary of terms at the end of the textbook, chronological table, years and events throughout the course taken. This is called additional material.

Explanatory material is notes, comments to the text.

When working with a textbook and when analyzing the text, the teacher identifies the main basic knowledge from the entire textbook and for each paragraph separately. Please note that this basic knowledge only takes up 1/3 of the content. This does not mean that everything else can be thrown out of the textbook, no. The rest is additional material that helps to clearly and convincingly reveal basic knowledge. When, for example, you are preparing for exams on some specific period of history. You read a thick textbook, you will never remember it all. You must highlight the main important events, and remember them first, and everything else as an addition to the main one, which is worse remembered and can get confused in the head, and which flies away the next day after the exam. It's the same in school course stories. All the material in a school course cannot be studied in equal detail, because the lesson time is 40 minutes, you will never have time to tell everything within the framework new topic, because this topic can take 8-10 pages, and you will have to complete it within 40 minutes. and homework ask and check, and this is 10-15 minutes, give a new topic and consolidate it. There is about 20 minutes left on a new topic. During this time, you will not be able to present 8 pages of text, and even more so, no one will understand you if you talk in detail. You need to choose something important from the material, and you can read additional material at home.

The main part of the textbook's methodological apparatus are questions and assignments for paragraphs. They are given in the textbook for a reason, but in order to help students consciously and deeply understand the content of the lesson. And these questions and tasks give the teacher the opportunity to guide the students’ learning activities. These assignments can be given at home either orally or in writing. The most important thing is that they allow you to master the lesson material. Therefore, those textbooks that are not broad enough or lack the apparatus in the form of tasks and questions are considered weak.

System for working with a textbook. First, they teach basic skills in working with a textbook. As a rule, the initial work with the textbook occurs at the beginning of studying a given course, in a certain class. There is an introduction to the textbook, that is, the teacher introduces the students to the textbook. He introduces the table of contents: open the table of contents, look at what is written there. What paragraphs are there, what topics, what period of history will we study, what is the chronological framework of the textbook. Why is that? Explains how the textbook is structured, where the reference material is located, and where the additional material is. Introduces questions and tasks, illustrations and maps. First, students look at the pictures.

During the lesson, the assignments in the textbook begin to become more difficult. For example, find factual material in a textbook. You can write down terms on the board. And students must find the meaning of these terms in the paragraph themselves. Write down questions about the topic in writing, and students must find the answers in the textbook.

Typically, students write down the answer to the question word for word. The rating should be reduced for this. We must teach ourselves to think independently, to construct sentences ourselves.

The textbook can be used to check homework.

The most important task of a teacher when working with a textbook is to teach how to highlight the most important things in the textbook.

It is important to highlight unfamiliar words. Try to find answers in the textbook. And if it doesn’t work out, then contact the teacher.

You can invite students to find material that answers the question posed in class and retell this answer in their own words.

After explaining the new material, the teacher suggests reading a paragraph in the textbook and answering what he has not yet covered within the framework of this topic. Students find additional material themselves. The textbook helps to draw conclusions and make new judgments based on one or more.

Based on the text of the textbook, students can make reports on a new topic, and additionally draw on material from scientific, popular science, and fiction literature.

Drawing up a plan for studying a new topic, or writing answers to questions at the end of the paragraph. True, some teachers abuse this. They don’t want to work in class, and at every lesson they ask: make an outline of the paragraph, answer the questions. It is better to give such assignments when the class is misbehaving and the teachers cannot listen. Then you check and give marks. Thus, two tasks are solved, both educational and training. It is necessary to prove that the plan is very good.

Everything is good in moderation. Written tasks alternate well with oral ones. And the issues of structuring the material with the presentation of historical knowledge. Everything needs to be distributed correctly.

If students are asked to study the material on their own, then the teacher must offer a plan for studying new material, questions and assignments, and briefly reveal the main points that students must understand while studying the topic. But it’s best if the teacher explains it himself. As a rule, it is difficult to teach students themselves.

Working with illustrations – the most important part lesson. In the junior and middle levels, retelling the textbook test occupies a significant place. It is better to combine it with illustrative material. The teacher talks and says: look at such and such a page, such and such an illustration, it shows such and such. Children remember better what they see than what they hear. They have better figurative-emotional perception than informational-mental perception.

Determine the nature of the image. What is this? Photo or drawing?

There are many tips for working with illustrations. Memos are a common thing for schools. This is a plan for working with something.

For example, a reminder for working with illustrations: 1) compose a story based on the illustration; 2) explain the facts that make up the plot; 3) redraw simple drawings; 4) compare the illustrations, highlight common and different points. Each of these points can be divided into sub-points. For example, a story based on an illustration: what is shown in the foreground and in the background? What did the artist want to say? What dialogues can be attributed to the characters?

Final skills, which must be taken out by students from each specific class. These skills for each class are specified in the special requirements of the teacher. These requirements are universal for schools. Students should leave the class with a certain amount of not only knowledge, but also skills. For example, in 5th grade, when working with a textbook, students must highlight the main thing in a passage of text, be able to retell the text using illustrations, and draw up a simple paragraph plan. If students do not know how to do this in 5th grade, then the problem is with the teacher, not with the students, it means the teacher did not develop these skills.

In grade 6, students must highlight the main thing in a paragraph, use several documents in the retelling, and consider the issue in development.

There are special programs for each class. But in reality, students do not know how to do everything that is written in the program. There are certain requirements, but there are also the capabilities of the teacher and the abilities of the students. But you have to try. In grades 10-11, there should be a peak of perfection. Students must present material on cross-cutting problems from several topics, draw up an outline on several topics, write abstracts, compare the facts of the textbook with the primary source... The older the class, the more students should be able to do independently. But this is not always observed in practice.

Teaching methods. This is a way of organizing educational material and the interconnected activities of teacher and student. A method is a way to develop a student’s mental abilities. How to give material so that the student perceives it. Here the student himself is put in first place. This is a way of transferring knowledge.

There are different classifications of teaching methods.

1. Reproductive methods.

1 method. Explanatory and illustrative.

Method 2. Reproductive.

These 2 methods are combined into Reproductive Methods. They involve the teacher’s presentation and the student’s assimilation of ready-made knowledge. No need to think. Listen and remember.

II. Productive methods.

Method 3. Problem presentation.

Method 4 Partially searchable.

5 method. Research.

I am now explaining to you the reproductive method. A productive method is a seminar.

Productive methods are designed for independent search activity of students, which can take place in various ways. Can be included within the scope of the lesson, or taken outside the scope of the lesson. For example, including work with documents and historical maps within the scope of the lesson. This involves searching.

By revealing the cognitive process by the teacher through discussion, different points of view on some object. So that students find their answer to the question posed. You can involve work with additional literature, scientific, artistic to activate the productive method.

This classification relied on cognitive abilities, while the other classification comes from sources of knowledge:

Eat verbal methods when the teacher speaks, explains. There is a visual method, when they show maps... There is a practical method - when working with a primary source, or an archaeological expedition.

An integral part of the methods are the methods of educational activity of the teacher and the student. Techniques are a set of teaching methods, methods of activity of the teacher and student. There are a huge number of techniques. These include techniques for working with textbooks and various printed and verbal texts, and analysis of Reader documents.

Structure of historical material. Using it in studying.

Historical material consists of facts, events, phenomena, processes.

The main element of the content of historical education or knowledge is an event. Those. all facts are imprinted in events. A fact is a fragment of reality that took place. It is from facts that one must go to knowledge of the past. Facts are divided into certain groups. There are facts of the first order, and facts of the second order.

Facts of the first order are more complex, larger phenomena. For example, the Great Patriotic War.

Facts of the second order are less complex, for example, the battle for Moscow during the Second World War, the Battle of Stalingrad.

In facts of the second order one can distinguish primary episodes of historical knowledge. For example, the second-order fact of the battle near Moscow corresponds to the primary episode of historical knowledge - the clash of Panfilov’s men with fascist tanks at the Dubosekovo junction. This is a fragment of the battle of Moscow. Or a counteroffensive near Moscow.

When preparing a course, it is important to be able to select basic and supporting facts. Basic facts are only a third of the content of the paragraph. The remaining facts are additional, they serve to confirm the main ideas.

Key facts are the most significant main events and patterns. They should be disclosed in more detail and fully. Instead of basic or supporting facts, they are presented briefly, casually, as time permits. The facts presented must be closely related to the issue itself.

When selecting facts, you need to take into account their concreteness, imagery and emotionality, i.e. the most striking, memorable facts. This is especially important for elementary and middle grades. For older people O Evidence and argumentation of conclusions play a greater role. And for little ones it is important that it evokes a surge of emotions.

Events, phenomena and processes are studied in lessons.

Events are significant individual facts, for example, the Battle of the Ice, the uprising of Stepan Razin.

Phenomena are general concepts without relatively specific facts. This is a revolution, an uprising.

A process is a consistent change in state in development. For example, the industrial revolution.

Methodology for studying historical ideas and concepts.

Representations are a certain system of historical concepts that is formed in the minds of students on the basis of the facts being studied. This picture is complete – it is already a representation.

There are various techniques for consolidating ideas. There are visual techniques, there is verbal description. When forming historical ideas, maximum detail and proximity to the era being studied is necessary. As many details as possible. This will allow you to form the best possible presentation.

Concepts are necessary to explain and systematize facts. When forming concepts, it is important for the teacher to highlight the signs of phenomena and concepts.

It is recommended to form concepts in the following sequence: from visual representations to initial concepts. Those. first show an illustration, and then form a concept, an informative part of historical knowledge. Move from less complex concepts to more complex ones.

In ____ classes there is a transition from visual-figurative thinking to abstract-logical thinking.

Eat a certain technique formation of concepts. First, identify the most essential features of a phenomenon or concept. This could be a keyword. For example, the concept of “corvée”. The key word, the essence, is the work of the peasants for their master.

In any concept there is a main word that makes up the essence.

The concept itself is divided into separate components. Of these components, the most important are highlighted. And then the rest of the components are connected to this main key part in a certain sequence. To reinforce concepts, it is recommended to often use this new concept in presenting the topic of the lesson, so that students get used to it.

Psychologists have long established the fact that if some phenomenon, a word is constantly in the ear, in the observation zone, then over time a person not only gets used to it, but also begins to have a positive attitude towards it.

The definition of a concept is given on the basis of identifying the essential features of the concept and their generalization.

With each class you can deepen and specify the definition, complicate it. In the lower grades, the concept of state can be defined as follows: the state is a form of self-organization of society.

And in high school it is already possible to give a more complex definition of this concept. The state is a form of self-organization of society, which depends on the society itself, its structure, the characteristics of its development and the circumstances influencing it.

Terms are the expression of formulated concepts. What it means given word. The concept is more theoretical, and the terms are more practical.

There is a certain methodology for working with terms. The term needs to be explained, the most essential feature underlying the definition of this term needs to be highlighted. Sometimes it is advisable to give an explanation of the origin of the name of the term and explain the etymology of the word. For example, the word “posadnik” comes from the word “posad” - a trading place. Tysyatsky - from the word thousand, the head of the militia. Verv - from the word rope.

Translation of the word into Russian has great importance, where this word came from, from what language. For example, “Mesopotamia” does not come from the word “meat”, but translated means “mesopotamia”, the territory between the Tigris and Euphrates. Or an explanation using synonyms, using the place of origin.

It is important that when presenting an era, the teacher does not use terms from other eras, or should not abuse in foreign words when describing the history of Russia.

University teachers are often guilty of this. They apply words from modern vocabulary to antiquity and use many foreign words.

That. First, the teacher introduces the origin of the word, and then its concept, if the word is not simple.

Basic techniques for presenting facts: narration and description.

Storytelling devices: there are many of them. They depend on the choice of the teacher, on the goals and objectives that the teacher sets for the students, as well as on the preparedness of the students. Those. the choice is very varied, and the teacher himself determines in what form, in what form it is best for him to present the facts of the topic.