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When needs are satisfied four lower levels, a person focuses his attention on satisfying the need for self-realization. In trying to achieve this, people try to realize their full potential, increase their abilities and be the “best”. This need for self-expression is the highest of all human needs.

The fact that human needs can be arranged in a hierarchical order has important. Firstly, the needs of lower levels must be satisfied first, only after that can the needs of higher levels be addressed.

In addition, it is worth considering that the needs of lower levels form the foundation on which the needs of higher levels are built. Only if lower-level needs remain satisfied does a manager have a chance to succeed by motivating workers by satisfying higher-level needs. high level.

The idea of ​​sufficiency is very important. A person will never experience the feeling of complete satisfaction of his needs. Most people want more money, security, friends, respect and self-confidence, no matter how much they have already achieved. Thus, a person moves up the hierarchy not when his needs are fully satisfied, but when they are sufficiently satisfied.

When applying the hierarchy of needs according to A. Maslow, a large role is given to intuition, which is best explanation her popularity. However, from the point of view concrete actions leadership, A. Maslow's approach has a number of difficulties. First of all, most of us can be at several levels of the hierarchy of needs at the same time.

It is also extremely difficult to determine the level of needs, the satisfaction of which can motivate a person in currently. Part of the problem comes from the fact that it is very difficult to distinguish between small, minor changes in needs that occur daily, from more significant and less frequent changes (shifts) in human needs. motivation management need

Difficulty also arises when measuring human needs. Most of us have great difficulty identifying our own needs and setting priorities. A manager who must create a motivational environment for many of his subordinates faces a daunting task.

Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory.

Herzberg's theory was derived from a study involving two hundred engineers and accountants. They were all asked two questions: “Can you describe in detail a time when you feel exceptionally good at work?” and “Can you describe in detail when you feel exceptionally bad at work?”

Herzberg found two clearly distinguishable groups of needs in the responses. He called the first hygienic or supporting factors. This group included those factors or conditions in the absence of which employees did not receive job satisfaction. These hygiene factors include company and management policies, relationships with superiors, working conditions, wages, relationships with colleagues, personal life, status and security.

These factors are only valuable if the employee also receives an additional reward upon completion of the job. Herzberg called the second group of factors motivators or satisfiers. These are working conditions under which a high level of employee motivation and job satisfaction is achieved. In the absence of these conditions, it is impossible to obtain either effective motivation or satisfaction. Motivators include goal achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, career advancement, and opportunities for personal growth.

The theory of motivation by L. Porter - E. Lawler.

The comprehensive process theory of motivation, known as the Porter-Lawler model, is built on the basic elements of expectancy theory and equity theory. Two researchers, Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler, developed a model that included five variables:

• - effort expended
• - perception
• - results
• - reward
• - level of satisfaction

The content of the Porter-Lawler model boils down to the following: in order to achieve certain results and receive a worthy reward, a person expends effort depending on his abilities, experience and qualifications. In this case, the amount of effort is determined by the value of the reward. A person’s awareness of his role in the labor process has a significant impact on the results. As in the theory of goal setting, rewards can be internal (a feeling of satisfaction about the work performed, a sense of competence and self-affirmation) and external (increase in pay, bonus, gratitude from the manager, promotion). The perception of reward determines the level of satisfaction, which in turn will influence a person's future behavior.

Porter and Lawler, based on an analysis of the proposed model, concluded that productive work leads to satisfaction. This conclusion will radically differ from the positions taken by representatives of earlier theories. human relations, who believed that satisfied workers produce better results.

The merit of Porter and Lawler is that their theory made a major contribution to the understanding of motivation.

Douglas McGregor's theory of motivation.

Douglas McGregor analyzed the activities of the performer in the workplace and found that the manager can control the following parameters that determine the actions of the performer:

• - tasks that a subordinate receives;
• - quality of task execution;
• - time of receiving the task;
• - expected task completion time;
• - the means available to complete the task;
• - the team in which the subordinate works;
• - instructions received by a subordinate;
• - convincing the subordinate that the task is feasible;
• - convincing the subordinate of reward for successful work;
• - the amount of remuneration for the work performed;
• - the level of involvement of the subordinate in the range of work-related problems.

All these factors depend on the manager and, at the same time, to one degree or another influence the employee, determine the quality and intensity of his work. Douglas McGregor came to the conclusion that, based on these factors, it is possible to apply two different approaches to management, which he called "Theory X" and "Theory Y".

“Theory Y” corresponds to a democratic management style and involves delegation of authority, improving relationships in the team, taking into account the corresponding motivation of performers and their psychological needs, enrichment of the content of the work.

Both theories have equal right to exist, but, due to its polarity, in pure form do not occur in practice. As a rule, in real life there is a combination various styles management.

These theories have had strong influence on the development of management theory in general. Links to them can now be found in many practical aids on enterprise personnel management, motivation of subordinates.

McGregor's theories were developed in relation to an individual person. Further improvement of approaches to management was associated with the development of the organization as a system open type, and also considered the work of a person in a team. This led to the concept of a holistic approach to management, i.e. the need to take into account the entire range of production and social problems.

Motivation of personnel in organizations.

It would be advisable to consider ways to motivate work in organizations. They are combined into relatively independent areas: material incentives, improvement of labor organization, involvement of personnel in the management process and non-monetary incentives.

The first direction reflects the role of the motivational mechanism of remuneration in the system of increasing labor productivity. It includes as elements the improvement of the wage system, providing staff with the opportunity to participate in the property and profits of the enterprise.

Of course, the motivational mechanism of remuneration plays a large role, but a constant increase in the level of remuneration does not contribute to either maintaining labor activity at the proper level or increasing labor productivity. The use of this method can be useful for achieving short-term increases in labor productivity. Ultimately, a certain overlap or addiction to this type of influence occurs. Unilateral influence on workers through monetary methods alone cannot lead to a lasting increase in labor productivity.

Although labor in our country, unlike highly developed countries, is today considered mainly only as a means of earning money, it can be assumed that the need for money will grow to a certain limit, depending on the standard of living, after which money will become a condition for normal psychological state, saving human dignity. In this case, other groups of needs related to the need for creativity, achievement of success, and others may become dominant.

Needs are constantly changing, so you cannot expect that motivation that worked once will be effective in the future. With the development of personality, opportunities and needs for self-expression expand. Thus, the process of motivation by satisfying needs is endless.

The next direction for improving motivation - improving the organization of work - contains setting goals, expanding work functions, enriching work, production rotation, application flexible schedules, improving working conditions.

Goal setting assumes that a correctly set goal, through the formation of an orientation towards its achievement, serves as a motivating tool for the employee.

Expanding labor functions implies introducing diversity into the work of personnel, that is, increasing the number of operations performed by one employee. As a result, the work cycle of each employee is lengthened, and the intensity of work increases. Application this method advisable in case of underutilization of workers and own desire them to expand the range of their activities, in otherwise this can lead to strong resistance from workers.

For mass worker professions, it is best to use production rotation, which involves alternating types of work and production operations, when workers periodically exchange jobs during the day, which is typical primarily for the brigade form of labor organization.

Management uses at least 6 methods of non-monetary incentives

• 1. APPROVAL. Approval is an even more powerful way of reward than money, which of course will always mean a lot. Almost all people respond positively if they feel valued and respected. Exist following rules managers:
  • - praise immediately
  • - praise the person's work
  • - say that you are satisfied and you are pleased that the employee did this
  • - after this, you should not stand over the employee’s soul, so, having completed your mission, leave.
• 2. ACTION. Employees who purchase shares and become part owners behave like owners. But in order to use this method of reward, the enterprise must use group acceptance management decision, instead of authoritarian and produce competitive goods. Henry Ford also used this method. In his enterprises, workers were shareholders. Research from Michigan State University has shown that using this type of compensation can increase a firm's income by 1.5 times. Unfortunately, in our Russian reality there is a pathetic parody of this system due to the failure to fulfill the above conditions.
• 3. REWARD WITH FREE TIME. This will help keep employees from developing the habit of wasting time and allow the employee to spend more time on himself and his family if he completes work before the allotted time. This method is suitable for people with a free schedule. Otherwise, management is tempted to increase the amount of work.
• 4. MUTUAL UNDERSTANDING AND SHOWING INTEREST IN THE EMPLOYEE. The method of remuneration is most significant for effective professional employees. For them, internal reward is heavy weight. This approach requires managers to have good informal contact with their subordinates, as well as knowledge of what worries and interests them.
• 5. PROMOTION THROUGH THE SERVICE LADDER AND PERSONAL GROWTH. This method of reward requires serious financial costs senior management. Moving up gives you power, not just material goods. People love her even more than money.
• 6. PROVIDING INDEPENDENCE AND FAVORITE WORK. This method is especially good when employees strive to become professionals, but feel the pressure of control over themselves or feel that they would do other work much more professionally, with greater efficiency and best results. Here, the manager’s art lies in the ability to identify such an employee, which can be difficult when these actions are taken for just another control event. Very often such people could work effectively without supervision from above, but the lack of some courage prevents them from approaching management about this.

Find a concept that is generalizing for all other concepts in the series presented below, and write down the number under which it is indicated.

1) family education; 2) additional education; 3) socialization of youth; 4) schooling; 5) labor training.

Question 4

Select correct judgments about needs.

1. A need is a person’s experienced need for what is necessary for life.
2. The need for self-realization and self-affirmation is an ideal need.
3. By example biological need serves the need to understand the world around us.
4. Need serves as an incentive for activity.
5. The need, as a rule, is aimed at some object with the help of which it can be satisfied.

Question 5

Establish a correspondence between the types of societies and the given characteristics: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Question 6

Laboratory scientists conduct research in the field of physics solid. What features distinguish scientific knowledge from other species cognitive activity? Select the required items from the list provided and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. Reliance on observational data
2. experimental confirmation conclusions
3. taking into account accumulated experience
4. use of forms of rational knowledge
5. Development of grounded theories
6. application of strictly defined concepts

Question 7

Choose the correct statements about inflation and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. Inflation manifests itself in a decrease in the purchasing power of money.
2. Distinguish between microinflation and hyperinflation.
3. Rising prices for resources generate supply inflation.
4. One of the reasons for inflation is increased competition between producers.
5. The consequences of inflation include an increase in real wages of workers.

Question 8

Establish a correspondence between types of costs and concrete examples costs: for each item given in the first column, select the corresponding item from the second column.

Question 9

Nadezhda is 40 years old and a housewife. A woman maintains order in the house and takes care of her husband, who works at a large enterprise. What categories of population can Nadezhda be classified into? Select the required items from the list provided and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. able-bodied
2. part-time
3. not included in the labor force 4. despairing of finding work
5. temporarily unemployed
6. busy

Question 11

Select the correct judgments about youth as a social group and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. Young people have their own subculture.
2. Young people as a social group are distinguished based on age criteria.
3. Most young people have a higher social status than older people.
4. Unlike teenagers, the leading activity of young people is cognition.
5. Young people tend to strive for social self-determination.

Question 12

What conclusions can be drawn based on the data presented? Select the required items from the list provided and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. For last years people's well-being has increased.

2. The majority do not have an achievement mindset.

3. Average level people's lives are quite high.

4. Standard of living in developed countries is not considered by the majority of respondents as a target.

5. Among those surveyed, the number of those making ends meet has increased.

Question 13

Choose the correct judgments about the forms of government and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. Federal government system Only multinational countries have their composition.
2. In a unitary state there is no territorial division countries.
3. B federal state the subject of the federation has part of the sovereignty.
4. Unitary states usually have a unicameral parliament.
5. In unitary states, authoritarian regimes are established more often than in federal ones.

Question 15

State Z holds regular elections legislative assembly. Representatives of various political forces participate in them.
Which Additional Information indicates that the country has a proportional electoral system? Select the required items from the list provided and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. mandates are distributed between parties in accordance with the number of votes cast
2. opposition parties, along with pro-government ones, nominate their candidates
3. voting is carried out according to party lists
4. during the pre-election period, inter-party coalitions are created 5. voting is carried out in several rounds
6. installed smallest number votes for election

Question 16

Which of the following refers to the constitutional duties of a citizen of the Russian Federation? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. declare your income
2. treat natural resources with care
3. pay legally established taxes
4. testify in court
5. determine your nationality
6. participate in social and political activities

Question 18

What is included in the legal system? Select the required items from the list below and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. legal custom
2. rule of law
3. branch of law
4. legal sanction
5. Institute of Law
6. legal precedent

Question 19

Read the text below, each position of which is indicated by a specific letter.̆

(A) The term “elite”, starting from the 17th century, began to be used to designate high nobility. (B) Political elite- This is a small group directly involved in making major political decisions. (B) Until the beginning of the 20th century, the term “elite” was practically not used in social sciences. (G) Existing theories elites do not yet provide answers to many practical issues associated with the formation of the ruling layer. (D) Obviously, this shows some lag in the development of political science from the demands of today.

1. factual nature
2. character value judgments
3. the nature of theoretical statements

Determine which text provisions have

Question 20

Read the text below, in which a number of words are missing. Select from the list provided the words that need to be inserted in place of the gaps.

"IN general view labor can be defined as ____ (A) human activity to transform natural, material, intellectual _____ (B) into a product necessary for personal or public consumption. When we consider the product of labor as _____ (B), we mean its most varied forms - finished products Agriculture, industry, all kinds of services. In the process of labor, a person interacts with objects and _____ (D) labor, as well as with environment. In conditions of market relations, a person - subject ____ (D) can realize his potential in two ways: either on the basis of self-employment, or as employee, offering his services to the employer, the subject _____ (E).”
The words in the list are given in nominative case. Each word can only be used once. Select one word after another, mentally filling in each gap. Please note that there are more words in the list than you will need to fill in the blanks.

List of terms:
1. production
2. product
3. resource
4. salary
5. sphere
6. remedy
7. subject
8. property
9. labor

Social needs

1. Give employees jobs that allow them to communicate.

2. Create a team spirit in the workplace.

3. Hold periodic meetings with your subordinates.

4. Do not try to destroy existing informal groups unless they cause real damage to the organization.

5. Create conditions for social activity members of the organization outside its framework.

Respect Needs

1. Offer more meaningful work to your subordinates.

2. Provide them with positive feedback with the results achieved.

3. Appreciate and reward the results achieved by subordinates.

4. Involve subordinates in setting goals and making decisions.

5. Delegate additional rights and powers to subordinates.

6. Promote your subordinates up the career ladder.

7. Provide training and retraining that improves competency.

Self-expression needs

1. Provide subordinates with training and development opportunities that enable them to utilize their full potential.

2. Give your subordinates complex and important work which requires their full commitment.

3. Encourage and develop creative abilities in subordinates.

· Salary is usually not a motivating factor.

· To eliminate the feeling of dissatisfaction, the manager needs Special attention pay attention to health factors"If there is no feeling of dissatisfaction and irritation, motivating staff using “health” factors is useless.

· After the employee is provided with everything necessary to achieve his goals, the manager must concentrate all his efforts on motivational factors.

3. Three-factor McClelland's theory considers only three types of acquired needs that activate human activity: power, success, involvement.

There is a certain similarity between this theory and the theory of A. Maslow. The needs for power and success are characteristic of people who have achieved the satisfaction of the fourth level of the hierarchy of needs - the need for respect. The need for belonging is characteristic of people who have achieved the satisfaction of the third level of needs - social needs.

Unlike A. Maslow, McClelland believes that only the need for power is a motivational factor. Therefore, in practice, this theory is more applicable to people seeking to occupy a certain position in an organization.

Process theories of motivation

These theories are based on I. Pavlov’s concept that any human behavior is the result of the influence of a stimulus. Therefore, human behavior is influenced by restructuring (changing) the environment or process in which the person operates. A person’s behavior is also determined by the result (consequences) of the type of behavior chosen in a given situation.

To the most popular process theories can be attributed:

· Victor Vroom's expectancy theory;

· S. Adams' theory of justice;

· complex theory Porter-Lawler.

1. According to expectancy theory motivation is seen as a function of three types of expectations:

· expected work result;

· the expected reward from this result;

· expected value of the reward.

The amount of effort a person puts into implementing the task assigned to him will directly depend on the assessment of the probability of success in completing the task, as well as the likelihood of receiving a valuable reward for his efforts.

The higher the degree of correspondence between actual events and expected events, the more likely repetitions of this type behavior.

Practical conclusions.

· When setting goals, the manager must clearly formulate the goal in terms of the result, as well as the criteria for evaluating the result.

· To increase the likelihood of achieving a goal, the manager must provide conditions (organizational and resource) for successful implementation tasks.

· It is necessary to distribute tasks among employees in accordance with their abilities and professional skills.

· Only that reward will be of value to the employee that corresponds to his structure of needs.

· Only the reward that follows the achieved result will increase motivation. Advance is not a motivating factor.

2. Theory of justice is based on the fact that a person subjectively evaluates the results of work and the remuneration received, comparing them with the results and remuneration of other employees. At the same time, the effort expended is also subject to subjective assessment.

If the reward is perceived as fair, production behavior is repeated; if not, then the following human reactions are possible:

· reduction of in-house costs(“I don’t intend to give all my best for such a salary”);

· an attempt to increase remuneration for one's work(demand, blackmail);

· reassessment of one's capabilities(decreased self-confidence);

· an attempt to influence the organization or manager in order to change the pay or workload of other employees;

· selecting another comparison object(“I can’t compare with them”);

· attempting to move to another department or organization.

3. The Porter-Lawler model of motivation considers motivation as a function of effort expended, results obtained, employee perception of reward (fair-unfair), and degree of satisfaction.

The results of labor depend on the effort expended and the person’s abilities to perform a specific job.

In turn, the effort expended by the employee to achieve the result will depend on the assessment of the likelihood of receiving the reward and its value for the employee. Rewards that are perceived as fair increase motivation, and vice versa. The degree of satisfaction is the result of both external and internal rewards. Moreover, it is the degree of satisfaction that is a measure of the value of the reward.

External rewards are given by the organization in the form of wages, praise, rewards, promotions, etc. Intrinsic rewards come from the work itself, fulfill high-level needs, and, as a rule, are the most likely cause of feelings of satisfaction (significance, recognition, self-expression).

Important takeaway: productive work leads to satisfaction, and not vice versa, as is commonly believed.

Related information.