Syria is the official language. Islam in Syria

SYRIA
Syrian Arab Republic, a state in South-West Asia. Syria borders Iraq, Turkey, Jordan, Israel and Lebanon, and is washed by the Mediterranean Sea in the west.

Syria. The capital is Damascus. Population - 16,673 thousand people (1998). Population density - 90 people per 1 sq. km. Urban population - 55%, rural - 45%. Area - 185,180 sq. km. The highest point is Mount Esh-Sheikh (Hermon), 2814 m above sea level, the lowest - 212 below sea level. The official language is Arabic. The main religion is Islam. Administrative division - 13 governorates. The currency is the Syrian pound. National holiday: Evacuation Day - April 17. National anthem: "Glory to the defenders of the Fatherland."

Until the 1920s, the name "Syria" was used to designate a larger geographic and historical region that included all of Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, the present-day West Bank and Gaza Strip, as well as small areas in southern Turkey and the northwest Iraq. This region, sometimes called Greater Syria, stretched from the Taurus Mountains to the Sinai Peninsula and covered the entire eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea from Gaza in the south to Antioch (modern Antakya) in the north. Greater Syria was an important part of the ancient Hellenistic world, then the Roman and Byzantine empires, and with its expansion in the 7th century. Islam became the center of Arab-Muslim civilization. For 400 years, until 1918, Greater Syria was part of the Ottoman Empire. With weakening in the 19th century. With the power of Istanbul, the penetration of Europeans into the region increased and at the same time the Arab movement arose. After the defeat of the Ottoman Sultanate in World War I, the reins of power in the region passed to European powers. Under the mandate of the League of Nations, France established an administrative and political border between Syria and Lebanon. Britain did the same in Transjordan and Palestine, which it opened to large-scale Jewish immigration, having previously promised to create a “Jewish nation-state.” In the 1940s, following the decline of the colonial empires during and immediately after World War II, these Arab areas gained independence, with only most of Palestine becoming part of the state of Israel. The area of ​​modern Syria is 185,180 square meters. km, population - 16,673 million people (1998). In 1990, approximately 340 thousand Palestinian refugees and their descendants also lived on its territory. In 1967 approx. 1150 sq. km of Syrian territory in the Golan Heights region, in southern Syria, were occupied by Israel.
NATURE
Surface structure. On the territory of Syria, which extends from the Mediterranean Sea eastward through the northern part of the Syrian Desert, five physical-geographical regions are distinguished: 1) Coastal Lowland, 2) Western Mountain Range, 3) Rift Zone, 4) Eastern Mountain Range, 5) Eastern Plateau Syria. The country is crossed by two large rivers - El Asi (Orontes) and Euphrates. Cultivated lands are confined mainly to the western regions - the coastal lowland, the Ansaria Mountains and the valley of the El-Asi River, as well as to the valleys of the Euphrates and its tributaries. The coastal lowland stretches in a narrow strip along the coast. In places it is interrupted by rocky capes approaching the seashore, which are spurs of the Ansaria Mountains. At its widest point, in the vicinity of Latakia, its length from east to west is 16-32 km.
Western mountain range. Between the coastal lowland and the valley of the El-Asi River, confined to the rift zone, is the Ansaria (En-Nusairiya) mountain range composed of limestones, running parallel to the sea coast from the border with Turkey in the north and almost to the border with Lebanon in the south. This ridge is approx. wide. 64 km has an average altitude of 1200 m. Its highest point is Mount Nebi Younes (1561 m). On the western, highly dissected slopes of the mountains, exposed to moist air currents from the Mediterranean Sea, a lot of precipitation falls. Small rivers that flow into the Mediterranean Sea originate in these mountains. The rivers have carved out deep valleys with steep sides. Many rivers dry up in summer. In the east, the Ansaria Mountains drop off abruptly, forming a ledge approx. 900 m. The eastern slope faces hot, dry air masses and receives significantly less precipitation. At the southern end of the Ansaria ridge there is the Tripoli-Khom intermountain passage. A road runs along it connecting the Lebanese port of Tripoli with the city of Homs; the El-Kebir river flows in a western direction, which over many years has deposited a fertile layer of alluvium on the bottom of its valley.
Rift zone. To the east of the Ansaria Ridge and north of the Tripoli-Khomsky Passage stretches the Rift Zone, 64 km long and 14.5 km wide, which is a continuation of the East African Rift System. The valley of the middle reaches of the El-Asi River is confined to this zone. The flat bottom of this graben, called El Ghab, used to be swampy in places, but has now been drained. Due to the high soil fertility, irrigated agriculture is developed here.
Eastern mountain range. Directly adjacent to El-Gab from the east are the Ez-Zawiya mountains, which are a hilly surface with average heights of 460-600 m. Its maximum elevations reach 900 m. To the south of the Ansaria ridge stretch the Anti-Lebanon and Esh-Sheikh (Hermon) ridges, along which passes the border between Syria and Lebanon. These mountains are composed of porous limestones that absorb the small amounts of atmospheric moisture that the area receives. However, at the foot of the mountain there are many springs that are used to irrigate the lands in the vicinity of the capital. Within the El-Sheikh ridge, on the border with Lebanon, there is the highest mountain of the same name in Syria (2814 m). The Anti-Lebanon and Hermon mountains are separated by the Barada River, which is used in the water supply of the Damascus oasis.
Plateau of Eastern Syria. The large eastern part of the country is occupied by the vast Eastern Plateau. Its southern part is raised 300 m higher than the northern one. The surface of the plateau gradually decreases to the east from about 750 m east of the Anti-Lebanon ridge to less than 300 m in the Euphrates floodplain. The southern part of the plateau is composed of ancient lava fields. The most impressive landforms are the Ed-Druz mountains, dome-shaped, rising to 1800 m. Most of the surrounding plateau is covered with lava coarse material formed from erupted rocks, which complicates the economic use of this territory. Only in the Hauran region (southwest of Damascus), where the lava deposits are heavily weathered, did thick, fertile soils form. To the east of the Zawiya Mountains, the terrain becomes undulating. Its surface gradually decreases from approximately 460 m in the west to 300 m near the border with Iraq. In the northeast of the country, there are medium-high (more than 500 m above sea level) Abbe al-Azis mountains (maximum height 920 m), which have a latitudinal strike. The entire territory of the plateau from northwest to northeast is crossed by the Euphrates River, cutting into it to a depth of 30-60 m. To the northeast of the Syrian capital, a chain of rather low ridges stretches across the entire area, almost reaching the Euphrates near the city of Deir -ez-Zor. Their height decreases east from 2000 m in the Maalula range (north of Damascus), to 800 m in the Bishri mountains (northwest of Deir ez-Zor). All these mountains are characterized by a lack of precipitation and sparse vegetation, which allows them to be used as winter pastures.
Climate. Most of Syria is dominated by an arid and semi-arid climate; there is little precipitation, and it occurs mainly in the winter season. Characterized by intense evaporation. High air humidity and significant precipitation are characteristic only of the coastal lowlands and the western slopes of the Ansaria ridge.
Western Syria. The climate of the coastal strip and the windward slopes of the Ansaria ridge is humid Mediterranean. The average annual precipitation is 750 mm, in the mountains it increases to 1000-1300 mm. The rainy season begins in October and continues until March - early April, with maximum intensity in January. From May to September there is virtually no precipitation. At low altitudes during this season, the climatic conditions are uncomfortable: during the day the air warms up to 30-35° C with high humidity. Higher in the mountains, summer is much more pleasant: daytime temperatures there are approximately 5° C lower than on the coast, and at night - even 11° C. Average temperatures in winter are 13-15° C, temperatures below 0° C occur only at some distance from the coastal lowland. Sometimes solid precipitation also falls, but snowfalls are common only in the Ansaria ridge, where snow cover can last for two to three months. Although winter is considered the rainy season, there are few rainy days, so even during this period the weather is clear, and the temperature rises to 18-21 ° C.
Eastern Syria. Already on the eastern slopes of the Ansaria, Anti-Lebanon and Hermon ranges, the average precipitation decreases to 500 mm. In such conditions, steppes and semi-deserts dominate. Almost all precipitation occurs in winter, so winter crops can be grown without irrigation. The Syrian Desert, which extends to the east and south of the steppe zone, receives less than 200 mm of precipitation per year. The temperature range within the steppes and deserts is greater than on the Mediterranean coast. The average July temperature in Damascus, at the western end of the steppe zone, is 28°C, as is the case in Aleppo further east, while in Deir ez-Zor, located in the desert region, the average July temperature is 33°C. Daytime temperatures in July-August often exceed 38° C. After sunset, the temperature drops sharply and air humidity decreases. Thus, despite the heat of the day, thanks to the cool, dry nights in the interior of the country in the summer, the climate is more comfortable than on the coast, where it is hot and humid. In winter, steppe and desert areas are approximately 5.5° C cooler than the coastal zone. Average winter temperatures in Damascus and Deir ez-Zor are 7° C, and Aleb - 6° C. In the north of the steppe zone there are often frosts and snow, but in its southern areas, as well as in the desert, these climatic phenomena are observed less frequently. Night temperatures in winter drop well below 0°C.
Water resources. In areas with insufficient moisture, wells, springs, groundwater accumulations and rivers are used for irrigated agriculture, through which a significant share of the country's electricity is generated. Irrigation provided approx. 12% of the sowing wedge, and on about 2/5 of its area it is carried out thanks to wells. On the remaining irrigated lands, irrigation depends on the water regime of the Euphrates and its main tributaries - Belikh and Khabur. But the water resources of the Euphrates are also extremely important for the energy and agricultural sectors of Turkey and Iraq, which also lay claim to the waters of this river. This circumstance, along with the technical and financial problems of Syria itself and droughts, did not allow the area of ​​irrigated land and electricity production to be brought to the level envisaged by the construction of the Euphrates Dam, completed in 1978. Large irrigation systems are also located on the El Asi and Yarmouk rivers (the waters of the latter shared with Jordan).
Natural vegetation. In the distant past, the Ansaria Range and other mountains in the north of the country were occupied by forests. Later they were replaced by low-growing communities of coniferous and deciduous species in wetter, sparsely populated areas and Mediterranean-type shrubs in those coastal areas where agriculture was not developed. In the north, and partly on the eastern slopes of mountain ranges and in the lowlands of the interior parts of the country, typical legume-cereal steppes are common, which serve as a fodder base for grazing livestock. In deserts, the landscape comes to life only after rain, when young shoots of grasses and low shrubs appear. Nevertheless, even such poor vegetation cover is enough to feed the camels that are bred by nomads.
Soils. Only 1/3 of Syria's territory is suitable for agriculture. Fertile soils, allowing for the cultivation of a variety of crops, occupy 10% of its area. The most productive lands are confined to the coastal lowland and the lower slopes of the Ansaria ridge.
POPULATION
Ethnic groups and languages. The vast majority of the country's inhabitants are Arabic-speaking Syrian Arabs. About 90% of them are Muslims by religion, 10% are Christians. The largest national minority are the Kurds, who make up approx. 9% of the population. Most of the country's Kurds are concentrated in the foothills of the Taurus Mountains, north of Aleppo, and on the Al Jazeera Plateau, in the northeast. Kurds also formed communities in the vicinity of Jarabulus and on the outskirts of Damascus. They speak their native Kurdish and Arabic and adhere, like the Syrian Arabs, to the Sunni branch of Islam. The majority of Kurds live in rural areas; in cities they are primarily engaged in physical labor, although among them there are also foremen and craftsmen. Wealthy Kurds receive income primarily from owning real estate, some have reached high civil positions, but they are practically not involved in trade. The share of the population of Armenians, the second largest national minority, is 2-3%. Many Armenians are refugees from Turkey who arrived in the late 19th century, but most emigrated between 1925 and 1945. Armenians are Christian, have escaped Arabization, and have retained their customs, schools, and newspapers. Almost all Armenians live in cities, 75% of them concentrated in Aleppo, where they have a prominent place in economic life, and 15% in Damascus. As a rule, Armenians are traders, liberal professions, small entrepreneurs and artisans, among them there are also many specialists with engineering and technical education and skilled workers. Turkmens and Circassians are also represented in Syria. Turkmen profess Islam, wear Arabic clothes and speak Arabic. Initially, they led a nomadic lifestyle, but are now primarily engaged in semi-nomadic cattle breeding on the El Jazeera plateau and along the lower course of the Euphrates River, within Syria, or farming in the Aleppo region. Circassians are descendants of Muslim nomads who moved to Syria from the Caucasus after its conquest by the Russians in the late 19th century; they have retained most of their customs and native language, although they also speak Arabic. About 1/2 of all Circassians lived in the Quneitra governorate, but after the destruction of the administrative center of the same name by the Israelis in October 1973, many moved to Damascus.
Demography. Three general censuses have been conducted in Syria. Its population, according to the first census organized in 1960, was 4,565 thousand people, including 126.7 thousand Palestinian refugees. The corresponding figures for the 1970 census were 6,294 thousand and 163.8 thousand, the 1981 census - approx. 9.6 million and approx. 263 thousand people are refugees. As a result of rapid demographic growth, the majority of the country’s population is formed by young people: half of them have not yet reached 15 years of age, and 2/3 are under 25 years of age. Girls get married early, and on average women give birth to 7 children. The population continues to increase at a rapid rate, averaging 3.2% in the 1960s, 3.5% in the 1970s, and 3.6% per year in the 1980s. From the 1950s to the end of the 1980s, the birth rate was also high: 45 newborns per 1 thousand inhabitants. At the same time, the mortality rate gradually declined from 2.1% in the early 1950s to 0.7% in the late 1980s, mainly due to a sharp decline in infant and child mortality. In 1945-1946, several thousand Armenians left Syria for the USSR, and after the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, most of the 30 thousand Jews living in the country emigrated there. About 100 thousand Palestinians settled in Syria after Israel captured the Galilee.
Cities. The proportion of the country's urbanized population increased from 40% in 1965 to 55% in 1998. The two main cities, Damascus and Aleppo, have respectively 1.8 million and 1.3 million people, according to 1994 data. Other major cities (thousands) inhabitants: Homs (750), Hama (450), Latakia (380), Deir ez-Zor (260), Hasakah (250), Raqqa (230), Idlib (200), Daraa (160), Tartus (150 ), Es-Suwayda (75).
Confessional composition. At least 85% of the population of Syria are Muslims, of which 80-85% are Sunnis, 13-15 are Alawites, approx. 1% Ismaili and less than 1% Shia. About 3% of Syrians belong to the Druze sect and are concentrated in the mountainous region of Ed-Druze, southeast of Damascus. Up to 10% of Syrians profess Christianity. The Orthodox and Armenian Gregorian churches enjoy the greatest influence among Christians in the country. Compared to adherents of other religions, the Christian community has a higher proportion of city dwellers and a more solid stratum of people who have received higher education, as well as representatives of highly paid “white collar” workers and liberal professions.
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
The government structure of Syria is determined by a highly centralized, strictly hierarchical system, in which all power is concentrated in the hands of the country's president and the top leadership of the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (PASV, or Baath). This system was created after the seizure of power by armed force by supporters of the PASV in 1963. Since November 1970, the head of state became General Hafez Assad, the leader of the military wing of the PASV, who came to leadership as a result of a coup, displacing the civilian leadership of the party. Hafez al-Assad serves as president, commander-in-chief of the armed forces, secretary general of the PASV regional leadership and chairman of the Progressive National Front, a coalition of parties that has a majority in the People's Council, which serves as parliament.
Central authorities. The military, loyal to General Assad, who found themselves in power, soon convened the People's Council, and the legislative assembly was tasked with drafting a permanent constitution. It was intended to replace the temporary constitution of the country introduced by the PASV in 1964, which was extended in 1969. Deputies to the People's Council were selected by the president and his closest advisers and were supposed to represent the PASV and its four main left allies - the Arab Socialist Union, the Syrian Communist Party, the Movement Unionist Socialists and the Arab Socialist Movement. The People's Council also included a small number of members from independent and opposition forces. In March 1973, the People's Council submitted a draft Constitution to the President for approval, which was then submitted to a national referendum. The 1973 Constitution provides that the country is headed by a president elected for a seven-year term. A candidate for this post is nominated by the PASV leadership, approved by the People's Council and approved by an absolute majority of votes in a national referendum. The President has the right to appoint and dismiss one or more vice-presidents, the Prime Minister and other members of the government (Council of Ministers) who exercise executive power. He also appoints judges to the highest judiciary and governors of governorates. The head of state can dissolve parliament and perform legislative functions until the convening of a new parliament, and submit bills rejected by the People's Council to a national referendum. The latter is given the right to veto or introduce (2/3 votes) amendments to presidential decrees.
Local authorities. Administratively, Syria is divided into 13 governorates (provinces), headed by governors approved by the president on the proposal of the Minister of Internal Affairs. Under the governors there are Governorate Councils, 1/4 of whose deputies are appointed by the governor and the Minister of Internal Affairs, and 3/4 are elected by the electorate for a four-year term. The Minister of the Interior appoints from 6 to 10 deputies to these Councils, who are members of the Provincial Executive Committees, which carry out day-to-day supervision of the activities of the local administration. Municipal Councils direct the activities of city services, issue licenses for business activities, and establish local taxes. These Councils are headed by mayors, appointed by governors of the governorates, and in small towns by the heads of districts. In 1987, Damascus, which had a special capital status, was united with the adjacent governorate of the same name into a single administrative unit.
Major political organizations. Since March 1963, the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (PASV, or Baath) has become the leading political force in Syria; until 1954 Arab Renaissance Party, created in 1947 by young intellectuals led by Michel Aflyak and Salah ad-din Bitar. In 1951, a Baath branch was established in Iraq. PASV proclaims as its goal the creation of a single Arab state, which should include all Arab countries, the implementation of economic reforms providing for the redistribution of wealth on the basis of equality, the establishment of a democratic system in which the policy of the state will be directly determined by the aspirations of the people and freed from foreign interference. The PASV program was particularly attractive to industrial workers, poor peasants from remote areas of the country, and to students at the military academy in Homs who belonged to various minorities such as Alawites, Druze, and Kurds. The close ties between the PASV Regional Leadership and the Syrian military officers were evident in the series of military coups that were carried out by pro-Baathist officers after Syria's secession from the United Arab Republic in 1961. Throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, the PASV's main political opponents were various underground Islamist groups. Most of them were branches of the Egypt-based Muslim Brotherhood, which had settled in Syria in the late 1930s. The Muslim Brotherhood enjoyed the support of small traders and artisans from the city bazaars, whose well-being was threatened as a result of the socialist reforms carried out after 1963. In the late 1960s, a militant Islamist movement emerged, led by Marwan Hadid, which soon gained widespread support in northern cities such as Aleppo, Hama and Homs. Beginning in the mid-1970s, these militant Muslims created a network of small underground cells and organized a series of armed uprisings against the ruling regime. However, after the brutal and bloody suppression of the mass uprising they organized in Hama in 1982, and after the handing over of the leader of the uprising, Adnan Uklah, to the authorities three years later, the military wing of the Islamists disintegrated. As a result, the only virtually apolitical association of the “Muslim Brotherhood” in Damascus remains in Syria.
Judicial system. The court system has three tiers and also includes state security courts, which hear cases under emergency laws and decrees, and local sharia courts, which hear domestic and family disputes. Offenses are processed in state courts. These include the Court of Cassation in Damascus, which serves as the highest court making final decisions on protests and complaints, courts of appeal in the administrative centers of the governorates, and disciplinary courts in the districts, presided over by magistrates. The appointment, transfer and removal of members of all these courts is within the competence of the Supreme Council of Judges, composed of senior civil judges. The country has a Supreme Constitutional Court, which includes the head of state and four judges appointed by him. This body considers issues related to elections and the constitutionality of laws and decrees adopted by the President and the People's Council. The Supreme Constitutional Court does not have the right to repeal laws adopted in referendums. A state of emergency was declared in Syria in March 1963 and was still in effect in the 1990s. During this period, control over compliance with legislation on holding public events, publishing newspapers and magazines, and trading in property was the responsibility of the Minister of Internal Affairs as the second-ranking person responsible for implementing emergency laws. Individuals who violate these laws are tried in state security courts, usually in closed trials.
Armed forces and police. In the early 1990s, the Syrian army included approx. 300 thousand people and included six armored divisions, armed with up to 1,500 modernized T-72 tanks, three mechanized divisions and seven airborne brigades. The country's air force numbered 80 thousand people and had approximately 650 combat aircraft; In addition, several air defense brigades equipped with surface-to-air missiles were created. The Syrian navy operated several Komar-class missile boats, minesweepers and light patrol boats and served 4,000 people. Since the early 1990s, an estimated 30,000-strong Syrian military force has been in Lebanon, mainly in the Bekaa Valley and areas near Beirut and Tripoli. In the 1980-1990s, several independent intelligence services, headed by the president’s confidants, dealt with state security issues in Syria. The largest of them were represented by elite “defense brigades” numbering 20-25 thousand people, stationed in the vicinity of the capital. Until 1984 they were commanded by the president's brother, Colonel Rifat Assad. The special forces, which included 8 thousand commandos and paratroopers, were led by Colonel Ali Haidar. In addition, the ground and air forces had their own reconnaissance units. There were two separate intelligence systems within the Ministry of Internal Affairs: Mukhabarat and the Political Security Service. All of these independent intelligence services actively participated in the suppression of the Islamist movement in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The result of the struggle for influence between Rifat Assad and Ali Haidar was the subordination of the “defense brigades” to the command of the regular armed forces in March 1984.
Foreign policy. The first Baathist government (March 1963 - February 1966) followed the Baathist principles of non-alignment, pan-Arab unity and the construction of an Arab version of "socialism". This government maintained a kind of balance between the military and the civilian wing of the PASV. The situation completely changed in February 1966. Ba'ath founding fathers Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din Bitar were forced to flee Syria as coup leaders Salah Jadid and Hafez Assad sentenced them to death. The new regime was illegitimate and, in order to assert itself, undertook a series of military adventures on the border with Israel, which ultimately led to the Arab-Israeli war on June 5, 1967, as a result of which Syria lost the Golan Heights. In November 1970, Defense Minister Hafez al-Assad became the absolute ruler of Syria. On October 6, 1973, Syria and Egypt launched a coordinated attack on Israel. In the early days of the war, the Syrian army achieved some success, retaking the Golan Heights, but Syria ultimately lost even more territory. Thanks to active American mediation, Israel withdrew troops from the newly occupied lands, as well as from the city of Quneitra in the Golan Heights, which was part of the Syrian-Israeli agreement signed on May 31, 1974. This agreement effectively defined the border between Syria and Israel. The Syrian military invasion of Lebanon as a continuation of the confrontation with Israel was predetermined. In June 1976, Assad sent troops into Lebanon. The Hafez Assad regime, despite its pacifist rhetoric, was in fact a consistent opponent of a peaceful settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict through negotiations that began in 1975. Assad opposed the visit of Egyptian President Sadat to Jerusalem in November 1977, the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty in March 1979, the peace plan put forward by Saudi Prince Fahd in November 1981, the Lebanese-Israeli agreement in May 1983, the Jordanian-Palestinian agreement in February 1985, the first agreement signed in Oslo in September 1993, the Jordanian-Israeli peace treaty in October 1994 and the second agreement signed in Oslo in September 1995. Lasting three and a half years, from 1993 to 1996, Syrian-Israeli peace negotiations ended in vain, although Israel offered Assad the full return of the Golan Heights in exchange for a peace treaty. After the collapse of the USSR, Assad lost a valuable ally, but remains Iran's closest partner. See below

In the 3rd millennium BC. e. on these lands the Semitic city-state of Ebla was located; it was part of the circle of the Sumerian-Akkadian civilization. Subsequently, the Amorite state of Yamhad was formed here, but it was put an end to the invasion of the Hittites from the Balkans. In the 17th century, local Hurrian tribes formed the state of Mitanni. In the 15th century BC e. Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose I came here.
In the period from the X to the VIII centuries BC. e. Damascus became the center of the powerful Aramaic kingdom. At the beginning of the 9th century. BC e. The Syrians conquered part of northern Galilee from the Israelites. At this time, the Assyrians were gaining strength. They began to collect tribute from the rulers of Syria. The rulers created a powerful anti-Assyrian alliance. A fierce battle took place in 854 BC. e., under the walls of the city of Karkara, but it did not bring results.
However, the coalition of Syrian and Palestinian rulers, dangerous for the Assyrians, did not last long. A war began between them. The Assyrians managed to defeat the Syrian army, but were never able to take the city.
The Syrian king Hazael managed to retain the throne, but started a war with the Israelites. The Syrians practically made the Israeli king Jehoahaz a vassal. But in 802 BC. e. The Assyrians attacked Syria again. This time they captured and plundered Damascus. Hazael became a vassal of Assyria. But again he remained on the throne. Under his children, the Israelis continued to push Damascus.
The next Assyrian king, Tiglath-pileser III, decided to expand the borders to Syria. In 738 BC e. his troops captured 19 Syrian cities. Under these conditions, the rulers of Syria rallied around the new Damascus king Reason II. The king of Israel, Pekah, became his ally.
In 734 BC e. Tiglath-pileser III conquered Israel, and in 733 BC. e. The Assyrians took Damascus. The city was severely destroyed. Then the Assyrians were replaced by the Chaldeans, and then the Persians.
Alexander the Great captured Syria and made it part of the Macedonian kingdom. Later, Syria passed to Seleucus Nicator, under whom it reached its highest development.
But after his death, Syria was captured in 83 by Tigranes, king of Armenia. In 64, Pompey defeated Tigranes and made Syria a Roman province, annexing Judea. But gradually the power of the Roman emperors weakened, and Syria became the prey of the Saracens.
In 635, Syria was devastated and then conquered by the Arabs, who converted most of the Aramaic population to Islam. In 660-750 Damascus served as the residence of the caliphs. The Crusades for 2 centuries led to constant military clashes in Syria. The Principality of Antioch was formed here, which was conquered by the Egyptian Sultan Saladin in 1187.
In 1260, the weakened Ayyubid state was captured by the Mongols, who were stopped by Mamluk forces led by Sultan Qutuz.
In 1517, Syria was conquered by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I. Its territory was divided into 4 provinces led by governors.
In the 18th century, French influence increased here. In the late 1850s and early 1860s. Bloody feuds broke out between the Druze and Maronites.
From Europe, through the Young Turk movement, ideas of nationalism penetrated into Syria. During World War I, Damascus was declared the seat of an independent government for all of Syria, which was perceived as a revival of the Damascus Caliphate.
Faisal I declared himself king of Syria. But behind his back, Britain agreed to give Syria to France in exchange for giving up the oil-rich Mosul region.
In 1920, France received a mandate to govern Syria. Her troops expelled Faisal. After the Uprising of 1925-27, France had to make concessions in matters of local government. In 1932, Syria was declared a republic (with the retention of the French mandate). In 1939, France granted Turkey the Syrian province of Alexandretta.
Syria received complete independence from France on April 17, 1946. The first president was the head of the colonial administration, Cuatli. The emergence of the State of Israel in 1948 and the subsequent Arab-Israeli War led to an acute political crisis. In 1949, three military coups took place in Syria.
In 1958, Syria attempted to unite with Egypt to form the United Arab Republic.
But in 1963, Syria came under the rule of the leaders of the Baath Party (Arab Socialist Renaissance Party) with an orientation towards total socialism.
During the reign of Hafez al-Assad, Syria sought to limit Israeli influence in the region. The Syrian Golan Heights came under Israeli control, but Syria gained almost complete political control over Lebanon, established during the civil war in that country. This was put to an end in 2005, Syrian troops were withdrawn from Lebanon.
After the death of Hafez al-Assad, his son, Bashar al-Assad, whose policy was more gentle, became the president of Syria.
In 2011, an uprising broke out in Syria.

Syria or Syrian Arab Republic- a state in the Middle East, in the eastern Mediterranean, bordered by Lebanon and Israel in the southwest, Jordan in the south, Iraq in the east and Turkey in the north. It is washed by the Mediterranean Sea in the west. The area is 185.2 thousand km².

The Ansaria mountain range divides the country into a wet western part and an arid eastern part.

The fertile coastal plain is located in northwestern Syria and stretches 130 km from north to south, along the Mediterranean coast from the Turkish to the Lebanese border. Almost all of the country's agriculture is concentrated here.

Most of the Syrian territory is located on an arid plateau, dotted with the mountain ranges of Dajable al-Ruwaq, Jabal Abu Rujmain and Jabal Bishri. The average height of the plateau above sea level ranges from 200 to 700 meters. To the north of the mountains is the Hamad Desert, to the south is Homs.

In the east, Syria is crossed by the Euphrates River. In 1973, a dam was built in the upper reaches of the river, which caused the formation of a reservoir called Lake Assad.

Climate

Climate in Syria subtropical Mediterranean on the coast and dry continental in the interior. The average temperature in January is from +4..+6°C in the eastern regions to +12°C on the coast, in July - from +33°C to +26°C, respectively. At the end of summer, a hot easterly wind, "khamsin", blows in Syria, sometimes developing into sandstorms.

The best time to travel around the country is in the spring, from March to May, or in the fall, from September to November, when weather conditions are most favorable. The beach season lasts here from May to November.

Last changes: 05/09/2013

Population

The population of Syria is 22,198,110 people (2009). The majority of the population is concentrated along the banks of the Euphrates and on the Mediterranean coast. Average life expectancy is 70 years.

Arabs (including about 400 thousand Palestinian refugees) make up more than 80% of Syria's population.

The largest national minority, the Kurds, make up 10% of the population. Most Kurds live in the north of the country, many still use the Kurdish language. There are also Kurdish communities in all major cities.

3% of the population of Syria are Assyrians, mostly Christians, also living in the north and northeast of the country.

In addition, up to 400 thousand Circassians (Adygs) and about 200 thousand Armenians live in Syria, as well as about 900 thousand Turks live on the border with Turkey in the cities of Aleppo (Aleppo), Latakia and in the capital.

Religion

90% of the population of Syria are Muslims, 10% are Christians.

Of the Muslims, 75% are Sunnis, the remaining 25% are Alawites and Ismailis, as well as Shiites, the number of which has been constantly increasing since 2003 due to the flow of refugees from Iraq.

Among Christians, half are Syrian Orthodox, 18% are Catholics (mainly members of the Syrian Catholic and Melkite Catholic churches). There are significant communities of the Armenian Apostolic and Russian Orthodox churches.

About 100-200 Syrian Jews also live in Damascus and Lattakia, the remnants of a 40,000-strong community that almost completely fled to Israel, the United States and South American countries as a result of the 1947 pogroms that began after the announcement of the UN plan for the division of Palestine.

Language

The official and most common language is Arabic. In the northern regions of the country, Kurdish is often used. The most common languages ​​also include Armenian, Adyghe (Circassian) and Turkmen. In certain areas there are various dialects of Aramaic.

Among foreign languages, the most popular are French and English.

Last changes: 05/09/2013

Currency

Currency of Syria- Syrian pound (SYP or S£), often called the Syrian lira. Has denominations: 1, 2, 5, 10, 25 (coins) and 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000 (banknotes).

It is almost impossible to pay in foreign currency anywhere. You can exchange it in hotels, exchange offices and banks, where the rate is usually the most favorable. There is no commission for exchanging cash. Private currency exchange is officially prohibited, but in fact is widespread. It is almost impossible to exchange pounds back.

Banks are usually open from 8:30 to 13:00-14:00 from Saturday to Thursday, on Thursdays banks are open only in the morning. Exchange offices are open from 8:30 to 19:00-20:00 on the same days.

Credit cards are accepted by a fairly limited number of establishments: they can be used to purchase air tickets, pay in large stores, in some offices of car rental companies and large hotels. It is almost impossible to get cash from a credit card in Syria.

Traveler's checks are accepted only at the office of the Commercial Bank of Syria, and a commission is charged for cashing them.

Last changes: 05/09/2013

Communications

Calling code: 963

Internet domain: .sy

Tourist police - 222-00-00, police - 112, ambulance - 110

Telephone city codes

Damascus - 11, Aleppo - 21, Latakia - 41, Hama - 33, Homs - 31

How to call

To call from Russia to Syria, you need to dial: 8 - dial tone - 10 - 963 - area code - subscriber number.

To call from Syria to Russia, you need to dial: 00 - 7 - area code - subscriber number.

Landline communications

Payphones are located in all public places and operate using both cards and coins. You can call abroad from hotels (through operators) and from specialized call centers (calls from most hotels are usually 25% more expensive).

mobile connection

Mobile communications in Syria are GSM 900/1800 standard.

Internet

The Internet in Syria is subject to censorship; access to some sites, for example, Facebook.com or Youtube.com, is prohibited.

Last changes: 05/09/2013

Shopping

Shops are open from Saturday to Thursday from 9:30 to 14:00 and from 16:30 to 21:00. Many private shops operate according to their own schedule. Many purchases can be made in the markets, the best of which are in Damascus and Aleppo. In this case, of course, it is recommended to bargain.

In Syria, many valuable local handicrafts made of mother-of-pearl, wood, fabric, leather and silver are sold. Local souvenirs: spices, silver and gold jewelry, wood products, silk scarves, national costumes, olive oil, sheep skins and sweets.

Unlike other countries, duty free stores in Syria are located everywhere, not just at the airport. Any product purchased in "duty free" must be taken out of the country and used only outside its borders. The item in the store is usually packaged, labeled with the buyer's name, and delivered to the airport in time for the flight's departure, where it is handed over to the buyer.

Last changes: 05/09/2013

Sea and beaches

There are numerous beaches along the coast of Latakia. The swimming season in the local shallow, and therefore well-warmed, waters lasts from May to November. The beaches are sandy, comfortable, and well suited for families with children: there are practically no big waves here.

Last changes: 05/09/2013

Story

The history of Syrian civilization dates back to at least the fourth millennium BC. Archaeologists have proven that Syria was the cradle of most of the ancient civilizations of the world. Already in 2400-2500 BC. e. the huge Semitic Empire, centered in Ebla, extended from the Red Sea to Transcaucasia.

Syria has come under the rule of the Egyptians, Canaanites, Aramaes, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Armenians, Romans, Nabataeans, Byzantines, Arabs and Crusaders throughout its history before eventually falling under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. Syria occupies an important place in the history of Christianity - according to the Bible, Paul converted to the Christian faith in Antioch, where the first church was founded.

Islam took hold in Syria in 636, when Damascus became the capital of the Arab Caliphate under the Umayyads. At this time, the Caliphate was already a powerful state, stretching from the Iberian Peninsula to Central Asia. Damascus became the cultural and economic center of the entire Arab world, already in the 8th century being one of the largest cities in the world. In 750, the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty, after which the capital of the Caliphate moved to Baghdad.

In the middle of the 13th century, Damascus became the provincial center of the Mamluk Empire. In 1400 Syria was attacked by the Tatar-Mongols. Tamerlane defeated the Mamluk detachments, destroyed Damascus and took all its wealth to Samarkand.

In 1517, Syria came under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for several centuries. Shortly after defeat in World War I, the Ottoman Empire collapsed.

In 1920, the Syrian Arab Kingdom was founded with its center in Damascus. Faisal of the Hashemite dynasty, who later became the king of Iraq, was declared king. But Syria's independence did not last long. Within a few months, the French army occupied Syria, defeating Syrian troops on July 23 at the Battle of Maysalun Pass. In 1922, the League of Nations decided to divide the former Syrian Dominion of Turkey between Great Britain and France. Great Britain received Jordan and Palestine, and France received the modern territory of Syria and Lebanon (the so-called “League of Nations Mandate”).

In 1936, a treaty was signed between Syria and France providing for Syrian independence, but in 1939 France refused to ratify it. In 1940, France itself was occupied by German troops, and Syria came under the control of the Vichy Regime (governor General Denz). Nazi Germany, having provoked the rebellion of Prime Minister Geilani in British Iraq, sent units of its air force to Syria. In June - July 1941, with the support of British troops, units of the Free French (later renamed Fighting France) led by generals De Gaulle and Catroux entered Syria during a bloody conflict with Denz's troops. General De Gaulle in his memoirs directly indicated that the events in Iraq, Syria and Lebanon were directly related to German plans to invade the USSR (as well as Greece, Yugoslavia and Crete), since they had the task of diverting the Allied armed forces to secondary theaters of military operations .

On September 27, 1941, France granted independence to Syria, leaving its troops on its territory until the end of World War II. On January 26, 1945, Syria declared war on Germany and Japan. In April 1946, French troops were evacuated from Syria.

The president of independent Syria was Shukri al-Quwatli, who fought for the country's independence under the Ottoman Empire. In 1947, a parliament began to operate in Syria. The main political forces were the pro-presidential National Socialist Party of Syria (currently active only in Lebanon), the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party and the Communist Party of Syria, which was then underground.

In 1948, the Syrian army took a limited part in the Arab-Israeli war started by an alliance of Arab states.

On March 15, 1956, an agreement on collective security against possible Israeli aggression was concluded between Syria, Egypt and Saudi Arabia.

On February 22, 1958, in the wake of the popularity of the pan-Arab movement, Syria and Egypt united into one state - the United Arab Republic with its center in Cairo. The president of the new state was the Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser, but Syrians also held many important positions. However, Nasser soon dissolved all Syrian political parties. In Syria, large-scale nationalization of agriculture began, and then industry and the banking sector. On September 28, 1961, a coup d'etat took place in Damascus under the leadership of a group of officers, Syria again declared independence. Nasser decided not to resist the separatists, so the UAR lasted only 3 and a half years.

After Syria left the confederation, the country was led by liberal Nazim Al-Qudsi. He returned many nationalized enterprises to their former owners. On March 28, 1962, a coup took place in the country again under the leadership of the same group of army officers. Al-Qudsi and his prime minister were arrested. After 5 days, supporters of the previous regime overthrew the interim government, and Al-Qudsi again became the president of the country.

On March 8, 1963, a military coup took place in Syria again, as a result of which the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (PASV), which is sometimes called “Baath” (Ar. “revival”), came to power.

In 1964, a new constitution was adopted, in which the leading role of PASV was enshrined. The country was led by Amin Hafez, who began radical socialist reforms. In particular, the nationalization of the main sectors of the economy was carried out again.

On February 23, 1966, Syria was shocked by the fifth coup in 4 years led by Salah Jedid and Hafez al-Assad. Amin Hafez was overthrown, but the PASV remained in power, and Syria's socialist path of development remained largely unchanged.

In November 1970, as a result of the “corrective movement” in the PASV, led by H. al-Assad, Saleh Jedid’s group was removed from power. Thus, Syria became the main ally of the Soviet Union in the Middle East. The USSR provided Syria with assistance in modernizing its economy and armed forces.

In 1967, during the Six Day War, the Golan Heights were occupied by Israel. In the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Syria unsuccessfully attempted to recapture them. By decision of the UN Security Council at the end of the 1973 war, a buffer zone was created separating Israel and Syria. The Golan Heights are currently controlled by Israel, but Syria is demanding their return.

In 1976, at the request of the Lebanese government, Syrian troops entered this country in order to stop the civil war. The war ended in 1990, when a government was established in Lebanon that maintained friendly relations with Syria. Syrian troops left Lebanon only in 2005 after the assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri. Syria supported Iran in the Iran-Iraq War of 1980-1988.

After the death of Hafez al-Assad on June 10, 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad became president.

According to some reports, during the Israeli-Lebanese war in 2006, Syria supplied weapons to Hezbollah. This, in particular, is related to Syria’s still strained relations with some Western countries.

Last changes: 05/09/2013

Golan Heights

The territory of the Golan Heights makes up the Syrian province of Quneitra with its center in the city of the same name. Israeli troops captured the Golan Heights in 1967, and the region was under the control of the Israel Defense Forces until 1981. In 1974, the UN Emergency Force was introduced into the region. A demarcation line was drawn directly along the eastern border of Quneitra province and a demilitarized zone was created. The UN Disengagement Observer Force is based in the area.

In 1981, the Israeli Knesset passed the Golan Heights Law, which unilaterally declared Israeli sovereignty over this territory. The annexation was declared invalid by the UN Security Council Resolution of December 17, 1981 and condemned by the UN General Assembly in 2008.

The city of Katzrin became the center of the Israeli Golan. The majority of the non-Jewish population in the Golan are Druze who retain Syrian citizenship (they are given the right to obtain Israeli citizenship). In Syria they enjoy some privileges, in particular, they are guaranteed free higher education.

In 2005, the population of the Golan Heights was approximately 40 thousand people, including 20 thousand Druze, 19 thousand Jews and about 2 thousand Alawites. The largest settlement in the area is the Druze village of Majdal Shams (8,800 people). Initially, only UNDOF personnel had the right to free movement between Syria and Israel. But in 1988, Israeli authorities allowed Druze pilgrims to cross into Syria so that they could visit the Temple of Abel, located in the neighboring province of Dara. Also, since 1967, Druze brides who decide to marry a Syrian are allowed to cross over to the Syrian side, and they already lose the right to return.

Syria and Israel are de jure in a state of war, since a peace treaty between these countries has not yet been signed.

In August 2007, Israel began a phased reduction in its military presence in the Golan for the first time since 1967.

Last changes: 05/09/2013

The name Syria comes from the ancient Greek name for the colonies of Assyria, derived from the Semitic word "Sirion". The area on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea south of Cilicia, between Egypt and Mesopotamia, including Commagene, Sophene and Adiabene, is described by Pliny the Elder as “former Assyria.” By the time Pliny completed his major work, Natural History, the region had been divided by the Roman Empire into several provinces: Judea (later Palestine, modern Israel, Palestine and part of Jordan), Phenicia (modern Lebanon), Mesopotamia and Hola. Syria.

Last changes: 05/09/2013

Entry into Syria will be denied to Israeli citizens and travelers with any evidence of visiting Israel (including passport stamps that are placed in tourists' passports when crossing the land borders of Egypt (Jordan) and Israel). If you have an Israeli stamp in your passport, you will need to get a new passport or choose another country to travel to.

The best time to travel around the country is in the spring, from March to May, or in the fall, from September to November, when weather conditions are most favorable. The beach season lasts here from May to November.

Hospitality is one of the most important Syrian traditions. Such an invitation should not be refused so as not to offend the host - in most cases such invitations are made with all the heart. It is considered impolite to refuse an offer of coffee.

Women traveling alone may receive too much attention from Syrian men. However, this attention is usually limited to glances or weak attempts to engage in conversation.

Syrians, like all Arabs, eat with their right hand. It is considered appropriate to take food from a dish with your hand or pick up sauce from a plate with a flatbread. It is not customary to eat while standing or on the go, or to look into the face of a person eating. Bread is usually broken by hand. You should also take food, money and things with your right hand.

When shaking hands, you should not look into the eyes of your interlocutor, and you should not keep your other hand in your pocket or vigorously wave it in the air (especially with a cigarette). You cannot walk around those praying in front. Shoes should be removed when entering mosques and houses.

Photographing government institutions, palaces, military and transport facilities is prohibited. In Christian churches, you must ask permission before filming (usually there should be no objections). But there’s no point in even asking in mosques: you can’t take pictures there. You should also not take photographs of local women without permission. Documents (or better yet, photocopies of them) should always be carried with you.

In addition, while in Syria, do not forget about the hot climate and active sun: you need to use sunscreen, drink more fluids and protect your eyes with sunglasses.

Local tap water is usually chlorinated and is relatively safe to drink, but it is still better to drink bottled water.

The Koran prohibits the consumption of alcohol, but in Syria this issue is practically not raised. Alcoholic drinks can be purchased at any store, restaurant or bar, but you should not drink them in front of everyone. Restrictions on the sale of alcohol are introduced during Ramadan.

Since the fall of 2009, there has been a ban on smoking in public places in Syria. Smokers caught with a cigarette or pipe in cafes, bars and restaurants now face a fine of 2,000 Syrian pounds ($46). The ban also applies to hookah smoking. Owners of establishments on whose premises violators are caught will also be fined, and in some cases even prosecuted. In addition, a number of restrictions on advertising of tobacco products have been introduced.

The country, although socialist, is Muslim, so you need to dress accordingly. Clothes should be modest. In Damascus and in cities near the coast they still turn a blind eye to this, but in conservative cities in the center of the country, and even more so in the outback, they treat inappropriate outfits with obvious hostility. And in Hama they may even throw stones at you. No tight clothing! Women should cover their arms and legs. Men will have to give up shorts and sleeveless T-shirts.

It is best to avoid political conversations with “locals” to avoid possible problems. Problems may arise, first of all, among the “locals” - since there are many plainclothes police officers and informants (snitches) around.

In any major city in Syria there is a Tourist information center, where you can get all kinds of information and free maps of the country and its individual parts. In Damascus, Tourist information is located opposite the Russian Cultural Center, on 29 May Street, the main street of the city. In Aleppo, you will find the Tourist information center near the Central Bank, on the edge of Alrais platz.

Last changes: 05/09/2013

How to get to Syria

Attention! Currently, almost all international air and rail communications with Syria have been suspended due to the protracted civil war in that country.

By plane

There are direct regular flights between Russia and Syria. Moscow and Damascus are connected by regular flights of Aeroflot (on Thursdays and Sundays from Sheremetyevo-2) and Syrian Airlines (on Tuesdays and Saturdays from Vnukovo). Flight time is about 3.5 hours.

Many European airlines also fly to Syria.

Flights to Damascus from Almaty, Kyiv and Minsk are operated by Turkish Airlines.

By train

Weekly trains run from Aleppo to Istanbul (Turkey), from Damascus to Baghdad (Iraq) and Tehran (Iran) via Aleppo, as well as to Amman (Jordan). Fares to Istanbul and Tehran range from $45 to $70 one way in a premium category carriage. The cost of travel to Jordan is about $5.

At the same time, going to Amman by train can only be recommended to fans of rail travel who have a significant amount of free time. We are talking about an ancient narrow-gauge line (Hijaz Railway), built by the Turks. The average speed of the train is 30 km/h, so the distance between the two capitals (300 km) is covered all daylight hours with a transfer in the border town of Daraa (trains depart from Damascus at 8 am and arrive at their destination at 10 pm).

The Daraa - Amman train departs once a week on Saturdays at 18.00. The cost of travel by train is slightly lower than by bus (train - $5, bus - about $7-8), and the time spent on the bus is half as much. However, it is best to travel to cities such as Istanbul and Tehran by train.

By bus

Damascus and Aleppo have good bus connections with neighboring countries.

From Aleppo there are buses to Turkish Hatay (Antakya) and Istanbul, as well as to Beirut, Cairo and Baghdad. From Damascus you can get by bus and minibus to Beirut, Jordanian Amman with Irbid and Iraqi Baghdad. The cost of travel on border transport from Damascus is: Beirut (up to 20 times a day) - $8-10 by minibus and $4-5 by bus, Amman (10-15 times a day) - $10 by minibus and $8 by bus.

In addition, there are minibuses from Damascus and Aleppo to major cities of neighboring countries: Tripoli (Lebanon), Irbid (Jordan), Antakya (Turkey) and many others.

Airport tax when departing from Syrian airports - 32 USD (1500 SYP). Since the summer of 2009, some airlines began to include this tax in the price of an air ticket.

When leaving (land and sea borders) from Syria, a fee of 12 USD (550 SYP) is charged.

Last changes: 03/14/2017

Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical-geographical sketch), Sh. N. Amirov (Historical sketch: Syria from ancient times to the conquests of Alexander the Great), I. O. Gavritukhin (Historical sketch: Syria from the conquests of Alexander the Great to Arab conquest), M. Yu. Roshchin (Historical sketch: Syria from the Arab conquest to 1970), T. K. Koraev (Historical sketch: Syria in 1970–2014), V. D. Nesterkin (Armed forces), V. S Nechaev (Health), E. A. Alizade. (Literature), T. Kh. Starodub (Architecture and fine arts), D. A. Guseinova (Theater), A. S. Shakhov (Cinema)Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical-geographical sketch), Sh. N. Amirov (Historical sketch: Syria from ancient times to the conquests of Alexander the Great); >>

SYRIA, Syrian Arab Republic (Al-Jumhuriya al-Arabiya al-Suriya).

General information

S. is a state in the South-West. Asia. It borders on Turkey in the north, Iraq in the east, Jordan in the south, Israel in the southwest, and Lebanon in the west; in the west it is washed by the Mediterranean Sea. Pl. 185.2 thousand km 2. Us. OK. 22.0 million people (2014, UN assessment). The capital is Damascus. Official language – Arabic. The monetary unit is sire. lb. Adm.-terr. division: 14 governorates (provinces).

Administrative-territorial division (2011)

Governorate (province)	Area, thousand km 2	Population, million people	Administrative center
Damascus (city)	0,1	1,8
Daraa	3,7	1	Daraa
Deir ez-Zor	33,1	1,2	Deir ez-Zor
Idlib	6,1	1,5	Idlib
Latakia	2,3	1	Latakia
Rif Dimashq	18	2,8	Damascus
Tartus	1,9	0,8	Tartus
Aleppo (Aleppo)	18,5	4,9	Aleppo (Aleppo)
Hama	10,2	1,6	Hama
Homs	40,9	1,8	Homs
El Quneitra	1,9	0,1	El Quneitra
Al Hasakah	23,3	1,5	Al Hasakah
Ar-Raqqa	19,6	0,9	Ar-Raqqa
Es-Suwayda	5,6	0,4	Es-Suwayda

S. is a member of the UN (1945), Arab League (1945, membership suspended in 2011), Organization of Islamic Cooperation (1972, expelled in 2012), IMF (1947), IBRD (1947).

Political system

S. is a unitary state. The Constitution was adopted by referendum on February 26, 2012. The form of government is a mixed republic.

The head of state is the president, elected by the population for a term of 7 years (with the right to re-election). The president appoints the cabinet of ministers, determines the country's foreign policy and is the supreme commander in chief of the armed forces. forces. According to the Constitution, the President of Syria must be a Muslim.

The highest body of legislators. authorities - unicameral Nar. council (Majlis al-Shaab). Consists of 250 deputies elected by direct vote for 4 years.

The Council of Ministers is appointed by the President.

Leading political parties: Arab Party. socialist Revival (PASV), Progressive National. front, Coalition of Forces for Peaceful Changes, etc.

Nature

Relief

Shores preim. low, slightly indented by bays. The northern part of the territory is a plateau, descending from northwest to southeast from 1000 to 500–200 m. In the west, two chains of mountains stretch from north to south, separated by tectonics. El-Gab depression with the river valley. El Asi (Orontes). Zap. the chain is made up of the Ansariya ridge (En-Nusairiyah; altitude up to 1562 m), the eastern range is made up of the Al-Akrad and Ez-Zawiya mountains (altitude up to 877 m). Along the border with Lebanon there is the Anti-Lebanon ridge (up to 2629 m high, Mount Tal'at Musa) and its south. continuation - the Esh-Sheikh ridge with the highest point N. Mount Esh-Sheikh (Hermon) alt. up to 2814 m. Anti-Lebanon has many karst landforms formed in limestone. To the east of the city of Homs stretches the Tadmor mountain range, consisting of low (up to 1387 m) mountains (Esh-Shaumaria, Esh-Shaar, etc.). There is a volcanic site in the southwest. Ed-Duruz massif (altitude up to 1803 m). In the southeast there is part of the Syrian Desert; stratified rocky plains and high plateaus predominate. 500–800 m, takyrs are typical. To the east parts along the river valley The Euphrates is an alluvial lowland. To the northeast of it is the high Badiyat el-Jazeera plateau. 200–450 m with separation remnant hills (Abd al-Aziz mountains up to 920 m high, etc.). Along the Mediterranean coast there is a narrow (10–15 km) coastal lowland, divided by mountain spurs into separate sections. plots.

Geological structure and minerals

The territory of S. is located in the north. on the outskirts of the Precambrian Arabian Platform, in the area of ​​distribution of the Phanerozoic platform cover with a thickness of several. km, composed of shallow-marine terrigenous and carbonate deposits (sandstones, clays, limestones, marls, chalk, etc.) with horizons of flints and phosphorites, as well as salt rocks. The coastal lowlands contain Neogene-Quaternary fluvial, coastal-marine, and aeolian deposits (sands, sandstones, silts, clays, gravels, limestones). In the southwest there are covers of Neogene-Quaternary basalts. In the late Cenozoic west. part of the northern territory experienced uplift; A regional seismically active fault arose (the so-called Levantine fault), along which a rift valley formed, filled with Neogene-Quaternary lacustrine and alluvial deposits. There are deposits of cement and construction. limestone, rock salt and gypsum, sand, gravel, etc.

Main the wealth of the subsoil of S. - oil and natural flammable gas, the deposits of which are located in the center, east and northeast, belongs to Persian Gulf oil and gas basin. There are deposits of cement limestone, phosphorites, gypsum, rock salt, and natural builds. materials (dolomite, marble, volcanic tuff, sand, gravel).

Climate

On the territory of the North the climate is subtropical. Mediterranean with winter-spring maximum precipitation and summer drought. On the coast the climate is maritime, cf. January temperatures 12 °C, August 27 °C; precipitation is more than 800 mm per year. In the Ansariya range (Nusairiyah) it is cooler, precipitation is up to 1500 mm per year, and snow falls in Anti-Lebanon in winter. In Damascus wed. January temperatures 6 °C, August 26 °C; precipitation approx. 200 mm per year. To the southeast direction, the amount of precipitation is reduced to 100 mm per year, and its instability from year to year increases. East part of the country has a dry continental climate; Wed temperatures in January are 4–7 °C (characterized by almost annual frosts), in August up to 33 °C (max. 49 °C). Winter sowing Shemal wind and spring Khamsin wind, blowing from the Arabian Desert, are accompanied by sand and dust storms.

Inland waters

Most of the territory has no external drainage; lowland areas are characterized by dry erosional valleys (wadis). The rivers belong to the basins of the Persian Gulf, Mediterranean and Dead Seas. The largest river is the Euphrates (length 675 km in the north) with its tributaries Khabur and Belikh. The Euphrates provides up to 80% of the North's surface runoff resources and is navigable; its flow is regulated by dams, the largest is Tabqa [near the town of Madinat et Thaura (Es-Saura)] with a hydroelectric power station and the El-Assad reservoir. Along the north-east borders of the north flows the river. Tiger. In the north-west there is a significant river. El Asi (Orontes). In the southwest, along the border with Jordan, the river flows. Yarmouk (tributary of the Jordan River), along the border with Lebanon - river. El-Kebir. The river flow is formed entirely within the northern borders. Barada, irrigating the Damascus Ghouta oasis. The maximum river flow occurs in winter; in summer, the rivers experience low water. The largest lake is Homs. Groundwater is widely used through wells and karezes; oases are often associated with their outlets to the surface. Powerful underground aquifers are concentrated in the foothill plains of Anti-Lebanon and in the Damascus region. Annually renewable water resources amount to 16.8 km 3, water availability is low - 882 m 3 / person. in year. Annual water withdrawal 16.7 km 3 , of which 9% is used in housing and communal water supply, 4% - in industry, 87% in villages. x-ve. In North, the issues of sharing the flow of the Euphrates River with Turkey and Iraq have not been resolved.

Soils, flora and fauna

Sandy loamy-loamy deserts with thin gray soils are widespread on the plateau. In the south, rocky-gravelly hamadas predominate, in places with gypsum-bearing and salt-bearing deposits, in the west and in the center. parts are areas of sandy deserts. In the depressions of the relief there are salt marshes. Along the northern Along the northern borders, gray-brown and brown soils are common. The Badiyat el-Jazeera plateau is characterized by light gray soils with a pronounced carbonate horizon. In the coastal lowlands there are brown soils; with height they are replaced by mountain brown and mountain forest soils.

The eastern, arid part of the country is characterized by desert groups with the participation of saxaul, shrubs and subshrubs (saltwort, wormwood), and ephemera. On the Badiyat el-Jazeera plateau, low-grass steppes with bluegrass, sedge and other ephemeroids, including wormwood, are typical. In the Euphrates Valley, areas of riverine forests of Euphrates poplar and tamarix have been preserved. Subtropical forests grow in the mountains and on the coast. pine trees, Cilician fir; small tracts of relict Lebanese cedar have been preserved in the mountains. To the west On the slopes of the Ansariya ridge (En-Nusairiyah), broad-leaved oak forests with the participation of evergreen trees and shrubs are common. The lower parts of the slopes are usually covered by secondary maquis and garigue formations. To the east The slopes of the Ansaria, Anti-Lebanon and Esh-Sheikh (Hermon) ridges are dominated by xeromorphic mountain steppes, turning into pistachio woodlands and shrubs in the mid-mountain zone, and into semi-deserts in the lower mountain zone.

The fauna is diverse. There are 125 species of mammals, including striped hyena, wolf, jackal, caracal, fennec fox; ungulates include antelope, wild donkey onager, and many rodents. In the mountains with forest vegetation, the Syrian bear, wild boar, and wild cat are occasionally found, and in the treeless high mountains - the bezoar goat. The avifauna is rich: 360 species of birds, including migratory ones, there are especially many of them in river valleys and on the shores of lakes (storks, herons, ducks); among the birds of prey there are falcons, eagles, and hawks. There are 127 species of reptiles. 16 species of mammals, 15 species of birds, 8 species of reptiles are endangered.

Condition and protection of the environment

In the north, where the most ancient centers of agriculture are located, nature has been greatly changed. Forests occupy only 3% of the territory. Basic eco-friendly problems - overgrazing, deforestation and fragmentation, fires, habitat destruction, especially along river valleys and on the coast. To the east In arid areas, desertification of landscapes, water and wind erosion, and soil degradation occur. The problem of pollution of rivers and reservoirs by municipal and industrial waste is urgent. wastewater, including from oil refineries. The network of protected areas includes 19 objects (according to other data, 23) of uncertain status, occupying 0.6% of the territory; lake Al Jabbul is a wetland of global significance.

Population

The majority of the population of S. (88.2%) are Arabs - Syrians (84.8%), Palestinians, Egyptians, Jordanians, etc. Kurds and Yazidis live in the north (8%), in the northeast (between the Euphrates and Tigris ) - speakers of Neo-Assyrian languages ​​Western. Assyrians (1%) and Turoyos (0.1%), as well as Armenians (0.4%); small communities of speakers of Neo-Assyrian languages ​​also live northeast of Damascus. The country is inhabited by Turks (“Turkmen”; 0.6%), people from the Caucasus (0.5%), Persians (0.3%), gypsies, etc.

The population increased 6.5 times between 1950 and 2014 (3.4 million people in 1950; 12.3 million people in 1990; 21.9 million people in 2012; military actions, according to UN estimates , by the beginning of 2015 led to the flight of over 4 million people from the country). Natural growth of us. 2.1% (2013), which means. birth rate (25 per 1000 inhabitants), 6 times higher than mortality (4 per 1000 inhabitants). Fertility rate 3.1 children per woman; infant mortality rate is 17 per 1000 live births. In the age structure of the population, there is a high proportion of people of working age (15–64 years) – 61%; the share of children (under 15 years old) is 35%, people over 65 years old – 4%. Wed. life expectancy is 75 years (men – 72, women – 78). The numerical ratio of men and women is approximately equal. Wed. density of us. OK. 97 people/km 2 (2014). Most densely for selena coast, north. part of the country and the Rif Dimashq governorate (average density 100–250 people/km2), as well as areas near large cities (average density near Homs, Hama, etc. over 1000 people/km2); least – center. and east districts (less than 25 people/km 2). Share of mountains us. 54% (2013). Largest cities (thousand people, 2014): Aleppo (1602.3), Damascus (1569.4), Homs (775.4), Hama (460.6), Latakia (340.2). Economically active us. OK. 5 million people (2013). In the employment structure, the service sector accounts for 53%, industry – 32.7%, p. farms – 14.3% (2012). Unemployment rate 34.9% (2012; 14.9% in 2011). OK. 12% of us. lives below the poverty line (2006).

Religion

A country with a complex religion. composition, up to 90% of us. which are Muslims (2014, assessment). The vast majority are Sunnis (Sufi brotherhoods are common); The influential Shiite minority includes the Nusayris (or Alawites, more than 10%) and the Imamis (3%). Ismailis make up 1%. The number of drusen is estimated at 3–5%. OK. 10–11% of residents are Christians, mostly. Orthodox, subordinate to the Patriarchate of Antioch with residence in Damascus. The second largest is the Syrian (Syro-Jacobite) Orthodox Church with its center in Damascus, one of the Ancient Eastern (pre-Chalcedonian) churches. There are followers of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Catholics are divided into Chaldo-Catholics, Syrian-Catholics, Maronites, Greek-Catholics, Armenian-Catholics and Roman-Catholics. The Nestorians are represented by the Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East. The Jebel Sinjar region, near the border with Iraq, is home to a small Yazidi community. Few the Jewish community survived in Damascus. Serious damage to religions. minorities in the country are being attacked by weapons. conflict between governments. forces and opposition.

Historical sketch

Territory of Syria before the Arab conquest

The oldest monuments of human activity in the region (ca. 800–350 thousand years ago) belong to the Acheulian [bas. monuments - between the river El-Asi (Orontes) and r. Euphrates, including Umm et Tlel (in the El Koum oasis north of Palmyra; layers about 20 m, up to the Neolithic), etc.]. This is followed by the Yabrud industry, then Hummal and Laminar (ca. 200–150 thousand years ago; from the Mediterranean to Mesopotamia). The Moustier era is represented by the Levallois industry (including with pointed points such as Umm et Tlel, etc.); early Upper Paleolithic - by Aurignac and the Ahmar culture (ca. 35-17 thousand years ago), middle and late - by the Kebara culture, on the basis of which the Natufian culture .

The territory of S. is included in the oldest zone of the formation of a producing economy - Fertile Crescent. Among the supporting monuments are doceramic. Neolithic - Mureybit, Tell Abr, Tell Aswad, Ras Shamra, El Kdeir, etc. A number of centers for the appearance of ceramic dishes, which spread from the middle, have been recorded. 7th millennium BC e. Around the end In the 7th millennium, the Hassun culture was recorded in the region, then the influence of the traditions of Samarra spread and the Halaf culture spread, replaced by the culture of the North. Ubeida. From the beginning The 4th millennium marked a new impulse of influences from the South. Mesopotamia, associated with the Sumerian civilization, mountain settlements arise. such as Tell Brak, Tell Hamukar in the northeast of the region, then others, including those associated with the metal trade from Anatolia.

From the beginning 3rd thousand connections with South. Mesopotamia is interrupted, the cultural community “Nineveh 5” is formed with a hierarchy of settlements, proto-cities, temple-administration. centers (see Art. Tell Khazna). Around midday In the 3rd millennium, settlements with a perimeter wall and gate openings (of the “Kranzhügel” type) appeared, correlated with the cities and the beginning of Sir proper. civilization; During the excavations of Tell Beydar (ancient city of Nabad), the oldest cuneiform archive in the region (25th century) was discovered (in the East Semitic language, related to Akkadian). From the beginning 3rd millennium in the mountainous regions framing the Great Mesopotamian Plain, migrants from the Caucasus appear, carriers Kura-Araxes culture. At the same time, the Canaanites settled from the south, another group of Semites moved north, founding the state of Ebla, which competed with the one that arose on Wed. Euphrates Mari. At Sargon the Ancient and his successors, a number of lands were controlled by Akkad.

Around the end In the 3rd millennium, the Amorites settled in the region from the southwest. In con. 19 – beginning 18th centuries in the northeast, the state of Shamshi-Adad I (Subartu) was formed, which soon disintegrated. In the west, the states of Yamhad and Qatna competed with him and with each other. To 2nd half. 1770s – 1760s (under Zimri-Lima) refers to the last flourishing of the state of Mari, crushed by the Babylonian king Hammurabi. From the 17th century The Hurrians played a prominent role in the region along with the Semites. From the 16th century the struggle for dominance over the region begins Ancient Egypt with Mitanni and Hittite kingdom, in which Assyria also participated. The discovery of the world's oldest alphabet (c. 15th century; see also) is associated with one of the Egyptian (later Hittite) dependent cities of Ugarit. Ugaritic letter). According to Hittite-Egypt. to the world (1270) b. parts of the northern territory remained under the control of the Hittites, the south - the Egyptians. However, soon North. Mesopotamia was conquered by the Assyrians. king Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244–08), and the state of the Hittites, like the Asian. possessions of Egypt, in the end. 13 – beginning 12th centuries fell under the onslaught of the Sea Peoples, who destroyed a number of cities in the sir. Mediterranean coast.

K con. 2nd – beginning 1st thousand these zap. the aliens founded the state of Palestine (the territory of the North), which coexisted with the states, where the so-called. Late Hittite dynasties. A number of states also arose, founded by the Arameans (Akhlamei), who penetrated into the region along the Euphrates from the 14th century: Bit Adini (capital in Til Barsib), Bit Bakhiani in the upper reaches of Khabur (capital of Guzan - the site of Tell Halaf), Samal in Cilicia, Bit-Agushi in the region of Aleppo (Aleppo), etc. One of them, with the capital in Aram-Damascus (now Damascus; cultural layer no later than the 4th millennium, first written mention around the middle 3- th thousand), after the campaigns of its kings Reason I and Tabrimmon, it becomes the strongest in the region.

From the end 11th century expansion into the Assyrian region begins. Counteracting this is the so-called. Northern Sir. the alliance was crushed by the Assyrians. king Shalmaneser III at 857–856. T.n. South Syrian An alliance (supported by the rulers of Phenicia, Palestine, Egypt, and North Arabian tribes) led by the king of Damascus Hadadezer (Ben Hadad II) managed to stop the Assyrians at the Battle of Karkar (853). However, in 796 Damascus was captured and paid tribute to Assyria. In the 9th–8th centuries. Kingdom of Damascus once fought with Israel. In 734, the Assyrians conquered Arpad (North S.) and a number of other states in the region; resistance of a number of sir. states led by the king of Damascus Reason II, which also relied on an alliance with the kings of Israel, Gaza, and Edom, ended with the capture and destruction of Damascus in 732 Tig Latpalasar III. Reason II was executed, b. Parts of the Aramaic population were resettled inland. regions of Assyria, the region became Assyrian. province.

After the death of Assyria in 612–609, S. became the arena of struggle between Egypt and Babylonia. In 539 Babylon was captured by the Persians and S. entered Achaemenid state. After the battle of Issus (333) troops Alexander the Great occupied S. During the struggle of the Diadochi, S. fell to Antigonus, and after the Battle of Ipsus (301) it became part of the Seleucid state. After 190, its decline and collapse began, in the lands beyond the Euphrates in 132 BC. e. the state of Osroene was formed with its capital in Edessa (then part of Parthian Kingdom, Armenia, controlled by Rome, in 244 AD. e. destroyed by the Sassanids), part of the southeast. S. controlled lands Nabatean kingdom. In 83–69 BC. e. the region was captured by Armenians. king Tigran II, in 64 - Gnaeus Pompey, after which in most of the territory of modern. Rome was organized in S. and a number of adjacent lands. Prov. Syria.

From the reign of Octavian Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) prov. S. was under imp. management and was one of the most important, given its strategic. position (4 legions were stationed here) and economic. potential (highly developed agriculture and crafts, including textiles and glass making). Sire. merchants and artisans were famous in many cities of Rome. empires. Some rome. emperors and members of their families were from S. Despite the strong Hellenization and influence of Rome, especially in polyethnics. cities, local culture continued to develop in S. (mainly based on Aramaic).

From the 1st century S. is one of the centers of the spread of Christianity. On I Ecumenical Council in Nicaea (325) S. was represented by more than 20 bishops, in 451 Antiochian Orthodox Church became autocephalous in the status of patriarchy. From the 4th century the region becomes an important center of monasticism, and the pillarism originated here (see. Simeon the Stylite). In the course of internal Christian disputes (see Christology), S. became one of the centers of miaphysitism, its supporters after persecution under the emperor. Justin I (518–527) founded the Syrian Orthodox Church (finally formed in 629), which spread throughout the Middle and Middle East. East (see Syrian churches).

In 193/194 prov. S. was divided into Coelesyria and Syrophenicia. During the reforms Diocletian they entered the diocese of the East. By 350, the Euphrates Province was separated from Kelesyria. (capital of Hierapolis), after 415 - provinces S. I (capital in Antioch) and S. II [in Apamea (on the Orontes)], in 528 - a small province. Feodoria. The state with its center in Palmyra, which retained its independence for some time, was annexed to Rome ca. 19; became virtually independent in the 260s. under Odenathus; his widow (from 267) Zenobia in 270 brought under her control the territory from Egypt to Asia Minor, but in 272 she was defeated by Rome. army. Rome. Prov. in Osroene, which was one of the arenas of struggle against the Sassanid state, is known no later than the 4th century.

During the next war between Byzantium and the Sassanids in 609, the region was captured by the troops of Khosrow II, but according to a peace treaty with Heraclius I in 628 it was returned to Byzantium.

Syria from the Arab conquest to the Seljuk conquest

All R. 630s As a result of protracted wars with the Sassanids, the power of Byzantium in the territory of S. will end. weakened, dissatisfaction of local residents with tax oppression and religions intensified. intolerance. In 634, Caliph Abu Bekr transferred from the south. Iraq to Damascus detachment led by an Arab. commander Khalid ibn al-Walid. After victories at Ajnadayn, Fakhla and Marj es-Suffar, his troops entered Bosra (Busra al-Sham). In 635 they captured Damascus, in 637 they occupied Baalbek and Homs. Byzantine. army of approx. 100 thousand people launched a counteroffensive, but in the decisive battle on the river. Yarmouk (636) was put to flight by smaller Muslim forces; the victors recaptured Damascus and Homs. In 638, Jerusalem and Gaza were occupied, then Aleppo (Aleppo), Antioch (Antakya), Hama and Qinnasrin. In the mountainous regions around Latakia, Tripoli and Sidon (now Saida), resistance to the Muslims continued until the middle. 640s Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan moved the capital of the Caliphate and the residence of the Umayyad dynasty from Medina to Damascus, which remained in this status until 750. During this period, S. became political. and the cultural center of a growing state, where part of the military flocked. booty and taxes collected in various areas of the caliphate. Under the Umayyads, there was a process of Arabization of the population, Arab. the nobility turned into large landowners, the majority of the inhabitants of S. converted to Islam, Greek. state the language was replaced by Arabic. language (from the beginning of the 8th century). However, the departments were preserved. Hellenistic elements heritage, because the Arabs gradually adopted culture, social organization and political. system they encountered in sir. cities. Urban planning developed widely, and architecture was influenced by both Byzantine and Sasanian architecture (the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, the Great Mosque in Aleppo, the country palace of Mshatta, etc.).

All R. 8th century The Umayyad dynasty fell into decline and was replaced by the Abbasid dynasty, which made Baghdad its capital. The population of S. decreased, and a gradual decline of cities began. In the conditions of political and economical instability, Arabization and Islamization continued. lands. With the beginning of the decline of the Abbasid dynasty, the north. S.'s borders became more vulnerable to attacks by the Byzantines. A number of small Muslim and Christian principalities arose in the region, which turned to the military. with help either to Baghdad or to Constantinople. The collapse of the Abbasid state led to the seizure of Syria by Egypt. by the Tulunid emirs in 878, in 935 by the emirs from the Ikhshidid dynasty. In 969 S. became part of the Ismaili Fatimid Caliphate. All R. 10th century all in. The Hamdanid dynasty, whose court was in Aleppo, came to power in S., which led to a short revival of these lands, especially during the reign of Emir Seif ad-Daula (945–967).

Syria before the Ottoman conquest

Development of S. in the 10th–11th centuries. was suspended by the conquest of its interior. districts in the 1070s. Seljuks who came from Asia Minor and the north. Mesopotamia. The tribes that entered the territory of S. were part of the state Seljukids, but soon created two states independent of it with capitals in Damascus and Aleppo. However, they failed to penetrate into the south. Northern regions that remained under the rule of local rulers (for example, Tanukids) or were in vassal dependence on Egypt. Fatimidov. The collapse of the Seljuk state and the fight against the Fatimids facilitated the capture of the north-west. S. crusaders (see Crusades) and the formation in 1098 of the Principality of Antioch on its territory. East S. broke up into departments. Arab possessions and Seljuk feudal lords, who waged wars both with the crusaders and among themselves. In 1154 Turk. the ruler of Aleppo, Nur ad-Din, managed to unite most of S. under his rule. After his death (1174), Salah ad-Din annexed the main. part sire. lands to their possessions. In 1188, after the victory at Hittin (1187), he drove the crusaders out of the country. parts of the Antioch prince. Salah ad-Din's successors, the Ayyubids, retained control only over the interior. areas of the north, in the north they were forced to resist the Seljuk Konya (Rum) Sultanate, in the west - the state of the crusaders, in the east - various. Turkic state formations.

In the 2nd half. 13th century S. came under Egyptian rule. Mamluks. In 1260, it was attacked by the Mongols led by Hulagu, repelled by the Mamluk Sultan Kutuz in the battle of Ain Jalut. Gradually the power of the Mamluks increased. The new Sultan Baybars succeeded in the 1260s. occupy strategically important fortified Ismaili points in the mountains of the North. In the beginning. 1290s Sultan al-Ashraf Salah ad-Din Khalil captured the last crusader fortresses on Sir. Mediterranean coast. At this time, an effective administration was created on the territory of S. system, trade was restored, the rise of crafts and rural areas began. x-va. Syria reached its greatest prosperity during the reign of Nasir ad-Din Muhammad (1309–40). However, under his immediate successors, as a result of the plague that swept through the North and increased trade competition from the states of Anatolia and the North. Africa began the decline of the Mamluk power, which opened the way for the Mongols under Timur to capture Aleppo and Damascus (1401). Despite the successes of the Mong. troops, to the con. 15th century sir. the lands became the object of claims from the Ottomans, Timurids and Iran. Safavids. Taking advantage of the struggle that the Mamluks were forced to wage against the Portuguese, who were launching raids on the territories adjacent to the Red Sea, the Sultan Ottoman Empire Selim I defeated the Mamluk army at Marj Dabiq in 1516 and conquered Syria.

Syria until the end of the 19th century

As part of the Ottoman Empire, the territory of S. was divided into 4 vilayets with centers in Tripoli, Aleppo, Damascus and Saida (several more provinces were later created, including Akka), which were governed by pashas who reported directly to the administration of the Sultan. To streamline the collection of taxes and encourage the processing of abandoned lands, special forces were issued. governments. regulations and cadastres, which at first had a beneficial effect on the development c. x-va. However, increasing tax oppression and the growing arbitrariness of local officials gradually led to stagnation in this area. This means in the regional economy. Goal began to play a role. and Brit. maritime trade. By the 18th century Aleppo and Beirut became ch. shopping centers in S. Europe. penetration into S. was carried out both through the creation of merchant houses in a number of cities. colonies, which assumed almost complete trade relations with Europe, and through an increased influx of missionaries (mainly Franciscans and Jesuits). Contacts between missionaries and local authorities, as well as the desire of Europeans. powers to establish their spheres of influence in North (the French supported the Maronites, the British - the Druze) led to a gradual stratification of the Sires. society. In this situation, separatist tendencies intensified in the provinces, which sought to become independent from the center. Ottoman government, and internecine wars. As a result of one of these conflicts, the defeated Druze moved to an isolated mountainous area southeast of Damascus, and the area itself was named. Jebel Druz (Ed-Druz, Ed-Duruz). In con. 18th century b. part south S. came under the rule of Akka Pasha Ahmed al-Jazzar. In 1798–99 French. The troops, having failed to capture Egypt, landed on Sir. coast. Al-Jazzar with the help of Britons. The fleet managed to stop the French at Akka and force the imp. Napoleon I Bonaparte to return to France.

During Tur.-Egypt. War of 1831–33 S. was conquered by Egyptian troops. pasha Muhammad Ali. He centralized the administration of the country, favored the development of trade, and the growth of the stock of cultivable lands. However, the introduction of conscription, state. Corvee labor and rising taxes caused repeated uprisings. population (1834, 1837–1838, 1840). The Ottoman Empire and the Europeans that supported it took advantage of the weakening of Egyptian power in the north. powers: in 1840 the power of the Ottoman Sultan was restored in S. At the same time, S. came under the scope of the Anglo-Ottoman trade convention of 1838, which opened the sir. market for european goods, which dealt a serious blow to local production. The emerging trend in this regard towards the transition of agricultural ownership of allotments by townspeople intensified after the law of 1858, which allowed the transfer of communal lands in villages to private ownership, subject to the payment of higher taxes. From ser. 19th century commodity-money relations actively developed in S. There was a specialization of the department. agricultural regions (Northern North - cotton, Hauran - grain, Damascus region - fruits), while the decomposition of subsistence farming intensified. In the last quarter 19th century in exchange for the provision of loans to the Ottoman Empire by the French. companies received numerous concessions in Syria. Franz. capital financed the construction of highways and railways (with the exception of Hijaz), modern. port facilities, organization of regular steamship services, laying telegraph lines.

In connection with the increasing intervention of the deputy. powers in economic and political life S. to the end 19th century Anti-Christian and anti-European sentiments intensified. Local Arab. The elites were also dissatisfied with Ottoman rule. Arab ideas were developed in the circles of the Syrian-Lebanese intelligentsia. nationalism. In the 1870s. A society arose led by Ibrahim al-Yazici, whose goal was to fight Ottoman rule. In the 1890s. In Aleppo, Damascus, and Beirut, new organizations appeared that advocated S.'s independence from the Ottoman Empire.

Syria in the 1st quarter of the 20th century

Patriotic sentiments in S. intensified after Young Turk Revolution 1908. Dozens of socio-political organizations were established. newspapers and magazines created legal Arab. patriotic organizations, mass rallies and political disputes. However, it soon became obvious that the changes were limited, and the Young Turks were ready to defend their interests in the main. Turkic-speaking population. Formation of a new political culture was most noticeable among young and European-educated sires. intelligentsia. It was people from Syria (including Abd al-Kerim Qasem al-Khalil, Seif ad-Din al-Khatib, Abd al-Hamid al-Zahrawi) who made up the majority of the activists of the Lit. formed in 1909 in Istanbul. club. Syrians also predominated in such prominent nationalities. political organizations such as Young Arabia (1911) and the Ottoman Party adm. decentralization (1912). In 1913, they, together with the Lebanese Reform League, convened the Arab. congress However, the inability of the Arab. involve nationalists in their politics. The struggle of the broad masses of the population led to the fact that their social base remained rather narrow.

After the entry of the Ottoman Empire into World War I, S. was turned into a German tour base. command in the Middle East. The 4th Ottoman army was stationed there, led by A. Cemal Pasha, who headed in November. 1914 military-civilian administration and declared war in S. position. Despite the massive repressions that local Christians and Muslims were subjected to during this period. patriots (hundreds of people were executed, thrown into prison, about 10 thousand people were deported), Arab support. nationalism began to grow as a result of a serious crisis in all sectors of the economy, caused by increased taxes on the military. needs and brit. blockade of Mediterranean ports during the war. As a result of massive requisitions of food and raw materials carried out by the tour. authorities, in 1915 in a number of sires. There were food riots in the cities, and a partisan movement began in the mountainous regions. In May 1915 in Damascus, an Arab. nationalists from a number of organizations (including Young Arabia and Al-Ahd) under the leadership. the son of the sheriff of Mecca Hussein - Faisal (see Faisal I), signed a protocol on the Arab-British. cooperation in the war against the Ottoman Empire and Germany, subject to the creation of a single independent Arab after the war. state On Sept. 1918 An anti-Ottoman uprising began in the Jebel Druz region, coinciding with the advance of the British towards Damascus. and French troops and Arab. army led by Faisal (entered Oct. 1918). B. Ch. S. fell under the authority of the commander of the allied forces, Brit. Field Marshal E. G. Allenby; in the west, in the coastal region. Latakia, there were French. strength. British-appointed military officer. governor in the east part of S. Faisal first tried to confirm the rights of the Hashemite dynasty to govern all the former Arabs. possessions of the Ottomans in accordance with the earlier promises of Great Britain, then insisted on the creation of a Syrian-Transjordanian state headed by himself (previously, in March 1920, according to a resolution adopted at the General Syrian Congress in Damascus, he was proclaimed the constitutional monarch of an independent Syria .). However, in April 1920 by agreement between the French. and Brit. representatives at the San Remo conference mandated the League of Nations to govern S. and Lebanon was transferred to France, and the administration of Iraq, Palestine and Transjordan to Great Britain. In July 1920, the French troops, having overcome the weapons. resistance sir. patriots occupied Damascus and established control over the entire S. Faisal was expelled from the country.

Syria during the French Mandate

During the French period Syria's mandate was divided into five autonomous regions (“states”): Damascus, Aleppo, Latakia (“Alawite state”), Jebel Druz (a Druze region centered in Es-Suwayda) and Alexandretta (now Iskenderun, transferred to Turkey in 1939 ); in the extreme northeast of the country, in the vicinity of Ar-Raqqa and Deir ez-Zor, a department was allocated. a district governed directly from the center; Mount Lebanon was expanded by annexing the populated region. Shiites of the Bekaa Valley and the Sunni cities of Tripoli, Beirut, Saida, etc. The terms of the mandate were opened by Sir. market for a free European trade. Import of cheap foreign goods dealt a huge blow, sire. textile industry (in 1913–26 the number of weavers in Aleppo decreased by half, and the number of operating looms by 2/3). Franz. financial monopolies had a decisive influence on the economy. life of the country, owned by the French. capital, the Bank of Syria and Lebanon had the right to issue, transport, power plants and water pipelines belonged to the French.

All R. 1920s in S. a number of political parties, including Communist. party [founded in 1924 as a single party sire. and Lebanon. communists; actually Sire. communist party (UPC) since 1944], People's Party or Nar. party (1925), Nat. block (1927). Anti-French flared up all over the country. speeches. In 1922–23, the Druze uprising in the region was suppressed. Jebel Druz. In July 1925, a new rebellion of the Druze began, liberating the entire region in a week and defeating the 4,000-strong detachment of the generals sent against them. Michaud. In October, the leaders of the national movements organized an uprising in Aleppo and Damascus, which was suppressed after two days of artillery. shelling of Damascus (as a result, about 5 thousand people died). Despite the brutality in the fight against the rebels, the French. the government was forced to change the forms of colonial government in Syria. In 1925, the “state of Aleppo” and the “state of Damascus” were united into the “state of Syria.” In April 1928 elections to the Constituent were held. meeting. In May 1930, the Organic Statute (constitution) was adopted in North Korea, which proclaimed it a republic (with the preservation of the French mandate). Under French The regions of Jebel Druz and Latakia remained separate from the north. In the parliamentary elections in November. 1936 victory was won by the National. block. On Dec. 1936 The new parliament elected H. Atasi as president of the country. National liberation movement in S. forced the French. authorities to enter into negotiations with the leaders of the National Party. block on the conclusion of an agreement based on the recognition of independence of S. In December. 1936 Franco-Sir was signed. a treaty that declared the sovereignty of France and did not allow French interference in its internal affairs. affairs of the country and ensuring the unity of S. (Jebel Druz and Latakia were reunited with S.). France was guaranteed the right to station and move troops, as well as create military forces. bases on the territory of North Korea. To eliminate the mandate regime and join the League of Nations, a three-year transition period was envisaged. Sire. Parliament ratified the treaty on December 27, 1936. However, the government of E. Daladier, which came to power in France in January. 1939 abandoned the agreement. In response to the protest demonstrations and strikes that began in S., the French. The administration introduced a state of emergency in the country, the High Commissioner suspended the constitution (repealed in July of the same year) and dissolved parliament (to govern the internal affairs). affairs of the country, the so-called Board of Directors).

Since the beginning of the 2nd World War in September. 1939 war was declared in S. situation, large contingents of the French are stationed on its territory. troops. After the surrender of France in June 1940, the country came under the rule of the Vichy administration; from May 1941, the airfields and transport hubs of S. were used by the Germans. troops. Due to the disruption of traditional trade relations with neighboring countries and the beginning of interruptions in the supply of food and raw materials, economic The situation and living conditions of the population deteriorated sharply. In Feb. 1941 National The bloc, headed by Sh. Kuatli, organized a strike in Damascus, which soon spread to Aleppo, Hama, Homs and Deir ez-Zor. The strike, which lasted 2 months, forced the French. High Commissioner to dissolve the “Board of Directors” and form a Committee headed by the moderate nationalist H. al-Azem, which ruled S. until the fall of 1941. On July 8, 1941, the British joined S. troops and units " Free French" Between Couatli, the Free French administration and the British. Representatives reached an agreement, according to which new parliamentary elections were held in the country in July 1943, which brought victory to the National. bloc (transformed into the National Patriotic Union). According to the agreements concluded on Dec. 1943, French the mandate was cancelled, sir. the government from 1/1/1944 transferred the main adm. functions. The government of independent S. took a number of measures to strengthen its foreign policy. sovereignty of the country. In Feb. 1945 S. declared war on Germany and Japan. In March she took part in the creation Arab League. In October it was accepted as a member of the UN. However, the British continued to remain on the territory of S. and French troops. The French government agreed to withdraw troops only if S. provided it with economic power. and strategic privileges. Refusal sir. government to fulfill these demands caused clashes between the French in May 1945. troops and the population of a number of cities (Damascus, Homs, etc. came under artillery fire). In the fall of 1945, the government of S. demanded that Great Britain and France evacuate their military units, and in January. 1946 appealed to the UN Security Council with a request to make a decision on the immediate withdrawal of troops. 17.4.1946 all foreign. armed forces were withdrawn from the country.

On Dec. 1947 S. rejected the UN resolution on the division of Palestine. In May 1948, after the proclamation of the state of Israel, together with other Arabs. countries launched wars against him. actions (see Arab-Israeli wars). In the beginning. In 1949, armistice agreements were signed between the opponents, and a demilitarized zone was established between Israel and Israel.

Syria after independence

S.'s achievement of independence contributed to the revival of the national economy. economy, industrial development (mainly textile and food) production, the emergence of banks, although the role of foreign. capital (mainly French) remained significant. The beginning of the creation of state sector in the economy was initiated in 1951–1955 by the nationalization (for ransom) of a number of foreign. companies. In 1955–56, agreements were concluded with the British. by Iraq Petroleum Company and Amer. "Trans-Arabian Pipeline Company" about the deduction in favor of S. 50% of the profits they receive for transporting oil through oil pipelines passing through the territory of S. In 1946, Sir. Parliament adopted a labor law that transferred labor relations to the legal plane. In 1947, a new electoral law was issued, introducing direct elections and secret voting. The situation of the peasant population during this period remained deplorable; most of them were sharecroppers and tenants. This, in particular, determined the internal politics. instability of the state. In the beginning. 1947 The peasant movement, led by A. Haurani, initiated a campaign to change the law on parliamentary elections. In response, Sh. Kuatli introduced a state of emergency and limited the activities of a number of politicians. parties, which allowed the National. the party won the parliamentary elections in July 1947, and Kuatli was re-elected president. On Nov. 1948 His government, accused of incompetence and corruption, was forced to resign. By order of the chief, Gen. regiment headquarters H. al-Zaim, a state of emergency was introduced in the country, the constitution of 1930 was abolished, the activities of the political. parties are completely prohibited. In 1949, al-Zaima proclaimed himself president, but in mid-August he was killed by his opponents in arms. forces during the repeated war. coup led by regiment. S. Hinawi. Hinawi's desire to bring S. closer to Iraq did not find support in high-ranking army circles. On Dec. 1949 The regiment seized power. A. Shishekli, who at first tried to follow the democratic. course (the adoption of a new constitution in 1950, which declared a parliamentary form of government, the provision of broad citizens. rights and carrying out socio-economic. reforms), but already from 1951 (from July 1953 - president) established a military regime. dictatorship. Everything is political. parties, societies. organizations and parliament were dissolved, the constitution was abolished. Uprising in military units in the North. S. in February 1954, supported by people. performances in Damascus, led to the overthrow of Shishekli. The transitional government formed in March 1954, headed by H. Atasi, began to restore democracy. institutions. The 1950 constitution was returned, political activities were allowed. parties. However, thanks to the efforts of conservatives, frightened by desire Parties Arab socialist revival carry out large-scale reforms in the industrial and agricultural sectors, win the presidential elections in August. 1955 Cuatli won again.

In the beginning. 1950s S. was involved in “ cold war" All R. 1950s she joined Egypt in the fight against what was created by Turkey, Iraq and Pakistan under the auspices of the USA and Great Britain Baghdad Pact 1955(later Organizations of the Central dialect, SENTO). In 1955–56, S. reached an agreement with Egypt on the unification of the military. command and creation of a common Military. advice. The Suez crisis of 1956 further strengthened the Syrian-Egyptian relationship. communications. In Feb. 1958 S. and Egypt formed a new state - United Arab Russian Republic(OAR). On Sept. 1958 in Sir. In the UAR region, a law on agrarian reform was adopted, which provided for the confiscation from landowners. parts of the lands and their transfer to landless and land-poor peasants. In July 1961 foreign countries were nationalized. and private commercial banks and largest industrial companies. Everything is political. parties were banned. Against the backdrop of a generally unstable economy. The situation in Egypt (crop failure due to drought, supply interruptions, the desire of the Egyptians to unify the economic structure of both countries, etc.) began a gradual increase in population discontent. Decree of Egypt. President G. A. Nasser on the introduction of state control into S. planning and strengthening the state. sector prepared the way for a new state. coup (carried out on September 28, 1961 by S.’s military command) and S.’s withdrawal from the UAR.

The activities of the new government of M. ad-Dawalibi were aimed at gradually curtailing the economic ones proclaimed during the period of unification. and social reforms. This caused a difference. circles sir. public debate about the ways of further development of the country and the possibilities of restoring the UAR. Attempts to expand the private sector of the economy and rely on large land ownership did not receive the support of the population and led to the entry into politics. the proscenium of representatives of the middle strata of the sir. society. Their increased activity was reflected in strengthening the positions of PASV.

As a result of the war. After the coup of March 8, 1963, the PASV came to power, the government was headed by one of the right-wing leaders of S. - ad-Din Bitar (until October 1964). Under pressure from representatives of the left wing of the PASV, banks and insurance companies were nationalized in 1963, and a new law on agrarian reform was adopted, which lowered the maximum land holdings. By the summer, they convinced the government to allow the creation of nationwide trade unions and the adoption of a new labor law, according to which the role of the state in protecting workers' rights increased. In Jan. 1965 adopted the so-called Ramadan Socialist The decree that placed everything under state control means the most. sir. enterprises. Over the next 6 months, a program of further nationalization was implemented. During its implementation, social contradictions and a crisis within the PASV began to grow (moderate and right-wing Baathists, supported by A. Hafez, opposed the left, led by General S. Jadid). On Dec. In 1965, the right wing of the PASV, with the participation of Hafez, managed to eliminate the leftists from all parties. and state posts But already on February 23, 1966, the left wing of the PASV, supported by the army and trade unions, expelled the right-wing Baathists from the party and from the country. The new government put forward a broad socio-economic program. transformations. Nationalization of large industries followed. enterprises, banks, insurance companies. State The economic sector took a leading position in the country's economy (in 1967 the state sector accounted for 80–85% of industrial output).

In 1966 – beginning. 1967 Tensions increased on the Syrian-Israeli border. In June 1967, the military began. actions as a result of which part of the sir. territories, including the Golan Heights and the Quneitra area, were occupied by the Israelis. These events, as well as the inability of the authorities to ensure the restoration of the economy (a significant part of the Syrian enterprises were destroyed or damaged by Israeli air strikes) significantly undermined the government’s reputation and provoked a wave of protests. At the same time, a split was growing within the ruling elite, which created the conditions for a new state. coup in November 1970, as a result of which the military came to power. PASV wing led by H. Assad.

Syria 1970–2011

With the coming to power of H. Assad, a development strategy was chosen (within the framework of a 5-year plan), which provided for the state. financing and control over the activities of capital-intensive enterprises at the same time. supporting trade and investment in the private sector (especially in construction and agriculture). Sire. private companies benefited from the rise in oil prices that brought prosperity to the Arab world. oil-producing monarchies, from expanding ties with banks and light industry of Lebanon, from strengthening diplomatic relations. contacts and generous economics. assistance from Saudi Arabia. Arabia and Kuwait at the end. 1970s The Arab-Israeli War of 1973 showed a noticeable strengthening of Israel's defense capabilities compared to 1967. However, the use of budget funds by the ruling elite and the rapid enrichment of businessmen associated with top officials provoked accusations of corruption, which, together with the growing competition between the state. and private firms, gave impetus to the activation of various. Islamist movements that began in 1976 anti-government. campaign. In 1977–78, it resulted in a series of attacks on government facilities and the murders of prominent functionaries of S. and PASV.

After clashes between the army and rebels in Aleppo, Hama and Homs in the spring of 1980, the authorities made a number of concessions. At the same time, in July, a decision was made to criminalize membership in the organization Muslim Brothers. In response, in the fall, a group of influential religions. figures formed the Islamic Front to coordinate the actions of the radical opposition. The measures taken by the government are increasing wages at enterprises that are dependent on the center. authorities decreased in favor of the local administration, an increase in fiscal pressure on private companies in the manufacturing industry, monopolization in favor of the state. enterprises (including restrictions for private importers) - caused unrest in Hama in February. 1982, organized by the Muslim Brotherhood (suppressed by the army under the command of the president’s brother, R. Assad). Based on calls for the elimination of corruption, free elections to the Constituent. assembly and liberalization of the constitution, as well as criticism of H. Assad for supporting Iran in the war with Iraq (see. Iran-Iraq War), groups of the Islamic Front and other underground organizations united in the National. Union for the Liberation of Syria.

In the beginning. 1980s Due to the fall in world oil prices, export earnings decreased significantly, while military prices increased sharply. costs due to Israeli aggression in Lebanon. Under these conditions, in Jan. The 1985 PASV congress criticized the inefficiency and corruption of the state. sector and proposed to reorganize the complex system of exchange rates to reduce illegal currency trafficking and losses from black market transactions. In the spring of the same year, Prime Minister. A. R. al-Qasm began negotiations with the West. states and financial organizations to attract investment in the village. x-in and service sector. In 1986, the EEC promised S. appropriate assistance [this was realized only after Damascus supported the international operation in 1990–91. coalition against Iraq (see Kuwait crisis 1990–91)]. Multi-billion dollar subsidies and loans Arab. The monarchies of the Persian Gulf allowed for the rapid growth of the sir. economy (6% in 1990, 8% in 1991), but sharply increased the country's balance of payments deficit. Since 1987, the government has stepped up support for private enterprise and continued the policy of rapprochement with the West (including the settlement of Syrian-Israeli relations). Relations with Jordan improved, on the border with which a free trade zone opened in 2000.

In Feb. 1999 H. Assad was re-elected president (99.9% of the votes in the referendum). But given his advanced age, The issue became the question of a successor: after the removal of R. Assad from the post of vice president, B. Assad became the likely successor to the head of state. In the July 2000 elections (after the death of the president in June), B. Assad took over his father’s post and received the support of 97.3% of the votes.

The new head of S. declared his intention to reach a settlement with Israel subject to the withdrawal of its weapons. forces to the borders in 1967, and in 2002 announced readiness without preliminary. restrictions to resume peace negotiations from the point at which his predecessor broke them off. While taking steps towards rapprochement with Iraq, Assad at the same time sought to expand his base. influence in Lebanon went strategic. partnership with Shiite radicals from Hezbollah. In 2003, S. sharply condemned Iraq. NATO campaign, for which she was accused of supporting terrorism and harboring accomplices of Saddam Hussein, which was followed by sanctions from the United States. In October of the same year, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), after the Islamic Jihad terrorist attack in Haifa, carried out an airstrike on camps in the vicinity of Damascus (occupied, according to the Israeli version, by Palestinian radicals, and according to the Syrian version, by refugees). The issue of sanctions against S. escalated in February. 2005 after the explosion of a car in Beirut. Lebanon Prime Minister R. al-Hariri: accusations were made against Damascus, which allegedly sought to destabilize the situation before the parliamentary elections in Lebanon, after September. 2004 The UN called for the withdrawal of Sir. armies from the country (in March 2005, the armed forces of S. implemented the corresponding resolution). In the spring of 2007, presidential elections were held, in which the only candidate, B. Assad, won.

Civil war in Syria

In March 2011, unrest began in Daraa (on the border with Jordan) under anti-corruption slogans, which, after their harsh suppression, continued under new slogans (trial of those responsible for the violence, release of political prisoners, resignation of the governor). The unrest that spread throughout Daraa later spread to other areas (Latakia, Baniyas, Homs, Hama, and some suburbs of Damascus). By April, the confrontation in the south of the North had reached its maximum. incandescence The opposition accused the government of suppressing a protest with hundreds of peaceful victims, the government accused the opposition of extremism and massacres of military personnel. security forces and agencies. Against this background, B. Assad announced a political reforms: the abolition of the state of emergency that had been in force since 1963, the creation of a social assistance fund for the poor, the reduction of conscription military service, and an increase in wages. A commission to investigate the events in Daraa was established, the governor was dismissed, and more than 300 political prisoners were released from prison. However, this did not lead to calm; on the contrary, opposition protests increasingly took the form of weapons. confrontation.

In Feb. In 2012, a new draft constitution was submitted to a referendum, according to which PASV was deprived of its leading and directing status and was obliged to participate in elections on an equal basis with other parties. In May, at the first multi-party parliamentary elections, the National bloc received a majority. unity”, which included PASV and Progressive National. front. Independent parties also entered the parliament (including the opposition “Coalition of Forces for Peaceful Changes” and regional associations). Soon, more than 100 civilians were killed in Al-Hul under unclear circumstances. The authorities blamed opposition provocateurs. The next presidential elections in June 2014 were held in factual conditions. citizen war: according to official According to data, 88.7% of voters voted for B. Assad, but the West, in particular the United States, refused to recognize the voting results. Part of the territory of S. came under the control of various. paramilitary organizations (terrorist Islamic State in the east, the Islamic Front and the al-Nusra Front in the west, the Syrian National Coalition and the Free Army of Syria in the south, Kurdish militias in the north).

At the initiative of the United States, at the NATO summit on September 4–5, 2014, an international coalition against terrorism organization "Islamic State". On September 23, 2014, the US Armed Forces began carrying out air strikes on the positions of the “Islamic State” on the territory of the North. Saud joined the US operation. Arabia, UAE, Jordan; Qatar and Bahrain provided military assistance. 15.3.2015 Turkey gave permission to the United States to use the Incirlik Air Force Base to host Americans. combat unmanned aerial vehicles. From 30.9.2015 according to official B. Assad's request for ground air support. military forces in the fight against the “Islamic State” the military began. Russian operation in St.

Diplomatic Relations between the USSR and S. were established in July 1944. Russian-Sir. Relations are traditionally friendly. Their foundation was laid during the period of close cooperation between the USSR and Slovakia. Relations between Russia and Slovakia are based on the mutual trust of the countries and the general mood of their citizens. In 2005, 2006 and 2008, B. Assad visited Russia. In May 2010, V.V. Putin’s first visit to Damascus in the history of bilateral relations took place. Political Recent interaction has focused on issues of internal Syrian settlement.

Farm

S. is a country of medium economic level. development among the countries of the South-West. Asia. GDP volume is 107.6 billion dollars (2011, at purchasing power parity); based on GDP per capita $5,100. Human development index 0.658 (2013; 119th place among 187 countries).

The basis of the economy - p. farming, fuel industry and trade. In the beginning. 21st century government reforms were aimed at creating a socially oriented market economy under the state. regulation of such areas as finance, energy, railways. and aviation transport. Steps were taken to liberalize the economy, intensify the activities of the private sector, and attract foreigners. investments, etc. So. Damage to the economy (especially in cities) was caused by the war that began in 2011. conflict between governments. troops and rebel groups. The state has grown. debt, economic growth rates have decreased. growth, inflation accelerated, etc.; industrial area was significantly destroyed. infrastructure (the oil industry was hit the hardest). By 2015 it will be destroyed. international promotions terrorist organizations (“Islamic State” and others) disorganized farms. communications, brought the country's economy to the brink of collapse.

In the structure of GDP, the share of the service sector is 60.2%, industry – 22.2%, agriculture, forestry and fishing – 17.6% (2013, estimate).

Industry

The most developed (before the escalation of the armed conflict in mid-2012) industrial sectors: oil and natural gas production and processing, electric power, chemical, construction materials, food and textile.

Oil production 8.2 million tons (2012, estimate; 19.2 million tons in 2010); basic production areas are located in the northeast (including the Karachuk, Suwaidiya, Rumailan fields; all in the Al-Hasakah governorate) and in the east of the country (including the Omar, Tanak, El-Ward and other fields in the governorate Deir ez-Zor). The largest refineries are in the cities of Baniyas (installed capacity 6.6 million tons of crude oil per year; Tartus governorate) and Homs (5.3 million tons). The leading company is Al Furat Petroleum (jointly owned by the state-owned General Petroleum Corporation and several foreign companies).

Natural gas production 16.6 billion m3 (2012, estimate); basic deposits – Al-Dubayat and Al-Arak (Homs governorate). Gas processing plants - in the city of Deir ez-Zor (installed capacity of about 4.8 million m 3 per year), as well as near the Omar field (2.4 million m 3), the city of Tadmor (2.2 million m 3, Homs governorate), etc.

Electricity production approx. 44 billion kWh (2010); including at thermal power plants - 94% (the largest is Aleppo, capacity 1065 MW; in Jibrin, Aleppo governorate), at hydroelectric power stations - 6% (the largest is Tabqa on the Euphrates River, capacity 800 MW; near the city . Er-Raqqa).

Ferrous metallurgy is represented by steel smelting (10 thousand tons in 2012, estimate; 70 thousand tons in 2011) and production (mainly based on imported raw materials and semi-finished products) of rolled steel and billets (approx. 130 thousand tons in 2012 , estimate; 890 thousand tons in 2011; factories in the cities of Latakia, Aleppo, etc.).

Mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and the electronic industry depend on the supply of components from abroad. Among the enterprises are automobile assembly plants in the cities of Adra (Rif Dimashq governorate) and Hisya (Homs governorate).

Phosphates are mined (1.5 million tons in 2012, estimate; 3.5 million tons in 2011; the main deposits are Alsharqiya and Kneifis, west of Tadmor; most of the products are exported), rock salt, etc. Among the chemical enterprises industry - factories for the production of minerals. fertilizers, sulfur (as a by-product of oil and natural gas refining), sulfuric acid, ammonia, phosphoric acid, plastics, cosmetics, paint and varnish products, detergents, polymer materials, etc. S. is one of the leading Arab. pharmaceutical production countries drugs. In the beginning. 2010s St. acted in S. 50 pharmaceutical companies (approx. 17 thousand employees; main centers - Aleppo and Damascus), providing approx. 90% national medication needs.

The construction materials industry is developed. Production (million tons, 2012, estimate): dolomite 21.2, volcanic tuff 0.5, gypsum 0.3, etc. Production: cement 4 million tons; asphalt 13 thousand tons (2012, estimate; 157 thousand tons in 2010; in the cities of Deir ez-Zor, Kafriya, Latakia governorate, etc.).

The textile industry has traditionally been of great importance (among the centers are Aleppo and Damascus). The industry is represented by cotton ginning. factories, silk spinning factories (main center - Latakia), production of wool and cotton yarn, fabrics, ready-made clothing, etc. The leather and footwear industry specializes in the production of shoes, belts, bags, jackets, etc. Food-flavoring industry (including sugar, oil, tobacco, production of canned vegetables and fruits, drinks). Traditions are widespread. handicrafts: carpet weaving, production of various. artist metal products (including Damascus sabers and knives, copper products), silver and gold jewelry, fabrics (Damascus brocade), furniture (including mahogany, inlaid, painted and carved), etc. .

Agriculture

One of the chapters industries national economy. In the structure of agricultural of land out of 13.9 million hectares, pastures account for 8.2 million hectares, arable land - 4.7 million hectares, perennial plantings - 1.0 million hectares (2011). In the beginning. 2010s the industry satisfied its own. S.'s food needs and provided the light and food processing industries with raw materials.

Crop farming (about 65% of the value of agricultural products) develops on a narrow coastal strip (fruits, olives, tobacco, and cotton are grown on fertile soils in high moisture conditions), as well as in the valleys of the El Asi and Euphrates rivers; Rain-fed (wheat, barley, etc.) and irrigated (including cotton) agriculture is widespread between Damascus and Aleppo, as well as along the border with Turkey. Grown (harvest, million tons in 2012, estimate): wheat 3.6, olives 1.0, tomatoes 0.8, potatoes 0.7, barley 0.7, oranges 0.5, watermelons 0.4, apples 0 ,3, other vegetables and fruits, almonds, pistachios, spices, figs, etc. Viticulture. Ch. technical crops - cotton (raw cotton harvest 359.0 thousand tons, 2012, estimate; main sample in the north of the country) and sugar beets (1027.9 thousand tons).

Livestock farming (about 35% of the value of agricultural products) is extensive; in semi-desert areas it is nomadic and semi-nomadic. Livestock (million heads, 2013, estimate): poultry 21.7, sheep 14.0, goats 2.0, cattle 0.8. Donkeys, camels, horses and mules are also bred. Production (thousand tons, 2012, estimate): milk 2446.0, meat 382.0, wool 22.0; eggs 2457.8 million pcs. Beekeeping. Sericulture (in the Orontes River valley). Fishing (in coastal waters; catch approx. 12 thousand tons per year).

Services sector

The financial system is regulated by the Central Bank of S. (in Damascus) and is represented by several state. (the largest is the Commercial Bank of S., in Damascus) and small private ones (emerged in the early 2000s as part of reforms aimed at liberalizing the economy) commercial banks. banks, there are also international branches. banks (including the National Bank of Qatar). Stock exchange in Damascus (the only one in the country). Foreign tourism (mainly cultural and educational); in 2011 S. visited approx. 2.3 million people (including from Turkey - over 56%).

Transport

Basic mode of transport – automobile. The densest road network is in the west. parts of the country; the total length of roads is 74.3 thousand km (including 66.1 thousand km with hard surface, 2012). Ch. highways (Daraa/border with Jordan - Damascus - Homs - Aleppo, etc.) connect the main. settlements, and also serve for the transit of goods to Turkey and Europe. countries. The total length of railways is 2.8 thousand km (2012). Basic lines: Damascus – Homs – Hama – Aleppo – Maidan Iqbes/border with Turkey; Aleppo – Latakia – Tarsus – Homs; Homs - Palmyra (transportation of phosphorites from deposits near Tadmor to the port of Tartus); Aleppo - Ar-Raqqa - Qamishli / border with Turkey. Intl. airports - in Damascus (the largest in the country), Aleppo, Latakia. Ch. mor. ports: Latakia (freight turnover of about 3.0 million tons in the early 2010s; export of container cargo, import of food, machinery and equipment, textiles, chemicals, etc.) and Tartus (2.0; export of phosphorites ; import of various metals, building materials, food products). The country has an extensive network of oil pipelines connecting fields with terminals at sea. ports (Baniyas, Latakia, Tartus) and refineries, as well as those serving for transit pumping of oil from Iraq and Saud. Arabia. Oil product pipelines run from Homs and Baniyas to Damascus, Aleppo and Latakia. Gas pipelines from fields in the east and center of the north reach Aleppo (further to Turkey) and Homs (further to Tartus and Baniyas); The section of the Pan-Arab gas pipeline (via Damascus and Homs) transports natural gas from Egypt to the port of Baniyas.

International trade

The volume of foreign trade turnover is 11,592 million dollars (2013, estimate), including exports of 2,675 million dollars, imports of 8,917 million dollars (the ongoing crisis in the country led to a significant reduction in volumes; in 2012, the volume of exports amounted to 3,876 million dollars, imports - 10,780 million dollars). Exports are dominated by oil and petroleum products (over 1/3 cost), agricultural products (cotton, diff. vegetables and fruits, wheat, live cattle, meat, wool), consumer goods. Ch. buyers (% of value, 2012 estimate): Iraq 58.4, Saud. Arabia 9.7, Kuwait 6.4. Imported are machinery and equipment, food, metals and products made from them, miscellaneous. chemicals, etc. Ch. suppliers (% of cost): Saudi. Arabia 22.8, UAE 11.2, Iran 8.3.

Armed forces

Armed forces (AF) number 178 thousand people. (all data for 2014) and consist of the Ground Forces (ground forces), air force and air defense, and navy. Military officer formations – up to 100 thousand people. (of which about 8 thousand are in the gendarmerie). Reserve approx. 300 thousand people, including in the North – 275 thousand people. Military annual budget is 2.2 billion dollars. In connection with the active hostilities taking place on the territory of S. since 2015, the numerical strength of its armed forces is undergoing significant changes. changes.

The Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces is the president of the country, who determines the basic. directions of military-political course S. and exercises leadership of the Armed Forces through the Defense Ministry and the General Staff. Subordinate to him are the Chief of the General Staff (also the commander of the Ground Forces), commanders of the branches of the Armed Forces and some of the center. MO management.

Direct command of the troops is entrusted to the commanders of the armed forces. Most formations and units are below their normal strength.

NE (110 thousand people) – main. type of aircraft. Organizationally, they are consolidated into 3 army corps headquarters, 12 divisions, 13 departments. brigades, 11 departments special regiments appointments. Reserve: tank division headquarters, 4 tank brigades, regiments (31 infantry, 3 artillery, 2 tank). The SV is armed with St. 94 PU operational-tactical. and tactful. missiles, 6 anti-ship missile launchers, 4950 tanks (including 1200 in repair and storage), 590 armored personnel carriers, approx. 2450 infantry fighting vehicles, 1500 armored personnel carriers, St. 3440 field artillery guns (including 2030 towed and 430 self-propelled), approx. 4400 PU ATGM, up to 500 MLRS, St. 410 mortars, 84 air defense systems, more than 4000 MANPADS, 2050 anti-aircraft artillery guns, several. unmanned aircraft, etc.

The Air Force and Air Defense (approx. 56 thousand people) have combat and auxiliary personnel. aviation, as well as air defense forces and means. Basic administrative body and operational control of Air Force units is the headquarters, and in the Air Defense Forces - the department. command; The aviation forces are subordinate to them. squadrons. The Air Force is armed with 20 bombers, 130 fighter-bombers, 310 fighters, 14 reconnaissance, 31 combat training and 25 military transport aircraft, 80 combat and 110 transport helicopters. Airplanes and helicopters mainly obsolete types, ch. arr. MiG-21. The airfield network of the North includes more than 100 airfields, and for the basing of modern. Only 21 airfields are suitable for aircraft. The main ones are: Abu ad-Duhur, Aleppo, Bley, Damascus, Dumayr, En-Nasiriya, Seikal, Tifor. Reinforced concrete has been constructed at all military aviation base airfields. shelters for airplanes. Air defense units are represented by 2 divisions, 25 anti-aircraft missile brigades, radio engineering units. troops. They are armed with approx. 750 PU SAM, approx. 2000 anti-aircraft artillery guns of calibers from 23 to 100 mm.

The Navy (5 thousand people) consists of the fleet, naval aviation, coast guard and defense units, logistics institutions and educational institutions. The ship's composition includes 2 small anti-submarine ships, 16 missile boats, 3 landing ships, 8 minesweepers, 2 hydrographic ships. ships, training ship. Coast Guard and Defense includes infantry. brigade, 12 batteries of anti-ship missile systems P-5 and P-15, 2 art. division (36 130 mm and 12 100 mm guns), coastal observation battalion. The fleet aviation is armed with 13 helicopters. Based in Latakia, Tartus.

Private and non-commissioned officers are trained in schools, officers - in the military. academies and abroad. Regular armed forces are recruited by males aged 19–40 years, service life is 30 months. Mobilization resources 5.1 million people, including those fit for military service. service 3.2 million people. One of the priority areas of the military. construction of military-political S.'s management considers deliveries to all types of modern aircraft. military samples equipment and weapons, ch. arr. from abroad. Great efforts are being made to obtain licenses and organize their production within the country.

Healthcare

In S. per 100 thousand inhabitants. there are 150 doctors, 186 persons cf. honey. staff and midwives (2012); 15 hospital beds per 10 thousand inhabitants. (2010). Total expenditure on health care is 3.4% of GDP (budget financing - 46.1%, private sector - 53.9%) (2012). Legal regulation of the health care system is carried out by the Constitution (1973) and the law on psychiatric care. assistance (2007). State healthcare is free. In war conditions. conflict, it needs to be restored as a structure and medical services. care and health care management systems. The most common infections are tuberculosis and polio (2012). Basic causes of death: injuries and other external factors, malnutrition, tuberculosis (2014).

Sport

National the Olympic Committee was founded in 1947 and recognized by the IOC in 1948. In the same year, S. athletes made their debut at the Olympic Games in London; subsequently participated in 11 Olympic Games (1968, 1972, 1980–2014) dept. team and in Rome (1960) as part of the United Arab team. Republic. The first Olympic award (silver medal) was won by J. Atiya (Los Angeles, 1984) in the freestyle wrestling competition in the weight category up to 100 kg. At the Olympic Games in Atlanta (1996), multiple record holder S. in various. types of athletics and the winner of the World Championship (1995, heptathlon) G. Shuaa won a gold medal in the heptathlon. The bronze Olympic award (Athens, 2004) was awarded to boxer N. al-Shami in the weight category up to 91 kg. Since 1978 sire. athletes participate in the Asian Games (except 1986); 9 gold, 8 silver and 14 bronze medals were won (as of December 1, 2015). Twice Damascus was the capital of the Pan-Arab Games (1976, 1992), sir. the athletes won the team competition. The most popular sports in the country: football, basketball, gymnastics, tennis, weightlifting, wrestling, boxing, swimming, track and field. Since 1972, the men's national team periodically takes part in the World Chess Olympiads.

Education. Scientific and cultural institutions

Management of education institutions are carried out by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education. Muslim educational institutions are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Waqf Affairs. Basic regulatory documents: Decree on the Elimination of Illiteracy (1972), laws - obligatory. education (1981), about the activities of the universities (2006); resolutions of the Ministry of Education - on preschool education (1989, 1991), on prof. education (2000). The education system includes preschool education (paid), compulsory free 6-year primary education, secondary (3-year incomplete and 3-year complete) education, secondary vocational education. education (main education based on incomplete secondary school; course up to 3 years), higher education. There is a Center for Vocational and Technical Sciences. education in Aleppo (created in the 1970s with the help of the USSR). On the basis of complete secondary school and secondary vocational training. educational institutions offer 2-year technical training. in-you, which give prof. advanced education. In 2013, 5.3% of children were enrolled in preschool education, 74.2% in primary education, and 44.1% in secondary education. The literacy rate of the population over the age of 15 is 96.4% (2015, data from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics). Largest universities, ch. scientific institutions, libraries and museums are located in Damascus, Latakia, Aleppo and Homs.

Mass media

Daily newspapers are published in Arabic. language (all - Damascus): “Al-Baath” (“Renaissance”, since 1948, organ of PASV; circulation about 65 thousand copies), “Al-Saura” (“Revolution”, since 1963; about 55 thousand copies), “Tishrin” (“October”, since 1975; about 70 thousand copies), “Al-Watan” (“Motherland”, since 2006; about 22 thousand copies), “Nidal al-Shaab" ("Struggle of the People", since 1934; organ of the Central Committee of the Syrian Communist Party). In English. language daily gas comes out. “Syria Times” (Damascus; since 1981; about 12 thousand copies). Weeklies are published in Arabic. language (all from Damascus): “Nidal al-Fillahin” (“Struggle of the Peasants”, since 1965, organ of the General Federation of Peasants of Syria; about 25 thousand copies), “Kifah al-Ummal al-Ishtiraki” (“Socialist . workers' struggle", since 1966, organ of the General Federation of Trade Unions of Syria; about 30 thousand copies). Radio broadcasting since 1946 (carried out by the government service "Directorate-General of Broadcasting and Television"; Damascus), broadcasting television programs since 1960 (government commercial service "Syrian Television"; Damascus). Govt. Sire. Arab. information agency (“Syrian Arab News Agency”; SANA) has been operating since 1966 (founded in 1965, Damascus).

Literature

Literature sir. people are developing into Arabic. language On the territory of the North in the 1st century. n. e. there was a sire. the language in which the literature was created. works (see Syrian literature) and which in the 14th century. The Arab was completely ousted. tongue. Middle-century liter S. – part Arab-Muslim culture. In the 19th century in North, which then also included the territories of Lebanon and Palestine, the period of enlightenment began; the desire to renew literature is inherent in the work of Adib Ishak (the story “Joys for Lovers and Delights for the Nights,” 1874; collected essay “Pearls,” 1909; numerous translations of Western literature). The founders, sire. A. Kh. al-Kabbani and I. Farah became the theater's directors (historical dramas "Cleopatra", 1888; "The Greed of Women", 1889). At the origins of the new sire. prose - the work of F. Marrash (books “The Forest of Law”, 1866, “Travel to Paris”, 1867; the story “Pearls from Shells”, 1872; etc.). An important milestone in the development of sir. prose became works created in the traditions of maqama, but dedicated to pressing problems of sir. societies: N. al-Kasatli, Sh. al-Asali, M. al-Saqal, R. Rizka Sallum (“Diseases of the New Century”, 1909). Patriotic The theme distinguishes tradition. poetic in form. creativity of M. al-Bism, H. ad-Din al-Zarqali, H. Mardam-bek. In the 1920s–50s. Romanticism dominated in S.'s literature, most vividly embodied in the poetry of Sh. Jabri, A. al-Nasir, B. al-Jabal, O. Abu Risha, W. al-Kurunfuli, A. al-Attar, as well as prose by S. Abu Ghanim (collection of stories “Songs of the Night”, 1922), S. al-Kayali (collection “Storm and Light”, 1947), N. al-Ikhtiyar (story “The Return of Christ”, 1930). The emergence of the historical novel - the first major prose novel. genre in S. literature, associated with M. al-Arnaut (novels “The Lord of the Quraysh,” 1929; “Virgin Fatima,” 1942; etc.). Novels in modern times The themes “Greed” (1937), “Fate Plays” (1939), “Rainbow” (1946) are created by Sh. al-Jabiri.

Since the 1930s realism began to take hold, vividly represented by the short stories of A. Khulka (collection “Spring and Autumn”, 1931), M. an-Najjar (collection “In the Palaces of Damascus”, 1937), F. al-Shayib, V. Sakkakini, A. al-Salyama al-Ujayli (collection “The Witch’s Daughter”, 1948), etc. The genre of social comedy took shape in dramaturgy (M. al-Sibai), plays appeared in historical. and legendary stories (A. Mardam-bek, A. Suleiman al-Ahmed, Z. Mirza, O. Abu Risha, etc.). Realism remained the leading trend in prose in the 1950s–60s, addressing complex social problems: M. al-Kayali, H. al-Kayali, S. al-Sharif, Sh. Baghdadi, S. Khauraniya, F. as -Sibai, H. Mina, M. Safadi, H. al-Kayali (novel “Love Letters”, 1956), H. Barakat (novel “Green Peaks”, 1956), A. al-Ujayli (novel “Bashima in Tears”, 1959), etc. “Women’s” prose received the form, represented by the names of S. al-Haffar al-Kuzbari (autobiographical novel “The Diaries of Hala,” 1950), K. al-Khuri (novel “Days Spent with Him,” 1959). In psychology prose of Z. Tamer, marked stylistically. grace, the influence of Europe is noticeable. modernist literature. Existential issues dominated the short stories of the 1960s–1970s: collections of stories by J. Salem (“Poor People,” 1964), H. Haidar (“Wild Goats,” 1978), V. Ikhlasi and others.

In the 1960s “new poetry”, marked by metrical-rhythmic, developed. experiments: N. Kabbani, A. al-Nasir, O. al-Muyassar, H. ad-Din al-Asadi; The work of Adonis gained wide popularity. Romanticization of the past, appeal to mythological. the material is characterized by a rich philosophy. reflections on the dramaturgy of H. Hindawi, M. Haj Hussein S. al-Isa, A. Mardam Beg, O. al-Nas, M. al-Safadi; social themes distinguish the plays of M. al-Sibai and H. al-Kayali (“Knocking on the Door,” 1964; “The Carpenter’s Daughter,” 1968). The creators of the “political theater” were S. Wannus and M. al-Hallaj (the play “Dervishes are looking for the truth”, 1970). Events Arab-Israeli wars found a vivid embodiment in the prose of the 1970–90s, in particular in the works of A. Abu Shanab, A. Orsan (story “Golan Heights”, 1982), I. Luka, N. Said, etc.; they were presented in a modernist vein by M. Yusuf (collection of stories “Faces of the Late Night,” 1974). The novel developed predominantly. in realistic. spirit, gravitating towards panoramic, epic. depiction of human destinies and events (H. Mina, F. Zarzur, I. Masalima, K. Kilyani, A. Nahvi, A. al-Salam al-Ujayli, S. Dikhni, Y. Rifaiya, H. al-Zahabi, A Y. Daud and others). Prose con. 20 – beginning 21st centuries dedicated to the preem. socio-political and patriotic subject; Among its most prominent representatives are H. al-Zahabi, M. al-Khani, Y. Rifaiya, G. al-Samman (novels “Masquerade of the Dead,” 2003; N. Suleiman (novel “Forbidden Souls,” 2012).

Architecture and fine arts

In historical In the past, the territory of S. belonged to different cultural zones and was influenced by many. civilizations: Sumerian-Akkadian and Babylonian-Assyrian, Hittite and Hurrian, ancient Egypt, Aegean and Greco-Roman; south S. was closely connected with the complex of cultures of Arabia. In the 3rd century. BC e. – 3rd century n. e. S. became the area of ​​​​contact between the ancient and Parthian traditions, in the 4th–7th centuries. – Byzantine. and Iranian-Sasanian. This versatility of ancient art. S.'s culture determined its originality, the formation of original schools of architecture, and depicted. and decorative and applied arts.

The most ancient architects. S.'s monuments date back to the 10th–7th millennium BC. e. (Mureibit II, III, c. 9800–8600 BC; Tell Aswad, c. 8700–7000 BC). Among the archaeological finds - “idols” made of limestone, stone and clay figurines of people and animals, clay vessels, baskets, beads made of shells, bones and pebbles. In the settlements of the east. parts of the Northern territory, rectangular 3–4-room houses made of mud brick, with whitewashed walls, sometimes painted with red liquid clay (Bukras, ca. 7400–6200 BC), also stone and terracotta figurines, vessels made of alabaster and marble (Tell Ramad, c. 8200–7800). In the settlements of the 6th millennium BC. e. polished pottery is found, sometimes with incised or stamped ornaments, in the eastern. regions - ceramics from the Samarra culture (Baghuz, Middle Euphrates). In the north-east S. in complexes of the 5th millennium BC. e. terracotta female figurines with a conical “hairstyle” and painted eyes were found (Tell Halaf); in the Palanli cave (north S.) - animal drawings close to the Halaf ceramics style. Eneolithic settlements of the north and north-east parts of the Northern territory had a double line of walls with towers and gates, paved streets, a network of water conduits, gardens, temples, and administration. buildings, multi-room rectangular houses with a center plan. hall and internal courtyard (Habuba-Kabira, c. 3500–3300 BC). Hundreds of “big-eyed idols” (figures made of alabaster with double rings at the top) were inserted into the lime mortar of the mud brick walls of the “Temple of the Eye” (c. 3500–3300 BC) at Tell Brak; the facades were decorated with clay cones and copper plates and gold. From the 2nd half. 4th millennium BC e. artists were created. products made of copper, gold, silver, stone and ceramics. vessels, stone and bone amulets in the form of animals, figurines of people, cylindrical. seals with reliefs (Habuba-Kabira, Jebel Aruda).

) S. The cities had massive walls (in the western regions of stone, in the eastern - of brick), regularly paved streets, houses with courtyards, wells, baths, sewers and a family crypt-treasury. The fortified palaces included complexes of rectangular buildings of various types. appointments grouped around yards of different sizes; Ch. the rooms stood out for their size and richness of decoration (the palace of King Zimri-Lim in Mari, 18th century BC; the royal palace in Ugarit, c. 1400 BC). The walled temples included a courtyard with an altar, an entrance hall and a cella with a dedicatory area. steles and statues of gods. In northern architecture S. in con. 2nd millennium BC e. a type of Syro-Hittite temple and/or bit-hilani palace (Kapara palace-temple in Tell Halaf) developed.

Bronze Age works of art demonstrate a variety of stylistic orientations. Finds in Mari (fragments of paintings, statues, reliefs, etc.) indicate the development of a local version of Mesopotamian depictions. claim, departing from the Old Babylonian canon. Works by Ebla illustrate the process of adaptation and processing of the East. and zap. artist traditions. The sculpture is reminiscent of Sumerian in style and iconography, but with more careful attention to detail. The archaic roughness of the enlarged forms of mythological images. creatures akin to the plastic arts of the Hittites; jewelry with elegance and style. The variety is reminiscent of the products of Ugarit, where most of them come from. monuments of art from S. ser. 2nd millennium BC e. Gold dishes and bowls with chased and engraved reliefs, ivory sculpture inlaid with silver, copper, emerald, glassware, weapons, painted ceramics, etc., partly imported or oriented to Mycenaean or Egyptian. samples, mainly demonstrate Ugaritic style with organic. a synthesis of Eastern Mediterranean, Aegean and Syro-Mesopotamian traditions.

The invasions of the Sea Peoples and the expansion of Assyria led to the destruction of many. cities and fundamental changes in art. traditions of S. In the 9th century. BC e. all in. S. Assyrian adm. arise. and artist centers - for example, Til-Barsib (Aramaic Bit-Adini on the Euphrates, now Tell Ahmar) with a palace decorated with monumental stone steles with cult reliefs and wall paintings, anticipating the style of art of Assyria in its heyday; Arslan-Tash - Aramaic and Assyrian. city ​​in the north border of S. (statues, bas-reliefs depicting people and animals, ivory plates with carved Egyptian symbols, scenes and images of the Aegean-Mediterranean circle, 9–8 centuries BC). In the north and northeast of the country at the beginning. 1st millennium BC e. one of the syncretistic variants was formed. Syro-Hittite art, distinguished by the fusion of Hurrian and Hittite features in iconography and the style of archaic, crude images.

Damascus) cities received a regular street layout according to hippodamian system and were fortified with powerful stone walls and a citadel. In the Hellenistic ensemble. cities, along with Greek temples. and local deities, theatres, stadiums, palaestras, meeting houses, agora, etc. occupied an important place. The design and image of the buildings was determined by architectural order. From Rome time, the majestic ruins of Apamea and Palmyra have been preserved (almost destroyed by the so-called Islamic state in 2015). Basic highways (Roman cardo and decumanus), with tetrapylons (Laodicea) at crossroads, often lined with colonnades and porticos, connected ch. mountains gate. In the design of colonnaded streets and communities. buildings, villas, triumphal arches and columns, an important role was given to statues, reliefs, paintings and floor mosaics. Each city had its own characteristics: Philippopolis (now Shahba) in the south. S. is planned according to the Roman type. military camps; Palmyra had a 3-span monumental arch, masking the turn of the processional road to the sanctuary of Bel, etc. The original schools will be depicted. The art of ancient synagogue developed in Philippopolis (floor mosaics), Palmyra (painting and sculpture), and in Dura-Europos (paintings combining features of Parthian-Iranian, Syro-Mesopotamian and Hellenistic art; some frescoes of the synagogue anticipate the style early Byzantine painting).

All in. S., among the ruins of abandoned agricultural farms. centers 4th – 1st third of 7th centuries. (“dead cities”), monuments of late antique and early Byzantine culture have been preserved: Sergilla (4th–5th centuries; remains of city walls, a church, a complex of baths, a dairy, residential buildings, etc.), al-Bara (4–6 centuries; churches, 2 pyramidal tombs with sarcophagi), etc. S. Byzantine architecture. time are distinguished by the severity of forms and restraint of decoration (mon. Kal'at-Sim'an, 5th century). Political and ideological differences prevented the formation of a unified regional architecture. type of temple. In general, the religious architecture of Christian S. evolved from a simple hall church (Kirk-Bizet, 4th century) to large 3-nave church basilicas with a gable roof on wood. rafters or stone vaults (at Kalb Luzech, 4th–5th centuries; church at Brad, 395–402). In the 6th century. domed basilicas, prototypes of cross-domed temples (the church “outside the walls” in Rusafa, 569–582), baptisteries, martyriums, fortified monasteries with bastion towers (on the site of the early Islamic castle Qasr al-Khair East, 728–729) and castles-palaces ( Qasr-ibn-Wardan, 2nd floor 6th century). Marble cladding, mosaic floors, subject paintings, stucco, stone and wood were widely used to decorate the interiors of palaces and temples. carvings, gilding, woven draperies, bronze and silver utensils, furniture. Floor mosaics of Bosra (now Busra al-Sham), Apamea, Hama, rare works of sculpture, the increasing role of ornament mark a turn to the conventional pictorial and decorative form, the language of symbols inherent early Christian art, as well as Hellenized artists. schemes and motives. Works of applied art (silver and gold vessels with chasing and engraving, crosses, figured lamps, patterned silk fabrics, etc.) are distinguished by a combination of early Byzantine and local traditions. After the Muslims. During the conquest of S., the art of Christians existed in monasteries (frescoes of the monastery of Deir Mar Musa, 12th century).

Syro-Byzantine art. the school played a crucial role in the formation of early Islamic culture, especially in the Umayyad era, when the cities of S. generally retained their Roman-Byzantine appearance. During the reconstruction of old buildings, a Muslim center was formed. cities with a cathedral mosque ( Umayyad mosque in Damascus) and the palace adm. complex - Dar al-Imara (Damascus, Hama, Aleppo). In the 1st half. 8th century construction of remote residences and estates – “desert castles” – began; at the basis of their layout one can guess the Roman scheme. fort and byzantium. fortified monastery. The formation of a new artist. concept - an abstract worldview, which later led to the predominant development of calligraphy and ornament - manifested itself in the design of religious and palace buildings (architectural landscapes of smalt mosaics of the Umayyad mosque in Damascus, c. 715). Surviving examples of monumental painting, sculpture and ornamental decoration demonstrate a complex interweaving of ancient, early Byzantine, Syro-Mesopotamian and Iranian styles. Sasanian traditions (floor frescoes and stuk sculpture from the “desert castle” of Qasr al-Khair Western, 727).

With the Abbasids moving the center of the Caliphate to Iraq, new cities began to be built in the Mesopotamian part of Syria ( Er-Rak ka, founded in 772 on the model of "Madinat al-Salam", see Baghdad). By the 12th–13th centuries. S. cities acquired the Middle Ages. view. Large construction took place in Damascus and Aleppo. Inside the walls with massive entrance gates and watchtowers, the cities were divided into separate ones according to religion. and craft-based residential areas with religious buildings, markets, and societies. bathhouse The city center was grouped around or near the citadel. A feature of S.'s architecture has become cultic and charitable. complexes: rectangular in plan, 2–3-story building with a center. courtyard with ivans on the main axes and a pool in the center, which united a madrasah, maristan (medical hospital) or ribat or taqiya (abode of Sufis) with a prayer house and tomb of the founder (mosque-madrasah-ribat al-Firdaus, 1235, Aleppo). A special place in the Middle Ages. architecture of the north-west S. is occupied by crusader castles, combining the traditions of early Byzantine, late Romanesque, and early Gothic architecture ( Krak des Chevaliers, Margat, both – 12th–13th centuries, Arabic in place. fortresses of the 11th century). During the Mamluk era, northern trade and craft centers (Damascus, Aleppo) expanded greatly.

It will depict blossoming. claim of the Middle Ages. S. coincided with the era of the Ayyubids and Mamluks. Book miniatures in manuscripts collection. fables “Kalila and Dimna” (1220, National Library, Paris; 1354, Bodley Library, Oxford), picaresque short stories “Maqama” by al-Hariri (1222, National Library, Paris), works by al-Hariri Mubashshira about the philosophers of antiquity (early 13th century, Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul) shows several directions: colorful, naively plausible, expressive and humorous scenes. intonation; more refined and complicated compositions; works reminiscent of the Middle Ages. mosaic or Byzantine-influenced. writing manners. The miniature clearly influenced the development of subject and ornamental painting on glass (colored enamels) and glazed ceramics (the main centers are Er-Raqqa, Rusafa), on the decor of bronze products (trays, vessels, incense burners, lamps, etc.), decorated chasing, engraving, carving, silver inlay (Damascus, Aleppo). Middle-century S. craftsmen became famous for making weapons, jewelry, silk patterned fabrics, and wood. carving, painting, inlay. The ubiquitous ornament is geometric. compositions, arabesques (in the form of leafy shoots forming spirals, often with flowers, birds, or a patterned rhombic grid with plant, epigraphic and figurative motifs) - became more and more complex, multi-layered (“pattern within a pattern”) and abstract.

The architecture of S. as part of the Ottoman Empire (1516–1918) acquired the features of a tour. architecture Mosques of this time usually have a small cube. volume with center hemispherical dome and slender needle-shaped minarets. The facades of the buildings are faced with contrasting rows of black and white (or yellowish) stone. The interiors of mosques, madrassas, khans (caravanserais), palaces and rich residential buildings with marble-paved courtyards with fruit trees and bushes, iwans, arcade porticoes, flower beds, pools and fountains are becoming more and more elegant (Azema palaces in Damascus and Hama, 18 c.), decorated with ceramic cladding. panel with growing patterns in sonorous colors. A network of covered markets-passages with mosques, baths, and khans was formed. The street facades of 2-3-story buildings now have windows with shutters and balconies covered with wood. carved mashrabiya grilles. Monumental and decorative art and art. crafts have also undergone this means. changes (large ornament with floral motifs; calligraphic inscriptions). Carving and painting on marble and wood, inlay on wood (camel bone, colored wood, mother-of-pearl, silver) achieved high skill.

In con. 19 – 1st half. 20th centuries changes in art S.'s life led to the development of Europe. forms of architecture and depicts. art (the emergence of oil painting). In the 1920s the reconstruction of cities began (with the participation of French architects J. Sauvage, M. Ecochar, R. Danger) with the preservation of architectural monuments and the emergence of European. quarters (Damascus, general plan 1929). Mn. S. artists and architects studied in Europe; Architects X. Farra, S. Mudarris, B. al-Hakim and others were educated at Damascus University. Since the 1970s, along with the construction of the state. buildings (the municipality in Latakia, 1973, architects A. Dib, K. Seibert; the presidential palace in Damascus, 1990, architect Tange Kenzo, etc.), the construction of new residential areas, hospital complexes, parks, stadiums, university campuses began, museum buildings, and resort buildings on the coast.

Depict. claim S. 1st half. 20th century took shape in the process of European exploration. artist culture and search for national style (painter M. Kirsha, sculptors and painters M. Jalal, M. Fathi, M. Hammad). Sir was founded in 1952. Association of Arts, in 1971 - Sir. branch of the Arab Union. artists. Among the masters are the 2nd floor. 20 – beginning 21st centuries - landscape painters N. Shaura, N. Ismail, artist and art historian A. Bahnassi, representative of the Sir. avant-garde art F. al-Mudarris, portraitist L. Kayali, graphic artists N. Nabaa and N. Ismail, painter-calligrapher M. Ganum. The decorative and applied art of S. preserves tradition. types: embroidery, carpet weaving, weaving, fabric making, chasing and engraving on metal, carving, painting and inlay on wood.

Music

Among the monuments of ancient muses. culture of S. - large floor mosaic of Rome. Villa Maryamin (near Hama, 4th century), depicting rich Roman women playing music; it presents muses. instruments: oud, kamancha, kanun, goblet-shaped drum - darbuka, etc.). Samples of early music sir. no Christians survived; modern sir. “hymns” were influenced by late Greek church music (multiple ratios of rhythmic durations, time signatures and the presence of bourdon - “Ison”) and, on the other hand, maqama (hemiolic, ornamental microchromatics). In the divine service, Western Sir. Church (Antiochian rite) uses the everyday song book (hymnary) “Beth Gezo” (“Repository of Treasures”; edited by Nuri Iskander, 1992), containing approx. 700 notated chants (in modern decoding in 5-line notation). Before the start of armament. conflict in Damascus, the Sir Orchestra functioned. radio (1950) and Syrian Conservatory (1961); An opera troupe was formed at the Higher Institute of Drama and Music “Dar al-Assad” in 2004.

Theater

Until sep. 19th century development of prof. theatrical art in S. was hampered by the negative attitude of Islam towards anthropomorphic images. At the same time, the desire for acting acquired its unique features here, finding ways to survive in an unfavorable environment. Being historically the heir of three great cultures - Mesopotamian, Greco-Roman and Arab-Muslim, S., like other Arabs. countries, developed people. forms of performing arts in which almost all theatrical components are present. This is an ancient art of storytellers, a theater of shadows and puppets Karagyoz, folk scenes. comedy fasl mudhik. All performances are based on the trinity of verbal, musical and plastic. lawsuit These became artists. tradition of the people spectacular forms are included in the arsenal of the sire. theater and in the 21st century.

Along with Egypt, S. was previously another Arab. countries entered into trade and cultural contacts with the West. In the beginning. 18th century missionaries opened schools here where mystery plays and morality plays were performed. Playwright A.H. al-Qabbani adapted world drama to local conditions. Knowing folklore well, he created synthetic performances. genre, organically connecting new forms of theatrical art with the tradition of folk art. spectacles, lit. text with music, singing and dancing. The social urgency of the plays and their wide audience success led to the closure of his theater in 1884 by decree of the tour. Sultan. Al-Kabbani emigrated among other sires. cultural figures whose mass exodus to Egypt in the 1870s and 80s. associated with tur pressure. authorities, the strengthening of the influence of the local clergy and the penetration of large European countries. capital. The “Syrian Arab theater in Egypt” movement arose, the successful representatives of which were playwrights S. al-Naqqash, A. Ishak, Y. al-Hayat and others. Thanks to their efforts, a theater troupe was organized in Alexandria, which staged plays “Harun ar -Rashid" (1850), "The Creation of Good" (1878), "Tyrant" (1879), "Telemaque" (1882), etc. Between the two world wars, people occupied a special place. improvisational forms of performance with pantomime, comic. skits and music. So... contribution to the development of sir. The theater was contributed by the actor and playwright N. al-Reyhani, whose play “Kish-Kish Bey” combined elements of French. vaudeville and national music comedies; Ch. the hero of the play is considered a descendant of the people. character Karagöz. Based on its popularity in the 1920s. performances “The Barber of Baghdad” and “Jasmina” - fairy tales from “A Thousand and One Nights”. Circle of topics sire. dramas of the 1930s included Arabic stories. and Islamic history, adv. epic and mountains folklore Appeal to the historical events and characters at this stage were associated with the desire to arouse the public's admiration for the past greatness of the Arabs, awakening the national. self-awareness. The winning of independence in 1945 gave new impetus to the professionalization of theater and drama. In 1960, the National Society was created in Damascus. dramatic theater in which young directors A. Fedda, U. Ursan, D. Lachman worked. Social drama conquered the stage; Among the authors – V. Midfai, M. al-Safadi, Y. Maqdisi, M. Udwan, S. Haurania. The dramaturgy of S. Vannus, which explored the relationship between totalitarian power and the silent people, was distinguished by the most acute socially accusatory character. The criticism of the current regime on the theater stage began with Vannus’s play “Party on the Occasion of June 5th” (1968). In his search for rapprochement with the public, his play “The Head of Mamluk Jaber” (1970) directed by Fedda (1973) became a milestone: using the technique of imaginary improvisation, the director introduced into the performance the image of a storyteller who removed the barrier between the stage and the hall, following the tradition of the national. folklore

At the turn of the 20th–21st centuries. one of the most pressing problems of stage production. lawsuits S. - disputes about the place and role of people. theatrical tradition, especially folk. comedy, in modern times life of the country. Leading theater figures (including Professor of Damascus University, author of many books and articles about theater H. Kassab-Hassan) advocate the need to preserve the traditions of oral storytelling, develop the “storyteller without borders” movement both in the field of theater and and in educational programs for children, about the creation of an annual festival of traveling storytellers. There are also theaters in the capital: the Workers' Union, al-Qabbani, al-Hamraa, and others. In 2004, after a 14-year break, the theater festival, founded back in 1969 by the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Damascus, resumed in Damascus, attracting the attention of young performers ( The topic of the round tables is “Theater and Youth”). Despite the difficult political situation, the S. theater continues to develop. In 2010, dir. U. Ghanem organized the Damascus “Theater Laboratory”, where, based on the artist. research about modern the theater analyzes issues of modern communication. sir. dramaturgy and acting, theater and social reality. Since 2013, seminars have been held (“Working on a dramatic text from Muller to Sarah Kane”, “Chekhov and modern directing”, etc.).

Movie

From 1908 (when the first film screenings took place in the country) until mid. 1910s were demonstrated in the main chronicle and staged French. films after the outbreak of World War I - German. In 1916, the Canakkale Cinema cinema hall was opened in Damascus. The first sire came out in 1928. gaming f. “The Innocent Defendant” by A. Badri. Among the films of the 1930–60s: “Under the Sky of Damascus” by I. Anzur (1934), “Call of Duty” by Badri (1936), “Light and Darkness” by N. Shahbender (1949, the first national sound film), “ Traveler" by Z. Shaua (1950), "Green Valley" by A. Arfan (1961). In 1963, the General Organization of Sirs was formed under the Ministry of Culture. cinema (including cooperation with the USSR in the training of professional national personnel at VGIK; since the late 1990s, it has financed the production of feature films). The struggle of Syrians for their rights was told in the film “The Bus Driver” (1968, Yugoslav dir. B. Vucinich), about the fate of the Palestinian people - “The Deceived” by T. Salih (1972), about the extermination of civilians of a Palestinian village in 1956 - “Kafir Kasem" by B. Alaviya (1975, Mkf Ave. in Moscow). The theme of the Middle East conflict was also raised in the films “Reverse Direction” by M. Haddad (1975), “Heroes Are Born Twice” by S. Dekhni, “Red, White, Black” by B. Safiya (both 1977). In the 1970s - early. 1980s The director worked fruitfully. N. Malikh, who created films about the opposition of the common man to power (“Leopard”, 1972; “Old Photographs”, 1981) and ironically. key, denouncing the pharisaism of an unprincipled careerist (“Mr. Progressist”, 1975). The film “An Incident at Half a Meter” by S. Zikra (1981) criticized part of the national. youth who have withdrawn from confronting negative socio-political phenomena. Autobiographical f. “Dreams of the City” by M. Malas (1983) reflected the events of 1953–58, strengthening the principles of democracy. Satiric. the comedy “Borders” by D. Laham (1987) combined the techniques of narration. fairy tales and sharp journalism in the interpretation of the problems of confrontation between Arab countries. peace. A picture of provincial life was presented by the films of A. L. Abdul Hamid - “Nights of the Jackal” (1989) and “Oral Messages” (1991). A notable event was the historical painting about Kawakibi “Dust of Foreigners” by Zikra (1998). The film “Black Flour” by G. caused a wide resonance. Shmait (2001) about the life of the national. hinterland in the first years after independence. The independence of a student from Damascus is defended by director. V. Rakhib in f. “Dreams” (2003), which tells about the experiences of a young woman leaving her parents’ home. The moral problems of family and personal relationships between men and women were analyzed by Abdul Hamid in the film “Out of Access” (2007). The film “One More Time” by D. Said (2009) is a confession about the relationship between father and son against the backdrop of drama. events in the country. In 1979–2011, an international was held in Damascus. film festival

Syrian Arab Republic.

The name of the country comes from the name of the ancient state - Assyria.

Syria Square. 185200 km2.

Population of Syria. 16,700 thousand people

Location of Syria. Syria is a state in Western Europe, stretching from to. In the north it borders, in the east - with Iraq, in the south - with, in the west - with and.

Administrative divisions of Syria. 13 governorates (governments) and the equivalent municipality of Damascus.

Syria form of government. Republic.

Head of State of Syria. President, elected for a term of 7 years.

Supreme legislative body of Syria. People's Council (unicameral parliament), whose term of office is 4 years.

Supreme executive body of Syria. Government.

Major cities in Syria. Aleppo, Homs, Latakia, Hama.

Official language of Syria. Arab.

Religion of Syria. 90% are Muslims, 10% are Christians.

Ethnic composition of Syria. 90% are Arabs, 10% are Armenians.

Currency of Syria. Syrian pound = 100 piastres.

Useful information for tourists

Breakfast is served early, often at 6am. It is a light meal of olives, cheese, yoghurt and Turkish coffee. The most important thing is lunch, the time of which is scheduled for 14.00, after which they rest. It starts with appetizers called mezze, then comes chicken or lamb goulash, salads, vegetables, bread, and ends with pies and fruit. Late in the evening they start dinner, usually light, if it is not a holiday or Ramadan. After each meal they drink very strong and sweet Turkish coffee and tea. Hospitable Syrians often do not allow a guest to leave the table until everything on the table has been eaten. There is even an Arabic proverb according to which the amount of food consumed by a guest reflects the strength of his attachment to the host.

It is customary to tip only in expensive hotels and restaurants, usually 5-10% of the cost of service.