The most unstable region on our planet in terms of wars and numerous armed conflicts is, of course, the African continent. Over the past forty years alone, more than 50 such incidents have occurred here, resulting in more than 5 million deaths, 18 million becoming refugees, and 24 million left homeless. Perhaps nowhere else in the world have wars and endless conflicts led to such large-scale casualties and destruction.

General information

From the history Ancient world it is known that major wars in Africa were carried out already from the third millennium BC. They began with the unification of Egyptian lands. Subsequently, the pharaohs constantly fought for the expansion of their state, either with Palestine or with Syria. Three are also known, lasting a total of more than a hundred years.

In the Middle Ages, armed conflicts greatly contributed to the further development of aggressive policies and honed the art of war to perfection. Africa experienced three Crusades in the 13th century alone. Long list The military confrontations that this continent was subjected to in the 19th and 20th centuries are simply amazing! However, the most destructive for him were the First and Second World Wars. During one of them alone, more than 100 thousand people died.

The reasons that led to military action in this region were quite compelling. As you know, the First World War in Europe was started by Germany. The Entente countries, opposing its pressure, decided to take away its colonies in Africa, which the German government had recently acquired. These lands were still poorly defended, and given that the British fleet at that time dominated the sea, they were completely cut off from their metropolis. This could only mean one thing - Germany was unable to send reinforcements and ammunition. In addition, they were surrounded on all sides by territories belonging to their opponents - the Entente countries.

Already at the end of the summer of 1914, French and British troops managed to capture the first small colony of the enemy - Togo. Further invasion of Entente forces into South-West Africa was somewhat suspended. The reason for this was the Boer uprising, which was suppressed only by February 1915. After this, she began to move forward quickly and already in July forced German troops, stationed in South-West Africa, surrender. The following year, Germany had to leave Cameroon, whose defenders fled to the neighboring colony of Spanish Guinea. However, despite such a victorious advance of the Entente troops, the Germans were still able to put up serious resistance in East Africa, where fighting continued throughout the war.

Further hostilities

The First World War in Africa affected many Allied colonies, as German troops had to retreat into territory belonging to the British Crown. Colonel P. von Lettow-Vorbeck commanded in this region. It was he who led the troops in early November 1914, when the largest battle near the city of Tanga (coast Indian Ocean). At that time german army numbered about 7 thousand people. With the support of two cruisers, the British managed to land a dozen and a half landing transports ashore, but despite this, Colonel Lettov-Vorbeck managed to win a convincing victory over the British, forcing them to leave the shore.

After this, the war in Africa turned into guerrilla warfare. The Germans attacked British forts and undermined railways in Kenya and Rhodesia. Lettov-Vorbeck replenished his army by recruiting volunteers from among local residents who had good training. In total, he managed to recruit about 12 thousand people.

In 1916, united Portuguese and Belgian colonial troops began an offensive in eastern Africa. But no matter how hard they tried, they could not defeat German army. Although allied forces significantly outnumbered the German troops, Lettov-Vorbeck was helped to hold out by two factors: knowledge of the climate and terrain. And at this time, his opponents suffered heavy losses, and not only on the battlefield, but also due to illness. At the end of the autumn of 1917, pursued by the Allies, Colonel P. von Lettow-Vorbeck found himself with his army on the territory of the Mozambique colony, which at that time belonged to Portugal.

End of hostilities

Africa and Asia, as well as Europe, were approaching and suffered heavy human losses. By August 1918, German troops, surrounded on all sides, avoiding encounters with the main enemy forces, were forced to return to their territory. By the end of that year, the remnants of Lettow-Vorbeck's colonial army, consisting of no more than 1.5 thousand people, ended up in Northern Rhodesia, which at that time belonged to Britain. Here the colonel learned of Germany's defeat and was forced to lay down his arms. For his courage in battles with the enemy, he was greeted at home as a hero.

Thus ended the First World War. In Africa, it cost, according to some estimates, at least 100 thousand. human lives. Although the fighting on this continent was not decisive, it continued throughout the war.

World War II

As you know, large-scale military actions launched by Nazi Germany in the 30-40s of the last century affected not only the territory of Europe. Two more continents were not spared by the Second World War. Africa and Asia were also drawn, albeit partially, into this enormous conflict.

Unlike Britain, Germany by that time no longer had its own colonies, but always laid claim to them. In order to paralyze the economy of their main enemy - England, the Germans decided to establish control over North Africa, since this was the only way to get to other British colonies - India, Australia and New Zealand. In addition, a likely reason that pushed Hitler to conquer North African lands was his further invasion of Iran and Iraq, where there were significant oil deposits controlled by Britain.

Start of hostilities

The Second World War in Africa lasted for three years - from June 1940 to May 1943. Opposing forces in this conflict Britain and the USA spoke on one side, and Germany and Italy on the other. The main fighting took place in Egypt and the Maghreb. The conflict began with the invasion of Ethiopia by Italian troops, which significantly undermined British dominance in the region.

Initially, 250 thousand Italian troops took part in the North African campaign, to which another 130 thousand later arrived to help. German soldiers, who had big amount tanks and artillery pieces. In turn, the allied army of the United States and Britain consisted of 300 thousand American and more than 200 thousand British troops.

Further developments

War in North Africa began with the fact that in June 1940 the British began to carry out targeted attacks on the Italian army, as a result of which it immediately lost several thousand of its soldiers, while the British - no more than two hundred. After such a defeat, the Italian government decided to give command of the troops to the hands of Marshal Graziani and was not mistaken with the choice. Already on September 13 of the same year, he launched an offensive that forced the British General O'Connor to retreat due to his enemy's significant superiority in manpower. After the Italians managed to capture the small Egyptian town of Sidi Barrani, the offensive was suspended for three long months.

Unexpectedly for Graziani, at the end of 1940, General O’Connor’s army went on the offensive. The Libyan operation began with an attack on one of the Italian garrisons. Graziani was clearly not prepared for such a turn of events, so he was unable to organize a worthy rebuff to his opponent. As a result of the rapid advance of British troops, Italy lost its colonies in northern Africa forever.

The situation changed somewhat in the winter of 1941, when the Nazi command sent tank formations to help its ally. Already in March, the war in Africa broke out with new strength. The combined army of Germany and Italy dealt a strong blow to the British defenses, completely destroying one of the enemy armored brigades.

End of World War II

In November of the same year, the British made a second attempt at a counteroffensive, launching an operation under code name"Crusader". They even managed to recapture Tripoletania, but in December they were stopped by Rommel’s army. In May 1942, a German general dealt a decisive blow to the enemy defenses, and the British were forced to retreat deep into Egypt. The victorious offensive continued until the Allied 8th Army interrupted it at Al Alamein. This time, despite all efforts, the Germans failed to break through the British defenses. Meanwhile, General Montgomery was appointed commander of the 8th Army, who began to develop another offensive plan, while successfully continuing to repel the attacks of Nazi troops.

In October of the same year, British troops attacked a strong beat on Rommel's military units stationed near Al-Alamein. This entailed the complete defeat of two armies - Germany and Italy, which were forced to retreat to the borders of Tunisia. In addition, the Americans came to the aid of the British, landing on the African coast on November 8. Rommel made an attempt to stop the Allies, but it was unsuccessful. After this, the German general was recalled to his homeland.

Rommel was an experienced military leader, and his loss meant only one thing - the war in Africa ended in complete defeat for Italy and Germany. After this, Britain and the United States significantly strengthened their positions in this region. In addition, they threw the liberated troops into the subsequent capture of Italy.

Second half of the 20th century

The end of World War II did not end the confrontation in Africa. One after another, uprisings broke out, which in some countries escalated into full-scale hostilities. Thus, once a civil war breaks out in Africa, it can last for years and even decades. An example of this is intrastate armed confrontations in Ethiopia (1974-1991), Angola (1975-2002), Mozambique (1976-1992), Algeria and Sierra Leone (1991-2002), Burundi (1993-2005), Somalia (1988). ). In the last of the above countries, the civil war has not yet ended. And this is only a small part of all the military conflicts that previously existed and continue to this day on the African continent.

The reasons for the emergence of numerous military confrontations lie in local specifics, as well as in the historical situation. Since the 60s of the last century, most African countries gained independence, and in a third of them armed clashes immediately began, and in the 90s, fighting took place on the territory of 16 states.

Modern Wars

In the current century, the situation on the African continent has remained virtually unchanged. A large-scale geopolitical reorganization is still ongoing here, under the conditions of which there can be no talk of any increase in the level of security in this region. The hardest economic situation and an acute lack of finances only aggravate the current situation.

Smuggling and illegal supplies of weapons and drugs flourish here, which further aggravate the already rather difficult crime situation in the region. Moreover, all this is happening against the backdrop of extremely high population growth, as well as uncontrolled migration.

Attempts to localize conflicts

Now it seems that the war in Africa is never-ending. As practice has shown, international peacekeeping, trying to prevent numerous armed clashes on this continent, has proven to be ineffective. For example, we can take at least the following fact: UN troops participated in 57 conflicts, and in most cases their actions had no impact on their ending.

As is commonly believed, the bureaucratic slowness of peacekeeping missions and poor awareness of the rapidly changing real situation are to blame. In addition, UN troops are extremely small in number and are withdrawn from war-torn countries even before a capable government begins to form there.

1. For many centuries, the countries of North Africa were under the rule of different states. After Arab conquests Islam established itself in this territory.

2. At the beginning of the 20th century. the entire territory of North Africa was divided between European states.

The countries of North Africa - Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt - are Arab countries, religion is Islam.

3. European states began to conquer the countries of North Africa in the first half of the 19th century:

• Algeria was captured by France in 1830 and became its colony;
• The penetration of France and Spain into Morocco occurred in the second half of the 19th century.

In 1912, France imposed a protectorate treaty on Morocco. In March 1912, Morocco came under the protectorate of France. According to the Franco-Spanish Treaty (November 1912), a small part of it came under Spanish rule. The city of Tangier and its surrounding area were declared an international zone. Morocco has effectively become a semi-colony;

Tunisia was occupied by French troops in 1881.

From 1881 Tunisia found itself under a French protectorate;

Libya has been under foreign oppression for many centuries.

From the 16th century until 1912 Libya was part of Ottoman Empire; after the Italo-Turkish war 1911-1912 pp. most of Libya became a colony of Italy;

Egypt after the suppression of the national liberation movement 1879-1882 pp. was occupied by Great Britain, which established a protectorate over Egypt in 1914.

Due to the rise of the national liberation struggle in 1919-1921 pp. the protectorate was abolished and Egypt was formally declared an independent state (1922) - an independent kingdom. But British troops remained in the country, the economy was controlled by Great Britain.

4. The countries of North Africa are agricultural, with large reserves of minerals. They were turned into an agricultural and raw materials appendage European countries. The economy developed one-sidedly, with agrarian and raw materials specialization prevailing.

The countries of North Africa grew peanuts, wheat, cotton, citrus fruits, olives, tobacco, and raised cattle, sheep, goats, and camels.

5. Foreign countries contributed to the development of the mining industry (Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco), oil production (Tunisia, Algeria, Egypt), manganese ores (Morocco), lead (Tunisia, Morocco) and other minerals (phosphorites, copper, cobalt, etc. .d.) .

6. In northern Africa, the construction of roads and railways began, and trade developed rapidly.

National liberation movement in North Africa

1. During the period between the two world wars, the national liberation movement intensified.

2. On the territory of Morocco, the national liberation struggle ended with the proclamation of the Rif Republic in 1921, but this republic was destroyed by the combined forces of France and Spain in 1926

3. Algeria was the only country Africa, in which the French were not colonialists, but workers or serving political exile. This influenced the nature of the struggle against the French colonialists. Political organizations arose here, political manifestations took place that reflected European events. Performances in Algeria were more politically mature than in other African countries:

• in 1920 the political party “Young Algerian” was founded, which led the fight for equal rights for Algerians and the French and the elimination of racial discrimination;
• In 1926, the political organization “North African Star” was created, which fought for the independence of Algeria;
• In 1927, the Federation of Elected Muslims was created, as well as the Union of Algerian Ulema, which fought for development national culture, traditions, customs, language.

4. In Tunisia in 1920 the Communist Party was founded as a section of the French communist party. She advocated decisive action against colonialism. In 1939 the organization became an independent party, but was banned in the same year.

Countries and territories of tropical and southern Africa. The situation of the peoples of tropical and southern Africa

1. If in Africa by 1870 Europeans had captured 11% of the territory, then at the beginning of the 20th century. - 90%, and on the eve of the First World War - 96.6%.

The largest colonial states were:

• France - owned 35% of the colonies;
• Great Britain - 30%;
• Germany - 8.5%.

Belgium, Portugal, Spain, and Italy had smaller colonial possessions.

2. After the First World War, the colonies of Germany, according to the decision of the League of Nations, became mandated territories:

UK - German East Africa;

France - Cameroon;

Belgium - Rwanda, Burundi, etc.

3. Only two countries - Ethiopia and Liberia - retained their independence. All the rest (about 50 countries) were colonies or protectors.

In the 50s XIX century in Ethiopia, a number of separate principalities united into a centralized monarchy, which was able to resist the aggressive advances of Great Britain and Italy only during the Italo-Ethiopian war of 1935-1936. Ethiopia was captured by fascist Italy. In 1941, the Ethiopian partisan army and British troops expelled the Italian invaders from Ethiopia.

Since 1821, settlements of freed blacks—slaves from the United States—began to appear on the territory of Liberia. They united numerous nationalities around themselves. Liberia was proclaimed an independent republic in 1847.

4. Countries divided Africa into colonies and protectors, without taking into account local conditions, ethnic and historical traditions of peoples. Whole ethnic homogeneous groups were arbitrarily separated, and therefore there were obstacles to the formation of African peoples and nations.

5. In the first half of the 20th century. Various tribes lived in tropical and southern Africa: some at the stage of the primitive communal system, some became centralized feudal monarchies, and industrial development began in the Republic of South Africa.

6. Colonial countries promoted monoculture economic development African countries (they allowed the cultivation and export of one crop, which was then bought from peasants for next to nothing). Coffee, cocoa, bananas, rubber, rice, cotton and other crops were exported from African colonies.

7. Foreign investments were made in the development of the mining industry, which was designed for export. Entrepreneurship is focused on primary processing of food products, supplies of exotic products to Europe, and extraction of raw materials.

8. In southern Africa high level reached only one country - the Union of South Africa (SA), whose territory was first inhabited by African peoples - Bushmen, Bantu, Hottentots. In 1652, the Dutch East India Company founded the Cape Colony here, in which Afrikaners (Boers) occupied a dominant position. After the capture of the Cape region by Great Britain (finally in 1806), most of the Africans left it and founded the Natal, Transval and Orange republics on the territories seized from the Africans. In 1843, Great Britain captured Natal, and as a result of the Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902) - the other Boer republics.

In 1910, these territories were united into the English dominion - the Union of South Africa, which in the period between the two world wars achieved a high level of development and became an industrialized country. However, only the white population enjoyed the fruits of progress. The indigenous black population performed unskilled, low-paid work and did not have the right to live next to whites (the apartheid system).

Apartheid (separation) is an official government policy of racial discrimination and segregation - deprivation and restriction of political, socio-economic and civil rights, carried out by the Union of South Africa regarding the population of non-European origin.

Seregation (from Latin - I separate) is a type of racial discrimination that consists of separating the colored population from the white population.

National liberation struggle of the peoples of tropical and southern Africa

1. The First World War gave a powerful impetus to the development of the national liberation movement. The struggles of the peoples of Africa were often led by tribal leaders. The forms of struggle were:

• armed struggle;
• resistance to land grabs;
• resistance to colonial Christianization;
• speaking out against foreign traders;
• destruction of foreign goods;
• refusal to pay indemnity;
• refusal to perform labor duties.

2. Increased and passive forms fight:

• boycott of foreign goods;
• organizing your own independent trading communities;
• Creation national schools etc.

3. Massive uprisings of numerous tribes occurred in Kenya and Uganda due to the massive seizure of land by the British and increased taxes. The rebels killed British soldiers and officials, destroyed railways and telegraph lines.

4. In the 20s pp. XX century In the Union of South Africa, the struggle was led by the Indian community, which used non-violent tactics.

5. The formation of patriotic forces and organizations took place. Thus, in 1923, the African National Congress (ANC) arose, which fought for racial equality using non-violent methods. Subsequently, he increasingly took the path of decisive action as he launched a political and armed struggle.

6. However, during this period, resistance to the colonialists had the character of episodic armed actions under the leadership of local leaders and was not yet a big threat to the colonial states.

7. The long and persistent struggle of the peoples of Africa was not in vain. In the second half of the 20th century. African countries freed from colonial dependence.

Tags: ,

In terms of territory size (more than 30 million km2), Africa is the largest of the main geographical regions peace. And in terms of the number of countries, it is also far ahead of any of them: Africa now has 54 sovereign states. They vary enormously in area and number of inhabitants. For example, Sudan, the largest country in the region, occupies 2.5 million km2, it is slightly inferior to Algeria (about 2.4 million km2), followed by Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Chad, Ethiopia, South Africa (from 1 million to 1 ,Zmlnkm2), while many related to Africa island states(Comoros, Cape Verde, Sao Tome and Principe, Mauritius) - only from 1000 to 4000 km2, and the Seychelles - even less. The same differences exist between African countries in terms of population: from Nigeria with 138 million to Sao Tome and Principe with 200 thousand people. And in terms of geographical location, a special group is formed by 15 landlocked countries (Table 6 in Book I).
A similar situation on political map Africa emerged after the Second World War as a result of the process of decolonization. Before this, Africa was usually called the colonial continent. And indeed, by the beginning of the 20th century. she was, in the words of I. A. Vitver, literally torn to pieces. They were part of colonial empires Great Britain, France, Portugal, Italy, Spain, Belgium. Back in the late 1940s. Only Egypt, Ethiopia, Liberia and the Union of South Africa (a dominion of Great Britain) could be classified as at least formally independent countries.
In the process of decolonization of Africa, three successive stages are distinguished (Fig. 142).
At the first stage, in the 1950s, the more developed countries of North Africa - Morocco and Tunisia, which had previously French possessions, as well as the Italian colony of Libya. As a result of the anti-feudal and anti-capitalist revolution, Egypt was finally freed from English control. After this, Sudan also became independent, formally considered a co-ownership (condominium) of Great Britain and Egypt. But decolonization also affected Black Africa, where the British colony of the Gold Coast, which became Ghana, and the former French Guinea were the first to achieve independence.
Most of these countries achieved independence relatively peacefully, without armed struggle. In conditions when the United Nations had already made a general decision on decolonization, the metropolitan countries could not behave in Africa in the old way. But nevertheless, they tried in every possible way to at least somehow slow down this process. An example is France's attempt to organize the so-called French Community, which included almost all former colonies, as well as trust territories, on the basis of autonomy (before the First World War they were colonies of Germany, then they became mandate territories of the League of Nations, and after the Second World War – UN trust territories). But this Community turned out to be short-lived.
The second stage was 1960, which in literature was called the Year of Africa. During this year alone, 17 former colonies, mostly French, became independent. We can say that from that time on, the process of decolonization in Africa became irreversible.
At the third stage, after 1960, this process was actually completed. In the 1960s After an eight-year war with France, Algeria achieved independence. Almost all British colonies, the last colonies of Belgium and Spain, also received it. In the 1970s the main event was the collapse of the colonial empire of Portugal, which occurred after democratic revolution in this country in 1974. As a result, Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau and the islands became independent. Some other former possessions of Great Britain and France gained independence. In the 1980s English Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) was added to this list, and in the 1990s. – South-West Africa (Namibia) and Eritrea.


As a result, there are now no colonies on the vast African continent. As for some islands that still remain under colonial rule, their share in the area and population of Africa is measured in hundredths of a percent.
However, all this does not mean that the course of decolonization at the third stage was only peaceful and mutually agreed upon. Suffice it to say that in Zimbabwe the national liberation struggle local population against the racist regime established here by the white minority lasted a total of 15 years. In Namibia, which after the Second World War was actually illegally annexed to South Africa, the national liberation struggle, including the armed one, lasted 20 years and ended only in 1990. Another example of this kind is Eritrea. This former Italian colony, which was under British control after the war, was then incorporated into Ethiopia. The Eritrean People's Liberation Front fought for its independence for more than 30 years, and it was only in 1993 that it was finally proclaimed. True, five years later another Ethiopian-Eritrean war broke out.
IN beginning of XXI V. in Africa there remains, perhaps, only one country whose political status has not yet been finally determined. This is Western Sahara, which until 1976 was the possession of Spain. After Spain withdrew its troops from there, the territory of Western Sahara was occupied by neighboring countries claiming it: Morocco in the north, and Mauritania in the south. In response to such actions, the Popular Front for the Liberation of this country proclaimed the creation of an independent Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), which has already been recognized by dozens of countries around the world. Now he continues the armed struggle with the Moroccan troops still remaining in the country. The conflict around the SADR can be considered one of the most bright examples territorial disputes, of which there are so many in Africa.
It is quite natural that during the process of decolonization very great changes occurred in state system African countries.
In terms of form of government, the vast majority of independent African states (46) are presidential republics, while there are very few parliamentary republics on the continent. There were relatively few monarchies in Africa before, but they still included Egypt, Libya, and Ethiopia. Now there are only three monarchies left - Morocco in northern Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland in the south; they are all kingdoms. But at the same time, it must be borne in mind that behind the republican form of government there are often hidden military, often changing, or even openly dictatorial, authoritarian regimes. In the mid-1990s. out of 45 countries in Tropical Africa, such regimes occurred in 38! This is largely due to internal reasons - the legacy of feudalism and capitalism, extreme economic backwardness, low cultural level of the population, tribalism. But along with this important reason The emergence of authoritarian regimes was also marked by the confrontation between the two world systems that lasted for many decades. One of them sought to consolidate capitalist orders and Western values ​​in the young liberated countries, and the other - socialist ones. We must not forget that in the 1960s–1980s. quite a few countries on the continent proclaimed a course towards socialist orientation, the abandonment of which occurred only in the 1990s.
An example of an authoritarian regime is the regime of Muammar Gaddafi in Libya, although this country was renamed by him back in 1977 to the Socialist Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (from the Arabic al-Jamahiriya, i.e. “state of the masses”). Another example is Zaire during the long reign (1965–1997) of the founder of the ruling party, Marshal Mobutu, who was eventually overthrown from his post. The third example is the Central African Republic, which in 1966–1980. was led by President J.B. Bokassa, who then proclaimed himself emperor and the country the Central African Empire; he was also overthrown. Often, Nigeria, Liberia and some other African states are also included in the list of countries with successive military regimes.
The opposite example - the victory of the democratic system - is the Republic of South Africa. At first, this country was a British dominion, in 1961 it became a republic and left the Commonwealth, led by Great Britain. The country was dominated by a racist white minority regime. But the national liberation struggle, led by the African National Congress, led to the victory of this organization in the elections to the country's parliament in 1994. After this, South Africa returned to global community, as well as into the Commonwealth.
In terms of the form of administrative-territorial structure, the vast majority of African countries are unitary states. There are only four federal states here. These are South Africa, consisting of nine provinces, Nigeria, which includes 30 states, the Comoros Islands, which includes four island districts, and Ethiopia, which became a federation only in 1994 (consists of nine states).
However, it must be taken into account that African federations differ significantly from, say, European ones. V. A. Kolosov even identifies a special, Nigerian type of federation, to which he includes Nigeria and Ethiopia in Africa, calling them young, highly centralized federations with unstable authoritarian regimes. They are characterized by weak local self-government and interference from the center “from above” in many regional affairs. Sometimes in the literature you can also find the statement that South Africa is actually a unitary republic with elements of federalism.
Home political organization Africa that unites everything independent states continent, was the Organization of African Unity (OAU), created in 1963 with its center in Addis Ababa. In 2002, it was transformed into the African Union (AU), for which the European Union can be considered a model. Within the AU, the Assembly of Heads of State and Government, the AU Commission, and the African Parliament have already been created; the creation of a Court and the introduction of a single currency (Afro) are planned. The goals of the AU are to maintain peace and accelerate economic development.

THE SECOND WORLD WAR AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

One of the first clashes with fascism that preceded the Second World War took place on African soil: the Italian seizure of Ethiopia in 1936.

During the Second World War, military operations in Tropical Africa were carried out only on the territory of Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian Somalia. In 1941, British troops, together with Ethiopian partisans and with the active participation of the Somalis, occupied the territories of these countries. In other tropical and South Africa there were no military actions. But hundreds of thousands of Africans were mobilized into the metropolitan armies. More more people had to serve the troops and work for military needs. Africans fought in North Africa, Western Europe, the Middle East, Burma, and Malaya. In the territory French colonies There was a struggle between the Vichyites and supporters of the Free French, which, as a rule, did not lead to military clashes.

The policy of the metropolises in relation to the participation of Africans in the war was twofold: on the one hand, they sought to use the human resources of Africa as fully as possible, on the other hand, they were afraid to allow Africans to participate in the war. modern species weapons. Most of the conscripted Africans served in the auxiliary forces, but many still went through full service. combat training, received military qualifications as drivers, radio operators, signalmen, etc.

The changing nature of the anti-colonial struggle was felt in the very first post-war months. In October 1945, the V Pan-African Congress took place in Manchester. It marked the onset of a qualitatively new stage in the struggle African peoples. Africa was represented by immeasurably more countries and organizations than at previous congresses. Among the 200 participants were Kwame Nkrumah, Jomo Kenyatta, Hastings Banda - later presidents of the Gold Coast, Kenya, Nyasaland, South African writer Peter Abrahams, prominent public figures. Most of the meetings were chaired by William Du Bois, who has been called the “father of Pan-Africanism.”

Victory anti-Hitler coalition inspired congress participants with hope for change throughout the world. The anti-colonial and anti-imperialist spirit prevailed at the congress. The situation in all regions of Africa and in many African countries was discussed. Among the resolutions, three were of greatest importance: “Challenge to the colonial powers”, “Address to the workers, peasants and intelligentsia of the colonial countries” and “Memorandum to the UN”. The Congress came up with new, revolutionary demands and formulated them both on a continental scale and specifically for all major regions and countries.

For most African countries post-war years At times, political parties began to be created. They appeared in Africa before, but were often more like discussion circles in nature and did not have close ties with the masses. The parties and organizations that emerged at the end of the Second World War and especially after its end were, as a rule, already different. They were very different from each other - this reflected both the diversity of Tropical Africa itself and the differences in the levels of development of its peoples. But among these parties and organizations there were very united and quite durable, closely associated with practical anti-colonial activities. They established connections with the worker and peasant movement, gradually expanded their social base and acquired the features of national fronts, although sometimes on a mono-ethnic basis. The party's tactics also changed. They began to appeal directly to the masses. Rallies, campaigns of disobedience, and widespread boycotts of foreign goods were held.

Since the late 40s and early 50s, mass demonstrations turning into bloody clashes with the police have become a characteristic feature of the times. Armed uprisings occurred in 1947 in Madagascar and in 1949 in the Ivory Coast. In the 50s, the armed anti-colonial struggle of the peoples of Kenya and Cameroon unfolded. The second half of the 50s became a time of struggle to overthrow colonial regimes.

All this happened against the backdrop of the collapse of colonial empires in Asia, bloody wars in Vietnam, Algeria and other colonial and dependent countries. The mother countries step by step abandoned their previous methods of domination. In 1957, the British Gold Coast declared its independence, calling itself Ghana, in memory of the medieval West African state. In 1958, French Guinea followed suit. These first steps were perceived throughout Africa as a symbol of the coming decolonization of the continent. Pan-African conferences were held one after another with the main demand: to achieve the overthrow of colonial regimes.

Book: Lecture notes World History of the 20th Century

76. African countries on the path of independent development

After the end of World War II, the process of decolonization began on the African continent. By the end of the 60s, almost all African countries gained independence. But there was no peace in them - long civil wars began.

On January 15, 1975, the leaders of the main groups that fought against the colonialists in Angola (MPLA, UNITA, FNLA) signed an agreement on the creation of a transitional government and the holding of general elections. On January 31, 1975, such a government was created. But, not satisfied with the distribution of power, UNITA provoked a civil war. In the struggle for power, UNITA and FNLA joined forces and turned to Republic of South Africa. In October 1975, the combined troops of UNITA, FNLA and South Africa launched an attack on Luanda. In these difficult conditions, MPLA leaders turned to Cuba. On the night of November 4-5, 1975, Castro decided to send Cuban troops to Angola. Cuban troops managed to stop the offensive and defeat the aggressor troops. On November 11, 1975, Agostinho Neto, leader of the MPLA, declared the independence of the People's Republic of Angola. Angola adopted a socialist orientation. The USSR provided economic and especially military assistance, but it turned out to be ineffective. The long war and periodic raids by South African troops from deep inside the country brought Angola to the brink of disaster. In 1988, the “Principles for a Peaceful Settlement in South-West Africa” was signed, according to which the APR granted independence to Namibia, and Cuba withdrew its troops from Angola.

In 1989, the Angolan government attempted to destroy UNITA, but the offensive failed and the Angolan government agreed to negotiations. Civil War caused damage to the country in the amount of 25 billion US dollars, external debt increased to 11 billion dollars. May 31, 1991 J.E. dos Santos - Chairman of the Government of Angola and Savimbi, the leader of UNITA, signed a peace agreement in Lisbon and the holding of national elections, which were held in 1992. The MPLA won. UNITA did not agree with this development of events and took up arms. The civil war continues to this day.

A difficult situation arose in Southern Rhodesia. There was a significant white minority living there, mostly farmers. Whites in 1965 declared the independence of Rhodesia and tried to create the state of South Africa (the white minority proclaimed its exclusive right to power - the apartheid regime - racial discrimination). Neither Great Britain, which once belonged to Rhodesia, nor the UN recognized this independence; Africans (the black majority) began an armed struggle against the white community. Finding themselves isolated, the whites in 1979 sat down with the Africans at the negotiating table. A new constitution was developed that recognized the equality of races; on its basis, elections were held and the independence of a new state, Zimbabwe, was proclaimed.

The last territory to gain independence was the former South West Africa (Namibia), the mandate of which was transferred to the Union of South Africa after

First World War. PAS (later PAR) tried to annex this territory altogether. Africans in 1966 began an armed struggle for independence, which was declared by the SWAPO organization.\ The UN in 1973 deprived South Africa of its mandate for this territory, and in 1977 a resolution was adopted on the withdrawal of South African troops. Only in 1989 did South Africa realize the futility of retaining Namibia. This is how another state appeared in Africa.

There is only one territory left in Africa whose status has not yet been determined. This is the ex spanish colony- West Sahara. Morocco claims this territory. The POLISARIU movement, which is waging a partisan struggle, opposes the occupation.

The development of the countries of Tropical Africa turned out to be the most difficult. At the time these countries gained independence, the bulk of the population was employed in traditional sectors of the economy, where tribal and semi-feudal relations prevailed. Attempts to destroy traditional life had serious Negative consequences. Achieving complete independence, the leaders sought to reduce the role of agricultural and raw materials exports, which completely undermined the economies of these countries and deprived them of their only stable source of income. The only thing that the countries of Tropical Africa have succeeded in is the creation of tyrannical regimes, both pro-Soviet and pro-Western. High rates of population growth negated all efforts to overcome backwardness. Food production could not keep pace with population growth, leading to famines. Instability increased through the artificiality of African borders. As a result of the colonial divisions of Africa, 44% of state borders run along meridians and parallels, 30% along straight and rounded lines, and only 26% along settlement boundaries ethnic groups. 13 countries are landlocked, which means they have no reliable means of communication with outside world. Such artificial borders contributed to the fact that in Africa there were no single-national and mono-ethnic states (except for Somalia - but it is also divided into clans. This situation leads to inter-ethnic conflicts among African states. One of the most bloody conflicts happened in Rwanda. 800 thousand people became its victims.

Conflicts also arose on religious grounds between Christians and Muslims. In Ethiopia, after a long civil war, the independent state of Eritrea was proclaimed. Conflicts often went beyond state borders, escalated into interstate clashes.

Thus, in Somalia in 1977 it presented territorial claims to Ethiopia, claiming areas inhabited by tribes ethnically close to the Somalis. The war lasted almost a year. On the eve of the war, the USSR supported both the regime of M.H. Mariam in Ethiopia, which came to power as a result of a coup in February 1974, and S. Barre in Somalia. During the war, the USSR openly sided with Ethiopia and provided assistance to it. Somalia fell into the US sphere of influence.

In the 1980s, Libya openly intervened in the ethnic conflict in Chad. She claimed part of the country's territory. To prevent the spread of Libya's influence, France sent troops to Chad. Libyan troops were defeated, and the International Court of Justice recognized Libya's territorial claims as unfounded.

In order to prevent further border disputes, African countries agreed to adhere to the principle of respect for existing borders, enshrined in the Charter of the Organization of African Unity (OAU, formed in May 1963).

The motley ethnic composition, while maintaining tribal relations, gave rise to another feature of the political life of African countries - tribalism.

Tribalism is tribal or ethnic separatism in a society. In practice, it means that all socio-economic relations are refracted through tribal ethnic relations. Political parties are created along ethnic lines and strive to do business only with fellow tribesmen.

One of characteristic features development of the African continent was the existence of military dictatorial regimes and the dominance of the military in socio-political life. The reasons for this phenomenon are internal:

Incompleteness of the processes of formation of African society;

Relatively short period of independent development of African countries;

Complex interweaving of various types of economic relations;

Weak social-class differentiation of society;

Remains of tribal relations;

Wide range of ideological views of the population;

Economic and political dependence on developed countries;

The presence of such social phenomena as hunger, poverty, disease, illiteracy, low political culture.

External reasons are associated with the confrontation between the USSR and the USA during the " cold war".

Military dictatorial regimes in Africa are characterized by political and economic instability, violence, a number of government rebellions, interethnic contradictions, wars, and an arms race (5% of the gross domestic product is spent on armaments; in South Asia - 3.6%, Latin America 1.6% ), the growing political role of the army in society, dictatorial methods of government, corruption.

The power of a dictator is usually based on three political institutions: a state inherited from the colonialists, which exercises rigid centralized power to control society; od-; non-party system; armed forces. Dictatorial regimes hindered democratic changes in society and slowed down the social progress in African countries.

Military dictatorial regimes can be divided depending on their orientation into right-wing authoritarian and left-wing authoritarian.

Dictator J.B. Bokassa came to power in the Central African Republic in 1966 as a result of a coup d'etat and ruled the country for 13 years. He declared himself marshal and president for life, and subsequently proclaimed the republic an empire and himself emperor. During the years of his reign, he removed all potential competitors from office, expelled them from the country, arrested them, and subjected them to medieval torture.

Amin Dada's food in the Republic of Uganda "became famous" to the masses; destruction of people. During the eight years of rule in the 70s, 800 thousand people were killed in the country.

For more than 30 years, a charismatic man was in power in Zaire; leader Perhaps Banga. According to the constitution he drew up, there is only one political party in the country, to which the entire population of the country is automatically enrolled. During his reign, Zaire from rich country has become one of the poorest: its external debt has reached 8 billion US dollars. But Mabutu himself kept $5 billion in Swiss banks. In 1998, his regime was overthrown. New forces led by Kabila came to power. The name of the country was changed - the Democratic Republic of the Congo, reforms were carried out, but the situation in the country remained unstable.

In Ethiopia, as a result of the 1974 coup d'etat, Mengistu Mariam (the red dictator) came to power. The monarchy was abolished in the country and the Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was proclaimed. The Mariam regime had no social support, although it sought to create one with the help of Workers' Party Ethiopia and some public organizations. Mabutu's quest to build a socialist society failed. As a result of the struggle against the rebels of the northern provinces of Tigre and Eritrea, opposition arose within the Ethiopian army itself (numbering 500 thousand people). After the defeat of the army in counter-insurgency operations, the dictator lost support among the army leadership and the population, who had already suffered from hunger for several years, and in May 1991 he fled the country to Kenya and then to Zimbabwe.

One of the most developed countries in Tropical Africa is Nigeria. The country's main source of income is oil. In 1960 the former English colony gained independence. In 1967-1969. There was a civil war in the country, as a result of which Nigeria became Federal Republic. During the 35 years of independence, a military regime reigned in the country for a quarter of a century. An attempt in 1993 by General Ibrahim to transfer power to civilians failed.

At the end of the 1980s, military dictatorial regimes entered a period of acute crises associated with the collapse of the socialist system and the end of the Cold War. The dictators lost economic and political support from the United States and the Soviet Union.

The IMF and IBRD have developed a plan for Africa's economic recovery. It was proposed to carry out market reforms in exchange for a soft loan, reduction government spending. The problems facing African countries are multifaceted and not easy to solve. This is possible only with the participation of the world community and in forms suitable for the people of Africa.

The Republic of South Africa (RSA) was created in 1961. public policy became apartheid. The white minority of the PAR assumed the exclusive right to power in the country, and people of other races (blacks, people of color) were considered second-class citizens. The decolonization of Africa significantly changed the situation of the PAR. The creators of apartheid realized that the new independent states would not put up with the racist regime existing in southern Africa and would mobilize the world community to fight it. To maintain the regime, the following measures were carried out: - an autonomous economy was created and military industry, which, in conditions of international isolation, led to the inefficiency of some sectors of the economy and artificially inflated prices, etc.;

Attempts were made to create a security belt from Angola, Mozambique, and Portuguese colonies to the north of the PAR;

It was developing its own atomic weapons.

The policeman's regime came into force. The government was allowed to evict Africans from any area of ​​the country. Marriages between blacks and whites were prohibited. Anti-racist organizations were banned, including the African National Congress (ANC), whose leader was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1963. The government tried to separate the white and black populations. For this purpose, bantustans were created in South Africa for the black population - isolated states within a state with bodies of self-government. 1981, 75% of the population lived in bantustans, which occupied 13% of the country's territory.

But all these measures failed: it was not possible to create a security belt, the African population did not show obedience and used all means of struggle. A split emerged in the white community: the majority began to advocate political reforms and for the creation of a multiracial democratic state. The first step in this direction was the adoption of the new constitution in 1984. in 1989 Frederik de Klerk came to power in South Africa. He implemented reforms that led to the fall of the racist regime. In 1993, free elections were held in South Africa for the first time. Nelson Mandela, the leader of the ANC, became the country's president.

At the end of the 20th century. Africa remains one of the most unstable and least developed regions peace.

1.	Lecture notes World History of the 20th Century
2.	2. First World War
3.	3. Revolutionary events in the Russian Empire in 1917. Bolshevik revolution
4.	4. Revolutionary movement in Europe in 1918-1923.
5.	5. Establishment of the Bolshevik dictatorship. National liberation movement and civil war in Russia
6.	6. Education of the foundations of the post-war world. Versailles-Washington system
7.	7. Attempts to revise post-war treaties in the 20s
8.	8. The main ideological and political trends of the first half of the 20th century.
9.	9. National liberation movements
10.	10. Stabilization and “prosperity” in Europe and the USA in the 20s
11.	11. World economic crisis (1929-1933)
12.	12. F. Roosevelt's "New Deal"
13.	13. Great Britain in the 30s. Economic crisis. "National Government"
14.	14. "Popular Front" in France
15.	15. The establishment of the Nazi dictatorship in Germany. A. Hitler
16.	16. Fascist dictatorship b. Mussolini in Italy
17.	17. Revolution of 1931 in Spain.
18.	18. Czechoslovakia in the 20-30s
19.	19. Countries of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe in the 20-30s
20.	20. Proclamation of the USSR and the establishment of the Stalinist regime
21.	21. Soviet modernization of the USSR
22.	22. Japan between the two world wars
23.	23. National revolution in China. Chiang Kai-shek. Domestic and foreign policy of the Kuomintang
24.	24. Civil war in China. Proclamation of the People's Republic of China
25.	25. India in the 20-30s
26.	26. National movements and revolutions in Arab countries, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan. The origins of the Palestinian problem. K. Ataturk, Rezahan
27.	27. National movements in the countries of Shvdenko-East Asia (Burma, Indochina, Indonesia)
28.	28. Africa between the two world wars
29.	29. Development of Latin American countries in the 20-30s
30.	30. Education, science and technology
31.	31. Development of literature of the 20-30s
32.	32. Art of the 20-30s
33.	33. Formation of hotbeds of the Second World War. Creation of the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo bloc
34.	34. Policy of “appeasement” of the aggressor
35.	35. USSR in the system of international relations
36.	36. Causes, nature, periodization of the Second World War
37.	37. Germany's attack on Poland and the beginning of World War II. Fighting in Europe in 1939-1941.
38.	38. Attack of Nazi Germany on the USSR. Defensive battles in the summer and autumn of 1941. Battle of Moscow
39.	39. Military operations on the Eastern Front in 1942-1943. A radical turning point during the Second World War. Liberation of the territory of the USSR
40.	40. Formation of the anti-Hitler coalition. International relations during the Second World War
41.	41. The situation in warring and occupied countries. Resistance movement in Europe and Asia during the Second World War
42.	42. Main events of the Second World War in Africa, in the Pacific Ocean (1940-1945)
43.	43. Liberation of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (1944-1945)
44.	44. Landing of allied troops in Normandy. Liberation of Western European countries. Surrender of Germany and Japan
45.	45. Results of World War II
46.	46. ​​Creation of the United Nations
47.