Contemporary cognitive psychology borrows theories and methods from 12 major areas of study (Figure 1.1): cognitive neuroscience, perception, pattern recognition, attention, consciousness, memory, knowledge representation, imagination, language, developmental psychology, thinking and concept formation, and human intelligence and artificial intelligence. We will cover each of these areas in subsequent chapters.
Cognitive neuroscience
It is only within the last few years that cognitive psychologists and cognitive neuroscientists (brain scientists) have developed a highly collaborative relationship. To date, this union has produced the most impressive
results in the field of studying the properties of our mind. Cognitive psychologists look to neurological explanations for the data they have, and neuroscientists look to cognitive psychologists to explain results obtained in laboratories. In the above example of a conversation between a confused driver and a police officer, every part of the cognitive process - from sensation to knowledge of the rules of driving a car - is supported by basic electrochemical processes occurring in the brain and nervous system.
Perception
The branch of psychology directly concerned with the detection and interpretation of sensory stimuli is called psychology perception. From experiments in perception, we know well about the sensitivity of the human body to sensory signals and - more importantly for cognitive psychology - how these sensory signals are interpreted.
The description given by the police officer in the above street scene depends largely on his ability to “see” salient features of the surroundings. "IN And“Denying”, however, is far from a simple matter. To perceive sensory stimuli - in our case they are predominantly visual - it is necessary that they have a certain magnitude: if the driver is to perform the described maneuver, these signs must have a significant intensity. In addition, the situation itself is constantly changing. As the driver's position changes, new signs appear. Certain features acquire special significance in the process of perception. Signs vary in color, position, shape, etc. Many images are constantly changing while driving, and in order to act according to their instructions, the driver must quickly adjust his behavior.
Rice. 1.1. Main directions of research in cognitive psychology
Cognitive Psychology Today
Beginning in the 1950s, scientific interests again focused on attention, memory, pattern recognition, imagery, semantic organization, language processes, thinking, and even “consciousness” (a concept most avoided by dogmatists), as well as other “cognitive” topics once recognized under the pressure of behaviorism are uninteresting for experimental psychology. As psychologists returned to cognitive psychology, new journals and scientific groups were organized, and cognitive psychology became even more established, it became clear that this branch of psychology was very different from what was in vogue in the 1930s and 1940s. x years. Among the most important factors behind this neocognitive revolution were the following:
The "failure" of behaviorism 1 . Behaviorism, which generally studied external reactions to stimuli, failed to explain the variety of human behavior, for example in the field of language (see the above analysis of the conversation between a policeman and a driver). In addition, there were topics ignored by behaviorists that seemed to be deeply related to human psychology. These included memory, attention, consciousness, thinking and imagination. It was obvious that these mental processes were real components of psychology and required research. Many psychologists believed that these internal processes could be operationally defined and included in the general study of the psyche.
The emergence of communication theory. Communication theory has inspired experiments in signal detection, attention, cybernetics, and information theory, areas essential to cognitive psychology.
Modern linguistics. The range of issues related to cognition included new approaches to language and grammatical structures.
Study of memory. Research on verbal learning and semantic organization has provided a strong foundation for theories of memory, leading to the development of models of memory systems and the emergence of testable models of other cognitive processes.
Computer science and other technological advances. Computer science, and especially one of its branches, artificial intelligence, has forced psychologists to reconsider basic assumptions regarding problem solving, information processing and storage in memory, and language processing and acquisition. New experimental equipment has significantly expanded the capabilities of researchers.
Cognitive development. Specialists interested in developmental psychology have discovered an orderly, sequential unfolding of ways
It should be noted that behaviorism had a significant influence on some types of psychotherapy, especially what became known as "behavior modification", as same both on experimental psychology and operational definitions
Development of the cognitive sphere.
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article topic: | Development of the cognitive sphere. |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Psychology |
Early childhood - from 1 year to 3 years.
Brief description of the period
From 1 year to 3 years).
The main tasks of psychological diagnostics at an early age:
· studying the development of self-service skills;
· study of adaptation to the conditions of a preschool educational institution;
· study of the level of development of cognitive processes;
· study of the characteristics of emotional manifestations;
· identification of symptoms of crisis 3 years;
· identification of features of subject activity;
· study of temperament;
· study of relationships with adults (parents, teachers) and peers.
Neoplasms. Perception, speech, visual - figurative thinking, highlighting the “I” in the structure of self-awareness.
Leading activity. Subject-manipulative
Behavior. The behavior of a young child is called “field behavior”. A young child is endlessly active, he is constantly busy with something. Everything that a child sees around him, he wants to touch with his hands. L.S. Vygotsky explains this by the peculiarities of the child’s consciousness, namely the unity of perception, affect, action. Each perceived thing is emotionally attractive and accordingly provokes the child into action; therefore, each object of the surrounding reality is motivationally charged for him.
Development of subject activity. For about 1 year, actions with objects are manipulative in nature.
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At 1ᴦ. 6 months - 2ᴦ. the child’s actions and ways of handling objects begin to obey the functional purpose of the objects. By 1ᴦ.6 months. children begin to perform actions that they observe in adults: rocking a doll, rolling a car, cleaning, washing, etc.
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In the third year of life, children begin to move from full execution of actions to its symbolic representation. Children use objects in play not only for their intended purpose, but also subordinate the functional use of the object to their ideas and the design of the game. At an early age, individual object-based play arises. By the age of 3, children play a lot with toys, designing, building something new out of them. During this period, the first attempts at drawing appear.
Perception. Early childhood is a sensitive period for the development of perception, on which the improvement of all other cognitive abilities depends. In the third year of life, a child can differentiate the size of an object (large - small), primary colors and geometric shapes (circle, oval, square, rectangle, triangle, polygon).
Speech. At the age of one year, the child pronounces individual words. Up to about 1ᴦ. 6 months - 1 ᴦ. 8 months the child mainly develops understanding of speech with a slight increase in active vocabulary, while facial expressions and gestures are actively used. Up to 1ᴦ. 6 months the child learns from 30-40 to 100 words, but rarely uses them. After this, there is a sharp leap in speech development, and by the age of 2, children know about 200 words. By the age of 2, a child normally speaks two to three word sentences using substitute words, for example: “Mom, give me lalya.” In the third year, the child begins to listen to what adults say. Children like to listen to stories and fairy tales. The vocabulary is about 1200-1300 words.
Thinking. From 1 to 3 years, there is a gradual transition from visual-effective to visual-figurative thinking; actions with objects are replaced by actions with their images. At the same time, the ability to solve problems in an internal sense lags somewhat behind the ability to solve problems in a practical sense. The child can abstract and highlight the shape and color of an object, capable of classification by color, shape, size.
Personal development. During this period, significant changes occur in the structure of the child’s self-awareness. By the age of 3, there is a separation of the “primordial” situation, which is formed during infancy, and the essence, which L.S. Vygotsky defines as the initial consciousness of the mental community, preceding the consciousness of one’s own personality. This manifests itself in the fact that the child does not realize that he is independent from those around him and, first of all, from his mother. Speaking about himself, he sees himself as if from the outside: “Petya wants to go for a walk,” “Masha is in pain.” By the age of 3, the pronoun ʼʼIʼʼ appears in the child’s speech, which indicates self-awareness and opposition to others. This is expressed in the age crisis in the following symptoms: negativism, stubbornness, obstinacy, self-will, protest-rebellion, despotism.
Psychological and pedagogical parameters for determining the readiness of a child to enter a preschool institution
(Pechora K.L.)
| Questions for the child's mother | Options | Score in points |
| 1. Which of the following moods predominates? | Cheerful, balanced Irritable, unstable Depressed | |
| Fast, up to 10 minutes Slow | |
| Nothing Rocking me to sleep, lying next to me, etc. | |
| Appropriate for age Sleeps less than normal Sleep is significantly disturbed | |
| Good Unstable, selective Bad | |
| Asks No, but sometimes it’s dry No, it’s wet | |
| Positive Negative | |
| No Yes (which ones exactly?) | |
| Appears only in familiar surroundings | |
| Does not show enough Does not show | |
| Able to find something to do on his own Plays only with adults Can’t play | |
| Makes contact on his own initiative Does not make contact himself, but communicates on the initiative of an adult Does not make contact with adults | |
| Makes contact on his own initiative Does not make contact himself Does not know how to communicate with children | |
| No Yes | |
| Very hard Calm |
Based on the analysis of the answers to the questionnaire, conclusions can be drawn about the child’s level of readiness to enter a preschool institution. The maximum score on this questionnaire is 44 points and may indicate the child’s successful adaptation to the conditions of a preschool institution. Minimum number of points – 16. Pechora K.L. proposes to calculate the average score according to the listed parameters, according to which an adaptation forecast is given:
3 – 2.6 points – ready to enter a nursery;
2.5 – 2 points – conditionally ready;
2 – 1.6 points – not ready.
We offer a qualitative analysis of the answers to the questions, which allows us to identify areas that require developmental work: relationships with adults, relationships with children, cultural and hygienic skills, development of object-manipulative activities.
Study of the psychophysiological adaptation of children to the conditions of a preschool institution.
To study the psychophysiological adaptation of children to the conditions of a kindergarten, you can use the “Adaptation Sheet” technique (magazine “Hoop” No. 3, 2000). The methodology is based on the method of expert assessments; educators can act as experts. The adaptation criteria were: emotional state, social contacts, sleep, appetite
Experts are asked to evaluate the behavioral response in accordance with the presented scale.
1. Emotional state
3. Cheerful, cheerful, mobile, active.
2. Smiling, in a good mood, calm.
1. Sometimes thoughtful and withdrawn.
-1. Mild tearfulness.
–2. Cries for company, paroxysmal crying.
–3. Strong prophylactic crying, depressed mood.
2. Child's social contacts
3. Many friends, willingly plays with children.
2. Restrained, asks to be held, reluctant to play with children.
1 Indifferent to games, detached, withdrawn.
-1. He is not happy, does not interact with children, and is even involved in the game.
–2. Shows anxiety and abandons started games.
–3. Unfriendly, aggressive, interferes with children's play.
3. Baby's sleep
3. Sleep is calm, deep, falls asleep quickly.
2. Restful sleep.
1. Does not fall asleep soon, sleeps peacefully, but not for long.
-1. He falls asleep with a whimper and is restless in his sleep.
–2. Falls asleep crying, takes a long time, is restless in sleep.
–3. Lack of sleep, crying.
4. Child's appetite
3. Very good appetite, eats everything with pleasure.
2. Normal appetite, eats until full.
1. Appetite is selective, but intense.
-1. Rejects some dishes and is capricious.
–2. You have to make sure that he eats, eats for a long time, reluctantly.
–3. Aversion to food, feeding is painful.
Each of the factors can be rated from +3 to – 3, that is, from excellent adaptation to complete maladaptation. In total, for all four factors you can get +12 or –12, within which the adaptation levels are determined. The duration of adaptation can be limited to one day (when the child is socialized in kindergarten on the first day) or can be long. The level, that is, the success of adaptation, is derived from the relationship between the duration of the adaptation period and behavioral reactions.
Diagnosis of the level of mental development of young children (1.5-3 years). (According to N.A. Rychkova, 2001)
The study records understanding of instructions, speed, accuracy of execution, adequacy of actions, interest, acceptance of help, focus on results, learning ability, reaction to success.
Development of the cognitive sphere. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Development of the cognitive sphere." 2017, 2018.
The services of a child psychologist include diagnostics of the child’s cognitive sphere and the organization of correctional and pedagogical work with the child. The cognitive sphere is the sphere of human psychology associated with his cognitive processes and consciousness, which includes a person’s knowledge about the world and about himself. Currently, at a child psychological consultation in Moscow, a child psychologist can determine the level of cognitive development of a child using, for example, drawing tests.
Cognitive development(from the English Cognitive development) - the development of all types of mental processes, such as perception, memory, concept formation, problem solving, imagination and logic. The theory of cognitive development was developed by the Swiss philosopher and psychologist Jean Piaget. His epistemological theory provided many basic concepts in the field of developmental psychology and explores the growth of intelligence, which, according to Piaget, means the ability to more accurately reflect the world around us and perform logical operations on the images of concepts that arise in interaction with the outside world. The theory considers the emergence and construction of schemas—schemes of how the world is perceived—during the “developmental stage,” a time when children learn new ways of representing information in the brain. The theory is considered "constructivist" in the sense that, unlike nativist theories (which describe cognitive development as the unfolding of innate knowledge and abilities) or empiricist theories (which describe cognitive development as the gradual acquisition of knowledge through experience), it posits that we self-construct our cognitive abilities through our own actions in the environment.
The relevance of the research topic is determined by the fact that the development of the cognitive sphere is very important in preschool age. It is in preschool age that the figurative foundation of intelligence is laid, and the assimilation of figurative forms of cognition leads the child to an understanding of the objective laws of logic and contributes to the development of conceptual thinking. At the end of preschool age, the child develops a primary picture of the world and the rudiments of a worldview.
The purpose of the study was to study the characteristics of cognitive development of preschool children
Development of speech and verbal communication in preschool children
T The theoretical foundation of the subprogram is the ideas about the patterns of speech development of preschool children, put forward in the works of L.S. Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinstein, D.B. Elkonin, A.A. Leontyev, F.A. Sokhin, A.M. Shakhnarovich.
In general, their views on the nature of linguistic abilities can be conveyed in the following provisions:
1. The child’s speech develops in the course of generalization (generalization) of linguistic phenomena, perception of adult speech and his own speech activity.
2. Language and speech represent a kind of “knot” into which various lines of mental development are “woven” - the development of thinking, imagination, memory, emotions, etc.
3. The leading task in teaching language is the formation of linguistic generalizations and elementary awareness of the phenomena of language and speech.
4. The child’s orientation in linguistic phenomena creates conditions for independent observations and experiments with language, for the self-development of speech, and gives speech a creative character.
Language learning and speech development should be considered not only from a purely linguistic point of view (as the child’s mastery of language skills - phonetic, lexical, grammatical), but also in the context of the development of children’s communication with each other and with adults (as the development of communicative abilities).
Therefore, an essential task of speech education is the formation of not only a culture of speech, but also a culture of communication.
The main goal of speech education is for the child to creatively master the norms and rules of his native language, be able to flexibly apply them in specific situations, and master basic communicative abilities. (Note that individual differences in the level of speech development in children of the same age can be extremely large.)
In the research of the laboratory of speech development of the Research Institute of Preschool Education of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR (now the Institute of Preschool Education and Family Education of the Russian Academy of Education), under the leadership of F.A. Sokhin and O.S. Ushakova, three main directions of scientific and practical developments in the field of speech development and speech education were identified children. These are: structural direction (formation of different structural levels of the language system), functional direction (formation of language skills in its communicative function - development of coherent speech, verbal communication), cognitive /"cognitive"/ direction (formation of the ability to basic awareness of linguistic and speech phenomena ).
There was a widespread point of view that speech development is an “artifact of imitation,” the effect of a child’s unconscious acquisition of language. But later a hypothesis was put forward and proven that the development of speech is based on an active, creative process of language acquisition and the formation of speech activity.
Criteria for the basic level of speech development
Both general and more specific criteria for the basic level of speech development that a child should achieve in preschool childhood are determined. Among the first are:
* knowledge of literary norms and rules of the native language, free use of vocabulary and grammar when expressing one’s own thoughts and composing any type of statement;
* the ability to make contact and conduct dialogue with adults and peers: listen, ask, answer, object, explain;
* knowledge of the norms and rules of speech etiquette, the ability to use them according to the situation;
* basic reading and writing skills.
The development of speech is organically connected with mental development, since developed human thinking is speech, language - verbal-logical thinking. A correctly structured process of speech education also contributes to the development of thinking. Along with this, the connection between speech (language) and intellectual must be considered in the opposite direction - from intelligence to speech (language). This refers to a unique linguistic function of the intellect - the role of mental activity in language acquisition (F.A. Sokhin). This function also needs pedagogical cultivation.
The connection between speech and mental development is especially clearly manifested in the formation of coherent speech, which is distinguished by content, logic, and consistency. In order to talk coherently about something, you need to clearly imagine the object of the story, be able to analyze, rely on the essential properties of this object, and establish various relationships between objects and phenomena. In addition, it is necessary to select words adequate to express a particular thought, be able to construct simple and complex sentences, and use a variety of means to connect individual sentences and parts of a statement.
A coherent statement as a product of a child’s activity makes it possible to judge how deeply he masters his expressive means (comparisons, epithets, metaphors, synonyms, etc.). From here, a kind of “bridge” can be thrown from speech education to artistic and aesthetic education.
In general, the development of speech is closely related to the formation of artistic and speech activity, which is carried out through the means of aesthetic education.
Returning to the problem of mastery of expressive means, we emphasize that the corresponding skills are most intensively formed when teaching children to retell folklore and literary texts. On the other hand, mastery of these means leads to a deepening and refinement of the artistic perception of literary works.
When forming creative storytelling, it is very important for the child to have a conscious attitude towards language in its aesthetic function, which is manifested in the choice of linguistic figurative and expressive means to embody an artistic image.
Finally, teaching preschoolers their native language opens up new opportunities for solving the problems of moral education.
Here, the content of works of art used in the process of speech development has a significant influence. The ability of children to tell stories together, in groups, presupposes the establishment of mutual understanding between storytellers, the ability to negotiate with each other,, if necessary, help a friend, give in to him, etc.
Thus, the development of language abilities forms one of the core lines of mental development in preschool childhood.
Objectives of pedagogical work on speech development
The main tasks of pedagogical work on speech development, each of which corresponds to a specific set of private educational tasks.
Among the first are:
*development of coherent speech;
* development of the lexical side of speech;
* formation of grammatical structure of speech;
* development of the sound side of speech;
* development of figurative speech.
Let's briefly look at these tasks.
Development of coherent speech. Solving this problem involves the development of two forms of speech - dialogical and monological. When developing dialogical speech, special attention is paid to developing in children the ability to build a dialogue (ask, answer, explain, etc.), using a variety of linguistic means in accordance with the situation. For this purpose, conversations are used on a wide variety of topics relating to the child’s life in the family, in kindergarten, etc.
It is in dialogue that the ability to listen to the interlocutor, ask a question, and answer depending on the context is developed. All these skills are necessary for the development of monologue speech in children.
The central point in the development of such speech is teaching children the ability to construct a detailed statement. This presupposes the formation in them of elementary knowledge about the structure of the text (beginning, middle, end), ideas about the connection between sentences and structural links of the statement. The latter is an important condition for achieving coherence in a speech utterance.
When teaching preschoolers how to construct coherent texts, it is necessary to develop the ability to reveal the topic and main idea of a statement and to title it.
Intonation plays a major role in organizing a coherent utterance. Therefore, developing the ability to correctly use the intonation of a separate sentence contributes to the development of structural unity and semantic completeness of the text as a whole.
The subprogram provides for teaching children different types of statements, depending on the method of transmitting information or the method of presentation: description, narration, reasoning.
Development of the lexical side of speech. Work on the word—the original unit of language—occupies one of the most important places in the overall system of work on speech development.
Mastering the vocabulary of the native language is a necessary condition for mastering its grammatical structure, developing coherent monologue speech, and cultivating the sound side of the word.
Working on a word is, first of all, working on understanding its meaning. The child must be introduced to different meanings of the same word in order to ensure its semantically adequate use and the formation of a generalized idea of the word. The child’s developed ability to use words and phrases in accordance with the context and speech situation creates the prerequisites for free and flexible use of linguistic means when constructing a statement.
Of course, children learn verbal designations (names of objects) in the course of familiarization with the surrounding reality - both spontaneous and specially organized. However, the vocabulary of preschoolers needs not only quantitative enrichment, but also qualitative improvement. This requires special pedagogical work to clarify the meaning of words, teach the semantically adequate use of synonyms, antonyms, ambiguous words, and develop the ability to understand figurative meanings.
In the development of preschoolers' vocabulary, the principle of combining words into thematic groups is extremely important. Units of language are related to each other. The set of words that make up the thematic series forms a semantic field, which is located around the core. For example, the polysemantic word “needle” in the meaning “leaf of a coniferous tree” is included in the semantic field: tree - trunk - branches - needles - green - fluffy, grows - falls; a sewing needle enters another semantic field: sew - sew up - embroider - dress - shirt - pattern - sharp - dull, etc.
In the process of vocabulary work (as in solving other problems of speech education), one should strive to ensure that the child’s speech acquires such qualities as accuracy, correctness, and expressiveness.
Ultimately, it is necessary to develop in children the ability to select for expression those lexical means that adequately reflect the speaker’s intention.
This work is carried out in the form of verbal exercises and creative tasks.
Formation of grammatical structure of speech
In the process of mastering speech, the child acquires the ability to form and use grammatical forms.
Taking this into account, special work is envisaged on morphology (changing words by gender, number, case), word formation (formation of one word based on another using special means), syntax (construction of simple and complex sentences).
The morphological structure of preschool children's speech includes almost all grammatical forms (with the exception of some); it becomes more complex as children age. In children's speech, the proportion of nouns and verbs is greatest, but the child increasingly begins to use other parts of speech - adjectives, pronouns, adverbs, numerals, etc.
When working on nouns, children learn the correct use of case forms (especially genitive forms in the plural), and become familiar with various ways of agreeing a noun with adjectives and verbs.
When working on verbs, children learn to use them in the form of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd person singular and plural, to use the gender category, correlating the action and the object with the feminine gender (the girl said), the masculine gender (the boy read) or the neuter gender (the sun was shining) with past tense verbs. Children are also led to the formation of the imperative mood of an action verb, to which someone encourages someone (go, run, let's run, let him run, let's go) and to the formation of the subjunctive mood - a possible or intended action (would play, read).
Children need knowledge of different categories and forms of verbs to construct different types of sentences.
When working on adjectives, children are introduced to how a noun and an adjective agree in gender, number, case, with full and short adjectives (cheerful, cheerful, cheerful, cheerful), with degrees of comparison of adjectives (kind - kinder, quiet - quieter). Children also learn different ways of word formation. Thus, they develop the ability to form a word on the basis of another word of the same root with which it is motivated, with the help of affixes (endings, prefixes, suffixes), etc.
Mastering different methods of word formation helps a preschooler to correctly use the names of baby animals (bare, fox), tableware (sugar bowl, candy bowl), direction of action (rode - went - left), etc.
When working on syntax, children are taught ways to combine words into phrases and sentences of different types - simple and complex. The formation of complex syntactic structures in children's statements is carried out in a “written speech situation”, when the child dictates and the adult writes down his text.
When teaching children how to construct sentences, special attention is paid to exercises on using the correct word order, overcoming syntactic monotony (repetition of similar constructions), correct word agreement, etc.
Along with this, children develop a basic understanding of the structure of sentences and the nature of the use of vocabulary in sentences of different types, and the ability to consciously use linguistic elements (words, phrases, sentences) when conveying their thoughts.
Development of the sound side of speech
When mastering the sound means of language, the child relies on speech hearing (the general ability to perceive the phonological means of language).
Linear sound units (sound - syllable - word - phrase - text) have independent extension and follow each other. At the same time, the features of the sound side of speech are reflected by prosadic units: word stress, intonation (melody of speech, strength of voice, tempo and timbre of speech).
Practical knowledge of a language presupposes the ability to distinguish by ear and adequately reproduce all sound units of the native language. Therefore, work on the formation of sound pronunciation in preschoolers should be carried out systematically.
Important means of sound expressiveness of speech are tone, timbre, pauses, and different types of stress.
A special layer of educational work is associated with the development in children of the ability to use intonation - to build an intonation pattern of a statement, conveying not only its meaning, but also its emotional “charge”. In parallel with this, the ability to use tempo, volume of pronunciation depending on the situation, and clearly pronounce sounds, words, phrases, sentences (diction) is being developed. By drawing the child's attention to intonation, the teacher develops his ear for speech, a sense of timbre and rhythm, a sense of the power of sound, which subsequently influences the development of his ear for music.
In general, by working on the sound side of speech, the child masters the ability to “subordinate” the utterance to the goals and conditions of communication, taking into account the subject and topic of the utterance, and the characteristics of the listeners. Development of figurative speech. A child’s speech becomes figurative, spontaneous and lively if he develops an interest in linguistic richness and develops the ability to use a wide variety of expressive means when constructing statements. (Let us pay attention to the paradox: spontaneity is also cultivated! Moreover, what is even more paradoxical, it is cultivated in the process of the child mastering special means. However, this is the uniqueness of human cultural development.)
The most important sources for the development of expressiveness of children's speech are works of fiction and oral folk art, including small folklore forms (proverbs, sayings, riddles, nursery rhymes, counting rhymes, phraseological units).
The subroutine determines specific ways to develop a child’s figurative speech through literary works of different genres (fairy tales, short stories, poems) and small folklore forms.
The development of imagery is an essential aspect of speech development in its entirety.
Thus, the lexical side of speech serves as an integral part of imagery, because semantic analysis contributes to the development of the ability to use a word or combination that is precise in meaning and expressive in accordance with the context of the statement.
The grammatical aspect of imagery is no less significant, since using a variety of stylistic means (word order, construction of different types of sentences), the child formats his statement grammatically correct and at the same time expressive.
The phonetic side is associated with the sound design of the text (intonation expressiveness, optimally chosen tempo, diction), which largely determines the nature of the emotional impact on listeners.
The development of all aspects of speech, taken in the aspect of its imagery, is a fundamental condition for the development of independent verbal creativity, which can manifest itself in a child in composing fairy tales, stories, poems, nursery rhymes, and riddles.
The subprogram involves the inclusion in the context of the organized development of speech and verbal communication of work to prepare children for reading and writing, to develop in them the prerequisites for the corresponding skills. Such preparation should be subordinated to the common goals and objectives of speech education of preschool children and, more broadly, to ensure the progression of overall development at this age. Thanks to this, in our opinion, it is possible to prevent the potential danger of turning preparation for reading and writing into a kind of “surrogate” of an academic subject. This is facilitated by the nature of her psychological and pedagogical “support” in line with this subprogramme area.
Thus, in the processes of reading and writing, children are assigned primarily communicative tasks. They develop an orientation toward an imaginary reader in preparation for writing, and toward an imaginary author in preparation for reading (some ideas and elements of D.B. Elkonin’s well-known methods are used here). In other words, it is important that children are able to understand reading and writing as an original way of addressing one person to another. Only on this basis will the child be able to then dissect the flow of his own thoughts and formulate them in detail in the text (as well as fully perceive the text - a detailed expression of the thoughts of another person).
In addition, when preparing for writing, the teacher must rely on the level of development of meaningful motor skills that the child achieved in the course of mastering developing forms of motor and visual activity.
On the prevention of speech disorders in preschool children
Recently, the issues of providing specialized speech therapy assistance to preschool children have become relevant in preschool education. Statistics show that there is currently an increase in the number of children with speech defects. In this regard, there is an increasing need for speech therapists and teachers of non-special type preschool institutions to work together to prevent speech disorders in preschool children.
Speech therapy work in a non-specialized preschool institution includes several areas. This includes overcoming existing speech disorders in children, and preventing possible secondary speech disorders, and prevention (propaedeutics) of speech disorders before they occur, and improving various aspects and qualities of speech in the absence of disorders, and parallel correction and additional development of other mental functions, such as auditory-speech and visual attention, visual and verbal memory, verbal and logical thinking.
Often, all speech therapy work is perceived only as certain actions directly aimed at eliminating incorrect pronunciation in children. This is understandable, since violations of sound pronunciation are perceived by others first and cause the greatest concern to the child’s relatives. But with this approach to speech therapy, other areas of the speech therapist’s work are often not considered.
One of the most important areas is the prevention and prevention of speech disorders in preschool children. What are the causes of speech disorders?
Among the latter are:
deterioration of the environmental situation;
features of the Ural region in terms of iodine and fluorine deficiency;
an increase in the number of pregnancy pathologies;
increase in the number of birth injuries;
weakening of children's health and increase in childhood morbidity;
various social reasons.
I would like to dwell separately on the social causes of speech disorders. First of all, it should be noted that the level of linguistic culture of society as a whole has decreased. Our children often hear around them not only incorrectly formatted speech, but also far from literary expressions. In some cases, the content and speech design of television programs and videotapes leaves much to be desired.
Improper speech environment and upbringing can also cause speech defects in children (type of distortion). In this state of affairs, a small child is not able to perceive the linguistic norm of his native language, the articulatory structures of the sounds of audible speech, and he develops an incorrect or inaccurate perception of speech sounds. And this, in turn, leads to the appearance of sound pronunciation defects.
Disturbances in the sound culture of speech that arose in preschool age can subsequently lead to a number of secondary speech disorders: underdevelopment of phonemic hearing, delayed formation of skills in sound, syllabic and letter analysis of words, impoverishment of the child’s vocabulary, violation of the grammatical structure of native speech. Any speech disorder to one degree or another can affect the child’s activity and behavior as a whole. Therefore, it is so important to take care of the timely development of children’s speech and pay attention to its purity and correctness.
According to many experts, the beginning of targeted work on the formation of correct sound pronunciation from the age of three helps prevent the appearance of many speech disorders, and often identify other, more complex speech pathologies in children of this age, which contributes to their early correction.
As noted earlier, a child’s speech is formed in the process of communication with the adults around him. In this sense, a large role in the formation of children’s correct speech belongs to teachers of preschool institutions. If one of the tasks of a speech therapist is correction of speech defects in the case of abnormal speech development of a child, then the task of the teacher is to form the speech of children with normal speech development.
The education and training program in kindergarten provides for the development of all aspects of oral speech: vocabulary, grammatical structure, coherent speech, sound pronunciation. Thus, nurturing the sound culture of speech is an integral part of the system of work on speech development. The main components of the sound culture of speech are the rhythmic and melodic side of speech (intonation) and the sounds of speech (phoneme system).
The teacher’s work on the formation of the sound side of speech includes several stages:
preparatory;
stage of sound appearance;
stage of sound assimilation and automation (correct pronunciation of sound in coherent speech)
I would like to dwell separately on the first two stages of speech work. They include:
development of children's auditory attention;
development of fine motor skills of fingers in children;
development of mobility of the articulatory apparatus;
clarifying the articulation and pronunciation of a sound or evoking it by imitation.
Often this stage of work is not given enough time. As a result of such haste, children find themselves unprepared for consistent, purposeful speech work, which can serve as an impetus for the appearance of speech development defects.
In kindergarten, various games are widely used to develop auditory attention in children, finger games accompanied by chants, and an object-based environment is presented for the development of fine motor skills of the fingers. This is good. But when examining children who need specialized speech therapy help, it is revealed that their finger muscles are often weak, children cannot accurately reproduce a given pose, and cannot hold it.
Particular difficulties are caused by tasks of changing finger poses and reproducing a given tempo in movements. What is the reason for such violations? Without dwelling on the anatomical and physiological aspects in detail, we will consider the pedagogical reasons. When playing finger games, children collectively perform movements inaccurately, are not aware of discrete (individual) finger positions, and the speech accompaniment of the game is also a distraction. In this regard, it seems advisable, along with the use of finger games, to conduct daily finger gymnastics with children, which includes a set of individual or alternating poses and movements for the fingers in a certain order and tempo. This will make it possible to more comprehensively carry out work on the development of fine motor skills of children’s fingers.
Clarifying the articulation and pronunciation of sound is very important in the process of working on speech development. It allows you to attract children's attention to the position of the organs of articulation and enhance kinesthetic and auditory sensations. Often this type of speech work is carried out collectively in the form of memorizing and reciting poems and speeches that are saturated with the appropriate sound or include onomatopoeia. This form is really effective if the sound appears spontaneously in the child and is already sufficiently automated in independent speech. If this sound has not yet been formed, or the automation process has not been completed, then the defective sound is recorded in the child’s speech, which will require painstaking correction work in the future. Based on this, it is more advisable to combine work on clarifying the position of the organs of articulation for a given sound with the pronunciation of speeches. At the same time, the teacher’s pronunciation should be clear, with good articulation of the most significant points, preferably at a slow, moderate pace.
Clarifying the position of the articulatory organs when pronouncing individual sounds seems impossible without preliminary work on the development of articulatory motor skills in children. Children should have basic knowledge about the structure of the oral cavity and the possible movements of the organs of articulation. In accordance with the education and training program in kindergarten, children are introduced to speech sounds in a certain sequence, repeating the main stages of the formation of children's speech during normal speech development. In this regard, it is very important to familiarize children with speech sounds by performing articulation training exercises that contribute to the formation and consolidation of correct pronunciation skills. To achieve the desired result, it is necessary to perform the appropriate complex of articulatory gymnastics in a group.
Consistent, systematic work on the development of auditory attention, the development of articulatory and fine motor skills in children, and the refinement of articulation and pronunciation of sounds creates favorable conditions for the normal development of the sound side of speech in preschool children.
In this regard, one of the main tasks of a speech therapist at a preschool educational institution is organizing the interaction of various specialists (speech therapist, educators, psychologist, music worker, etc.) and parents in order to create effective conditions for the proper development of children’s speech.
Contemporary cognitive psychology borrows theories and methods from 12 major areas of study (Figure 1.1): cognitive neuroscience, perception, pattern recognition, attention, consciousness, memory, knowledge representation, imagination, language, developmental psychology, thinking and concept formation, and human intelligence and artificial intelligence.
Rice. 1Main areas of research in cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology– a branch of psychology that studies the cognitive processes of human consciousness. Covers the entire range of psychological processes.
The problem of representing knowledge, how this information will be presented. Representation is the structure of information created by us and stored in the mind in the form of pictures, sounds, sensations
Cognitive neuroscience
It is only within the last few years that cognitive psychologists and cognitive neuroscientists (brain scientists) have developed a highly collaborative relationship. To date, this union has produced the most impressive results in the field of studying the properties of our mind. Cognitive psychologists look to neurological explanations for the data they have, and neuroscientists look to cognitive psychologists to explain results obtained in laboratories. In the above example of a conversation between a confused driver and a police officer, every part of the cognitive process - from sensation to knowledge of the rules of driving a car - is supported by basic electrochemical processes occurring in the brain and nervous system.
Perception
The branch of psychology directly concerned with the detection and interpretation of sensory stimuli is called psychology perception. From experiments in perception, we know well about the sensitivity of the human body to sensory signals and - more importantly for cognitive psychology - how these sensory signals are interpreted.
The description given by the police officer in the above street scene depends largely on his ability to “see” salient features of the surroundings. "IN And“Denying”, however, is far from a simple matter. To perceive sensory stimuli - in our case they are predominantly visual - it is necessary that they have a certain magnitude: if the driver is to perform the described maneuver, these signs must have a significant intensity. In addition, the situation itself is constantly changing. As the driver's position changes, new signs appear. Certain features acquire special significance in the process of perception. Signs vary in color, position, shape, etc. Many images are constantly changing while driving, and in order to act according to their instructions, the driver must quickly adjust his behavior.