British colonial expansion This list represents all territories of the world that were ever under colonial or other form of dependence on England, Great Britain or personal dependence on the English/British monarch.... ... Wikipedia
The request "Colonization" is redirected here. See also other meanings. A colony is a dependent territory without independent political and economic power, a possession of another state. The formation of colonies is the main tool for expanding influence... ... Wikipedia
Denmark and its colonies (1800) This list represents all the territories of the world that were ever in colonial or close dependence on Denmark. Contents 1 In Europe 2 In America ... Wikipedia
Territories that became objects of expansion of the Netherlands. Holland (metropolis) sphere of control of the Dutch East India Company sphere of control of the Dutch West India Company ... Wikipedia
Norway, northern Europe and Greenland, 1599 This list represents all the territories of the world that were ever in the possession or vassalage of Norway. Contents 1 In Europe ... Wikipedia
Sweden and its European possessions in 1658. This list represents all the territories of the world that were ever in possession, vassalage, colonial or similar dependence on Sweden. In Europe In Scandinavia: Åland Islands... ... Wikipedia
Great America in 1899. This list represents all the territories of the world that were ever under colonial or close dependence on the United States. In the Pacific Ocean basin, Alaska, including the Aleutian Islands of Hawaii ... Wikipedia
Great America in 1899. This list represents all the territories of the world that were ever under colonial or close dependence on the United States. In the Pacific Ocean basin, Alaska, including the Aleutian Islands of Hawaii ... Wikipedia
Great America in 1899. This list represents all the territories of the world that were ever under colonial or close dependence on the United States. In the Pacific Ocean basin, Alaska, including the Aleutian Islands of Hawaii ... Wikipedia
Books
- Golden Arrow
- Golden Arrow, Gazzaty Georgy Vladimirovich. After the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492, Spain began to create settlements and trading posts on the islands of the Caribbean Sea, and then on the continent, from where the conquistadors made trips inland...
Spain's colonies occupied a significant part of the land until the nineteenth century. The Spanish Empire was one of the most powerful feudal powers of the past. Active colonization and geographical discoveries significantly influenced the development of human history. The Conquest affected the cultural, linguistic and religious development of many peoples.
Prerequisites for colonization
Until the fourteenth century, Spain fought for its independence. Moors and Saracens constantly arrived from the south and east to their lands. Long centuries of struggle eventually ended in the final expulsion of the Arabs from the continent. But after the victory, many problems immediately opened up. Having fought wars for several centuries, Spain created several orders of knighthood, and there were many more soldiers than in any country in Europe. The rulers understood that sooner or later this would lead to social revolt. The greatest danger, in their opinion, was the landless younger sons of knights - hidalgos.
First, in order to direct their thirst for a better life in the direction desired by the government, a crusade to the East begins. However, the Saracens put up fierce resistance, which forces the crusaders to retreat. Spain's colonies in Africa were small and brought virtually no profit. At this time, various goods from India were in great demand.
In the minds of Europeans, this continent was located not only in the east, but also in the south. Therefore, in order to find the shortest route to it, expeditions were regularly organized.
Geographical discoveries
The first colonies of Spain appeared after the discovery of the New World - America by Christopher Columbus. At the end of the summer of 1492, three ships sailed under Spanish flags. They were equipped from the treasuries of several European countries. In mid-autumn of the same year, Columbus landed in the Bahamas. Four months later it was discovered. In search of gold, the Spaniards sometimes went ashore and moved deeper into the jungle. On their way they met resistance from local tribes. However, their level of civilization lagged behind that of Europe by several centuries. Therefore, the conquistadors, dressed in steel armor, had no difficulty conquering the natives.
Eight years later, another expedition set sail, already consisting of a crew of one and a half thousand with provisions. They explored a significant part of the coast of South America. New islands were discovered. After this, a treaty was concluded between Portugal and Spain, according to which the new lands were equally divided between these two empires.
South America
Initially, the Spaniards began to explore the west coast of America. This is the territory of modern Brazil, Chile, Peru and other countries. Spanish orders were established in the new lands. Administrations settled in large settlements. Then armed detachments set off to conquer new lands.
Then settlers arrived from Europe. The local population, particularly in Bolivia, was taxed.
The Spaniards were most interested in goods for export. These are gold, silver and various spices. If it was not always possible to get to gold, the conquistadors found silver in abundance. Loaded ships arrived at the ports every month. The huge amount of imports ultimately led to the decline of the entire empire. Inflation began, which led to poverty. The latter gave rise to several uprisings.
North America
Spain's colonies had some sovereignty. They submitted to Valladolid on federal rights. Spanish culture and language developed on the occupied lands. In the colony of Rio de La Plata, local Indians caused problems. They hid in the jungle and occasionally launched raids.
Therefore, the viceroyal government had to hire soldiers from neighboring colonies to fight the partisans, who, in addition to this, also carried out robberies and pogroms.
Over four decades, Spanish colonists managed to open more than twenty colonies in the New World. Over time, they united into large viceroyalties. In the north was the largest colony - New Spain, which was discovered by Hernan Cortes, a legendary figure who is often associated with the mythical city of El Dorado.
Before the active intervention of Great Britain, the conquistadors created Spanish colonies along the entire coast of South and North America. List of modern countries that were former colonies of Spain:
- Mexico.
- Cuba.
- Honduras.
- Ecuador.
- Peru.
- Chile.
- Colombia.
- Bolivia.
- Guatemala.
- Nicaragua.
- Part of Brazil, Argentina and the USA.
Administrative structure
The former colonies of Spain in this territory are the USA (southern states) and Mexico. Unlike the colonies on the southern mainland, here the conquistadors met a more advanced civilization. Once upon a time, the Aztecs and Mayans lived on these lands. They left behind a huge architectural heritage. Cortez's expeditionary forces encountered highly organized resistance to colonization. In response to this, the Spaniards acted extremely cruelly towards the indigenous population. As a result, its numbers quickly declined.
After the creation of New Spain, the conquistadors moved west and founded Louisiana, East and West Florida. Part of these lands was under the control of the metropolis until the nineteenth century. But as a result of the war, they lost everything. Mexico had won its freedom several years earlier.
Orders in occupied territories
Power in the colonies was concentrated in the hands of the viceroy. He, in turn, was personally subordinate to the Spanish monarch. The viceroyalty was divided into several regions (if it was large enough). Each region had its own administration and church diocese.
Therefore, many former colonies of Spain still practice Catholicism. Another branch of government was the military. Most often, the backbone of the garrison consisted of mercenary knights, who after some time returned to Europe.
Only people from the metropolis could occupy high positions in the viceroyalties. These were hereditary nobles and wealthy knights. Descendants of Spaniards born in America, according to the law, had the same rights as representatives of the mother country. However, in practice they were often oppressed, and they could not occupy any high position.
Relations with the local population
The local population consisted of representatives of various Indian tribes. Initially, they were often subjected to murders and robberies. However, later the colonial administrations decided to change their attitude towards the aborigines. Instead of robberies, it was decided to exploit the Indian population.
Formally, they were not slaves. However, they were subject to some oppression and were heavily taxed. And if they did not pay them, they became debtors to the Crown, which was not much different from slavery.
The colonies of Spain adopted the culture of the mother country. However, this did not cause an acute conflict. The local population very willingly adopted the traditions of the Europeans. In a fairly short period, the aborigines learned the language. Assimilation was also facilitated by the arrival of lone hidalgo knights. They settled in the viceroyalties and intermarried with What are the colonies of Spain is best illustrated by the example of Louisiana.
After all, in this viceroyalty over several decades, feudal relationships have developed between the local population and the administration.
Loss of colonies
The crisis in Europe reached its peak by the eighteenth century. Spain started a war with France. Inflation and civil strife led to the decline of the empire. The colonies took advantage of this and began to wage liberation wars. Moreover, in a number of cases, the driving force was not the local population, but the descendants of former colonists, many of whom assimilated. Many historians have questioned whether Spain was a colony of its viceroyalties. That is, a hostage to profits from distant lands. More likely. And soon she tried to maintain influence in American lands at any cost. After all, after their rejection, Spain itself almost collapsed.
Spain and Portugal continued to maintain extensive colonial possessions, which by this time had descended to the position of secondary powers, increasingly squeezed in Europe and in overseas countries by stronger European states.
The Spanish colonial empire covered most of the Americas, including parts of the West Indies (Cuba, the eastern half of Saint-Domingue), almost all of South (except Portuguese Brazil) and Central (except the Mosquito Coast and Honduras) America.
In North America, Spanish rule extended to Mexico, Florida and Western Louisiana. In Southeast Asia, Spain owned the Philippines.
By the end of the 18th century. in the Spanish possessions in the New World there were about 12-13 million people, including 7-8 million Indians, 500-600 thousand black slaves, 1-1.5 million creoles (descendants of Spanish settlers naturalized in America) and 3-4 million mestizos and mulattoes (descended from mixed marriages).
Portugal owned the huge Brazil in South America. In Asia, the Portuguese retained separate strongholds on the Pacific and Indian coasts (Macau in China, Goa in India), but lost their most important possessions - Ceylon, the Moluccas and the port of Hormuz in the Persian Gulf.
In general, the Portuguese lost their former dominance in the Indian Ocean, which was until the end of the 16th century. the basis of the Portuguese monopoly in maritime trade between Asia and Europe.
The basis of the colonial system in the Spanish and Portuguese possessions in the New World was the seizure of land and serfdom exploitation of the Indian population, which was completely dependent on European secular and spiritual feudal lords.
The Spaniards acted in the same way in the Philippines, where huge tracts of land were concentrated among Catholic orders and monasteries.
In Mexico, half the land belonged to the Catholic clergy. In Mexico, as in the Philippines, the local population paid numerous taxes and performed unlimited corvee duties for the benefit of the state. Mining of precious metals played a huge role in the brutal exploitation of the local labor force.
During the three centuries of Spanish rule (XVI-XVIII centuries), gold and silver were exported from America for a total amount of 28 billion francs. These enormous treasures were obtained through the ruthless exploitation of the indigenous Indian population.
Foreign trade of the Spanish colonies in America was extremely limited, placed under the strict control of the colonial authorities and carried out on a monopoly basis by privileged merchant companies of the metropolis. Through these monopoly companies, local products were exported and the colonies were supplied with European industrial goods.
In the interests of a handful of monopolists, on the one hand, trade of the colonies with other European states was prohibited, and on the other, the development of local industry and even certain branches of agriculture (for example, viticulture and tobacco growing in South America) was limited, which extremely hampered the growth of productive forces in the Spanish and Portuguese possessions.
Given the weakness of the industry of feudal-absolutist Spain itself in comparison with the advanced countries of Europe, the export of industrial products from the metropolis to its colonies in the New World in the 18th century. was reduced mainly to the resale of goods of English, French and Dutch origin.
At the same time, smuggling became widespread.
Through smuggling, in the 18th century. often exceeding the size of legal trade, Holland and especially England increasingly squeezed Spain and Portugal out of the markets of their own colonies in America. At the beginning of the 18th century. from 7 million f. Art. Of all English exports, 3 million were woolen fabrics sold to Spain and its colonial possessions.
The smuggling trade of the English with the Spanish colonies in America, the seizure and robbery by English corsairs of Spanish and Portuguese galleons returning from the New World with a load of gold and silver, and finally, the acquisition by England in 1713 of the Treaty of Utrecht of a lucrative contract (asiento) for the annual supply a large contingent of black slaves to Latin America - all this played an important role in the history of primitive accumulation in England, at the same time creating the preconditions for the ousting of Spain and Portugal from the American colonies.
The Spanish Empire predates the advent of firearms. Firearms themselves, as the main attribute of the Army, appeared at the beginning of the 17th century. Which in itself left a significant imprint on this unique phenomenon that is the Spanish Empire.
The 17th century is the time of its beginning of Decline.
Since the Spanish Empire was an incredibly powerful and significant phenomenon in human history, its Decline was slow.
So slow.
At the time of its heyday, it was a kind of analogue of the late Roman Empire, and the Roman Empire squared. The Spanish Empire disappeared over the horizon and finally went out after the Spanish-American War in 1898. But we are not interested in the moment of its decline.
In 1492, three caravels crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean islands. A picture worthy of admiration. Banners flutter, drums beat, stern men step onto the wet sandy shore.
Columbus comes forward and solemnly pronounces - In the name of the King, I declare these lands the property of the Spanish crown!!!
We don’t know how it really happened.
Only one thing is known - at that time in Spain there was no King.
Do not think that there is some kind of intrigue here and revelations will now begin - the secrets of the Madrid court. The thing is that at that time in Spain there was no trace of any royal court at all, including the monarch and queen himself. The New World was reached by a private expedition from the city of Cadiz, financed by the city of Genoa. It has been known for a long time that there is land beyond the Atlantic Ocean. Long before the expedition itself, and I must add, far from the first expedition. The people at that time were not such a fool as they are portrayed today. And he certainly didn’t believe in flat land on three pillars. But let’s leave the question of the discovery of America alone and return to Spain.
Where it all just begins.
1492 The starting point is the Age of Great Geographical Discovery.
The decline of Genoa and Venice, the rise of Spain and Portugal. The reason for the rise of two new Olympian gods against the background of two “old” Titans is quite simple. There is a lot of young and energetic population willing to go to great lengths. One Soviet “genius”, who was not on friendly terms with Economics (like all noted historians), called this situation a Passionary Explosion.
In fact, it's still simple.
The underdeveloped Spain and Portugal had long before been annexed to Italy as privileged Colonies. Pumped up with Italian technology (no need to laugh - agricultural), inflated through a tube by the Italian merchant fleet - Life became better, life became more fun - which caused population growth. There are too many young people, it is always poverty, with burning eyes and strong hands. And against the backdrop of all this, in the Spanish and Portuguese coastal cities, sailing schools are opening.
The first institutions of Europe are not the Sorbonne and Oxford, pure boots and white collars. These are tears and sweat, bumps and bruises, filled in the classrooms of Henry the Sailor. A boundless Ocean, unexplored distant lands and a search for a way to India awaited them.
Serious Capital (with a capital C), which came to the coastal cities of the Iberian Peninsula, invested in these nautical schools. And it was not a risky Startup.
Time itself demanded this.
The number of maritime transport around Europe grew, the range and duration of voyages constantly increased. What was needed were strong, disciplined and tough guys, ready to sail away from their native shore for several months. Under all this, it was necessary to create the right public opinion that motivates people and Schools. Everything is clear with schools, everything was like in the Soviet Union. The training is free, but... Strict distribution for a certain time, and low salary for the entire duration of the internship in the specialty. After graduating from an educational institution, the graduate was obliged to go for an internship wherever they indicated. Otherwise, he will not receive a recommendation (certificate).
And there.
Got used to it, settled down, got some connections, stayed.
Directing public opinion in the right direction and in the right direction is much more difficult. Here we need “correct” legends and interesting stories.
The request for legends has been made, the request for stories has been accepted.
And the Venetian province went to write.
Here they will write to you about Sinbad, and about Odysseus, and about the Golden Fleece, and they will also add a certificate about the ancient antiquity of the text. When later, it was necessary to look for minerals in the New World, they came up with a Tale about a certain country - Eldorado.
Such are the times, such are the tales.
It is necessary to create the right public opinion, and they create it.
Correct.
Feathers creak, keys rattle.
At that time, it was necessary to send thousands of strong people on an annual voyage, and to hell with the middle of nowhere. The tales of ancient Hellas were created for this purpose. It is much easier to persuade a person who grew up on these fairy tales to go on a long sea voyage for a small price.
After the lands in the New World were explored, they began to slowly, very slowly, become populated. This happened exactly the same way as it happens here, with migrant workers from Central Asia. First, one of the sons of a large and poor family comes to work. He settles down, settles down and begins to send money home (to his family).
It is always difficult and difficult for the First Pioneer.
The next one is much easier.
All those who follow from a large family do not go to an empty place, but to a well-established Brother, relative and neighbor. One man came to the New World from a Spanish village (aul), and a hundred years later, half of this village (kishlak) was already there. There is a certain dumping of excess population to new lands.
The Spaniards and Portuguese (Western Europe) dumped the population into overseas colonies.
Since the times were Ancient, the times were family guilds, and the more friendly and united the first group of related settlers was, the larger and fatter a piece of land it gnawed off for itself.
At the same time, the iron Rule was always observed - Whoever stood up first got the slippers.
All the large land planters of the colonies (dairy and meat kings - coffee and sugar barons) grew out of large family Clans of the first settlers. All subsequent waves of settlers had to occupy lower stages of evolution. Right up to being hired as farm laborers on the First Ones’ plantations. The more populated the Colonies became, the greater the gap between the top and the bottom.
And everything revolved around the Earth (with a capital E). This was precisely the genesis of the formation of the state of Latin America. Unlike Europe, where everything was about the same, but everything happened in Cities - policies, and much slower.
All Spanish colonies were tied to Spain and were part of the Spanish technological Zone. And Spain itself was part of the technological zone of the city of Genoa. As the Spanish colonies developed, the influence and power of Genoa grew. And Genoa itself was the property of a large family clan that came out of Venice. And the more powerful the powers that be become, the more they retreat into the shadows. Genoa's retreat into the shadows was accompanied by the creation of a royal court and a center of Spanish Catholicism in the Spanish city of Toledo. All this happened at the end of the 16th century. Then, at the beginning of the 17th century, the royal court from Toledo moved to Madrid. The center of Spanish Catholicism remained in the same place, where it remains to this day.
At the earliest point in history, the Spanish Catholic Pope was the King of Spain. It can be said in the opposite direction. King of Spain in Toledo, and was the Catholic Spanish Pope. European Feudal Lords at the time of their appearance were not much different from church Priests - the Senior Borgia the Pope, the younger Borgia the feudal lord of the army, the daughter of Borgia the Neapolitan queen. Everything goes to the family, everything goes to the house, under one roof.
Gradually and slowly, the royal court, centered in Madrid, expanded along the already created infrastructure. First in internal Spain, and then in the Spanish colonies. How a giant Boa constrictor swallows a large victim, as if crawling onto it. Moreover, this transformation within Spain and in its colonies did not encounter noticeable resistance, unlike Italy. Where this process, the creation of extended states, was much more difficult and had noticeable resistance. Initially, the Italian Polis created external controlled states and only then began to penetrate Italy with their help. Pushing elbows and hitting each other.
Since internal resistance to this process was weak, everything went quite peacefully and without shocks. The reason for this was, on the one hand, size, which always matters. On the other hand, everyone wanted to fix the existing situation.
Recognize the king in Madrid as your Suzerain??? No problem. Let this King write out documents for my property and guarantee its inviolability. As befits a Suzerain.
And all this, against the backdrop of the family clans of Spanish society.
An uncle is in Seville, a nephew is in Argentina, and an aunt is close to the Madrid Court. Everywhere you look, there are someone’s relatives everywhere. Everything is intertwined and confused by family ties. It is difficult for a modern person, for whom the word “Family” is an empty phrase, to understand that distant time.
Any Empire relies on the power of coercion and uses this power to defend its interests. The Spanish Empire had problems with the latter circumstance. The force with which the Empire defends its interests is the Army. The army of the Spanish Empire was formed in exact similarity with the Genoese power structures and was mercenary.
The Genoese infantry were "respected" and feared throughout Europe.
The problems of the Spanish Army stemmed from the family-clan structure of the Empire itself. Titles and positions in the Spanish Army were not given for abilities and merits, as you might guess. Since the Army was financed from the state Budget, it immediately turned into a feeding trough - Put your relative in a position and cut the controlled Budget - It got to the point that the lower ranks of the Army, field soldiers and junior officers, were detained and in some places not paid their salaries.
Not only in peacetime (and what kind of peace does the imperial hegemon have), but also in wartime and on the battlefields.
And that’s half the trouble.
The military budget was also spent on weapons, ships and food.
But, despite all these shortcomings, the Spanish empire, due to its family-clan structure, was a common cause.
And just like that, it was difficult to move the Spaniards.
The whole matter was decided by Gunpowder.
The formation of the Spanish empire (as an extended state) took place during the time of Gunpowder and with the help of Gunpowder.
Its main competitor, France, produced much more of this Gunpowder.
France itself was created from the outside in exactly the same way and according to the same patterns as the United States was later created and for the same purpose.
The Spanish Empire was a derivative of Genoa.
Genoa's main competitor was Venice.
The France that was created was a derivative of the derivative of Venice.
And a direct derivative from Florence. The main task assigned to France was to stop the sprawling state of the Spanish Empire, which was growing by leaps and bounds. And it largely achieved this goal.
17th century
Age of gunpowder.
Marked the hegemony of France.
SPANISH COLONIAL EMPIRE, the totality of Spain's possessions in the Americas, Southeast Asia, Africa and the Pacific in the late 15th to 20th centuries. It developed as a result of the discoveries, conquests and development by the Spaniards of the islands of the Caribbean Sea, the territories of Central, South and North America, the Philippine archipelago, the Mariana and Caroline Islands, and North Africa. The formation of the Spanish colonial empire took place in conditions of competition with Portugal (see Spanish-Portuguese treaties on the division of colonial possessions in the 15th-18th centuries), England (see Anglo-Spanish wars of the 16th-18th centuries), and from the end of the 19th century - with Germany and France and the USA.
The creation of the Spanish colonial empire is associated with the Great Geographical Discoveries. The travels of H. Columbus, who explored the Antilles and the coast of Central and South America, marked the beginning of the Spanish colonization of America. In the 1st half of the 16th century, during wars with the local population (see Conquista), the Spaniards moved deeper into the continent and established themselves in newly discovered lands; in 1513 they began to explore Florida. At the end of the 15th-16th century, as a result of military-colonial expansion in North Africa (see Spanish-Portuguese aggression in North Africa), Spain for some time gained a foothold on the African coast. At the end of the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spaniards established themselves in the Philippines, Mariana and Caroline Islands. In 1777, Spain bought the islands of Fernando Po and Annobon off the coast of Guinea from Portugal. In the mid-19th century, a new attempt was made to colonize North Africa (see Spanish-Moroccan War of 1859-60). By decision of the Berlin Conference of 1884-85, a number of regions of the northwestern coast of Africa were declared a Spanish protectorate. Subsequently, its territory expanded (French-Spanish agreements of 1900, 1904 and 1912); by 1934, all of Western Sahara was under Spanish rule.
The Spanish state played a major role in organizing the administration of the colonies and the exploitation of their wealth. The conquered lands became part of Spain as two viceroyalties - New Spain and Peru; in the 18th century, 2 more viceroyalties were created - New Granada and Riode la Plata. The Council for Indian Affairs became the highest body of colonial administration in the metropolis. The Chamber of Commerce was established in Seville (1503) - a department whose responsibilities included monitoring the observance of the economic and political interests of Spain in the colonies. In the American colonies, from the 2nd half of the 18th century, local power was in the hands of intendants appointed by the Spanish crown. In 1542, a set of laws was published for the American possessions of Spain (see “Laws of the Indies”), and in 1680 a general set of laws for the overseas territories under its rule was published - “Code of the Laws of the Indies”.
During the course of colonial expansion, the Spanish monopoly on the natural and economic resources of open lands began to be established. One of the main forms of economic development of overseas possessions until the 18th century was the encomienda. The economy of the Spanish colonies was determined by export industries: the mining of precious metals, the cultivation of sugar cane, cocoa, and crops used for the production of dyes (cochineal and indigo). In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Spaniards were the main suppliers of silver and gold to the markets of Europe and Asia. The metropolis limited the production of goods that could compete with products imported from Spain (wines, olive oil), and also monopolized the external relations of the colonies. Trade with the American colonies was carried out through regular sea voyages to Veracruz, Portobelo and Cartagena from Seville, then from Cadiz; trade with the Philippines was conducted exclusively through the Mexican port of Acapulco. At the end of the 18th century alone, 13 ports in the metropolis and 24 ports in the colonies were opened for colonial trade. By the end of the 17th century, Spain had become a trade intermediary between Europe, America and Asia. The peculiarities of Spain's internal economic development created the conditions for the intervention of foreign powers in trade exchanges in the territories of its overseas possessions. Smuggling and piracy played a major role in the destruction of the Spanish monopoly.
By the end of the 17th century, a multi-structured economic system had developed in the Spanish colonial empire, combining the natural and semi-natural economy of the indigenous population and free colonists, as well as small-scale (craft) and large-scale (plantation farms, mining) commodity production with elements of capitalist relations. Gradually, the economic specialization of the colonies took shape, and internal trade began to develop in them.
During the formation of the Spanish colonial empire, the indigenous population of Spain's overseas possessions decreased several times (in particular, the aborigines of the Antilles were completely exterminated), and new ethnic groups were formed. Social status depended on skin color. The colonial elite consisted of Spaniards - immigrants from the metropolis, and descendants of settlers born in the colonies (Creoles). Mixed race groups (see Metis) occupied an intermediate social position: their representatives did not have access to administrative positions and certain professions. At the bottom of the social ladder were the Indians and African slaves.
In the American colonies, the Spaniards preserved and used traditional Indian social institutions. The main tax unit was the Indian community. The Spanish state prohibited enslaving Indians and driving them off the land. These prohibitions were violated everywhere and openly. The Indians worked in the construction of cities, roads, and mines, and paid poll taxes and church tithes.
The trend towards the collapse of the Spanish colonial empire, which emerged at the end of the 17th century, was associated with the military and economic weakening of the metropolis, the emergence of new colonial powers - competitors of Spain, the strengthening of the economic independence of the colonies, and the emergence of national liberation movements in them. By the end of the 17th century, Spain had lost all of its colonial possessions in the Caribbean, with the exception of Cuba, Puerto Rico and the eastern part of the island of Hispaniola (Haiti). Under the terms of the Paris Peace Treaty of 1763, she ceded eastern Florida to Great Britain, receiving Louisiana as compensation from France. As a result of the War of the Spanish Succession, Britain was forced to give up its monopoly on trade with its colonies: Great Britain received the right to import African slaves into the Spanish New World (aciento). During the War of Independence in Latin America (1810-26), all American colonies were freed from Spanish rule, with the exception of Cuba and Puerto Rico. As a result of the Spanish-American War of 1898, Cuba acquired the status of an independent state, the Philippines, Puerto Rico and the island of Guam were transferred to US control. In 1899, Germany forced Spain to sell it the Marianas, Caroline Islands, Palau and Samoa. Fernando Po and Annobon gained independence in 1968 and became part of Equatorial Guinea. In 1975, Spanish troops were withdrawn from Western Sahara.
Spanish colonial rule in South and Central America had controversial consequences. Under the rule of Spain, the territories inhabited in the pre-Columbian era by disparate and multilingual peoples turned into a region with common cultural characteristics (language, religion) and similar political systems. At the same time, during the period of Spanish colonial rule, a huge layer of the historical heritage of autochthonous peoples was lost.
The collapse of the Spanish colonial empire did not lead to a complete severance of economic, political and cultural ties between its former parts, mainly between the countries of South and Central America and Spain. Since 1949, the Iberoamerican Organization (modern name since 1985) has been in operation, coordinating cooperation between the countries of the Iberian Peninsula and South America in the cultural and educational spheres; since 1991, summits of the heads of government of these countries have been regularly held.
Lit.: Parry J.N. Spanish seaborne empire. 3rd ed. Berk., 1990; History of Latin America. M., 1991. T. 1; Historia de España/ Fundada por R. Menéndez Pidal. Madrid, 1991-2005. T. 27, 31, 32, 36; Elliott J. N. Empires of the Atlantic world: Britain and Spain in America, 1492-1830. New Haven, 2006; Kamen G. Spain: the road to empire. M., 2007.