Outline of the speech workshop "Visual capabilities of the Russian language." Expressive capabilities of the Russian language

The lexical system of a language is complex and multifaceted. Possibilities constant update in speech, the principles, methods, and signs of combining words taken from different groups within the whole text also conceal the possibility of updating speech expressiveness and its types.

Expressive Possibilities words are supported and strengthened by associativity imaginative thinking reader, which largely depends on his previous life experience And psychological characteristics the work of thought and consciousness in general.

Expressiveness of speech refers to those features of its structure that support the attention and interest of the listener (reader). A complete typology of expressiveness has not been developed by linguistics, since it would have to reflect the entire diverse range human feelings and their shades. But we can speak quite definitely about the conditions under which speech will be expressive:

The first is the independence of thinking, consciousness and activity of the author of the speech.
The second is his interest in what he talks or writes about.
Third - good knowledge expressive capabilities of language.
Fourth - systematic conscious training of speech skills.

The main source of increased expressiveness is vocabulary, which gives whole line special means: epithets, metaphors, comparisons, metonymies, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, personification, periphrases, allegory, irony. Great opportunities syntax, the so-called stylistic figures of speech: anaphora, antithesis, non-union, gradation, inversion ( reverse order words), polyunion, oxymoron, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, silence, ellipsis, epiphora.

Lexical means of a language that enhance its expressiveness are called in linguistics paths (from the Greek tropos - a word or expression used in a figurative meaning). Most often, authors use tropes works of art when describing nature, the appearance of heroes.

These visual and expressive means are of the author's nature and determine the originality of the writer or poet, helping him to gain an individual style. However, there are also general language tropes that arose as the author’s own, but over time became familiar, entrenched in the language: “time heals,” “battle for the harvest,” “military thunderstorm,” “conscience has spoken,” “curl up,” “like two drops.” water ".

In them direct meaning words are erased, and sometimes completely lost. Their use in speech does not create in our minds artistic image. The trope can develop into speech stamp if used too often. Compare expressions that determine the value of resources using figurative meaning the words "gold" - " White gold"(cotton), "black gold" (oil), "soft gold" (fur), etc.

Epithets (from the Greek epitheton - application - blind love, foggy moon) artistically define an object or action and can be expressed in full and short adjective, noun and adverb: “Do I wander along noisy streets, or enter a crowded temple...” (A.S. Pushkin)

“She is as restless as leaves, she is like a harp, multi-stringed...” (A.K. Tolstoy) “Frost the governor patrols his possessions...” (N. Nekrasov) “Uncontrollably, uniquely, everything flew far and past ..." (S. Yesenin). Epithets are classified as follows:

1) constant (characteristic of oral folk art) - “good fellow”, “fair maiden”, “green grass”, “blue sea”, “dense forest” “mother of the earth”;

2) pictorial (visually draw objects and actions, give
the opportunity to see them as the author sees them) - “a crowd of motley-haired fast cats” (V. Mayakovsky), “the grass is full of transparent tears” (A. Blok);

3) emotional (convey the author’s feelings, mood) - “The evening raised black eyebrows...” - “A blue fire began to sweep...”, “Uncomfortable, liquid lunar..." (S. Yesenin), "... and young city ascended magnificently and proudly” (A. Pushkin).

Comparison is a comparison (parallelism) or opposition (negative parallelism) of two objects according to one or more common characteristics: “Your mind is as deep as the sea. Your spirit is as high as the mountains” (V. Bryusov) - “It is not the wind that rages over the forest, it is not the streams that run from the mountains - Voivode Frost patrols his domain” (N. Nekrasov). Comparison gives the description a special clarity and imagery. This trope, unlike others, is always two-part - it names both compared or contrasted objects. In comparison, three necessary existing elements are distinguished - the subject of comparison, the image of comparison and the sign of similarity. For example, in the line by M. Lermontov “Whiteer than the snowy mountains, the clouds go to the west...” the subject of comparison is the clouds, the image of comparison is the snowy mountains, the sign of similarity is the whiteness of the clouds - The comparison can be expressed:

1) comparative turnover with conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “as if”, “exactly”, “than... that”: “The faded joy of crazy years is heavy on me, like a vague hangover,” But sadness is like wine days gone by In my soul, the older, the stronger” (A. Pushkin);

2) comparative degree of an adjective or adverb: “there is no beast worse than a cat”;

3) noun in instrumental case: “White drifting snow rushes along the ground like a snake...” (S. Marshak);

“Dear hands - a pair of swans - dive into the gold of my hair...” (S. Yesenin);

“I looked at her with all my might, like children look...” (V. Vysotsky);

“I will never forget this battle, the air is saturated with death.

And the stars fell from the sky like silent rain” (V. Vysotsky).

“These stars in the sky are like fish in ponds...” (V. Vysotsky).

“Like Eternal Flame, the peak sparkles during the day emerald ice..." (V. Vysotsky).

Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora) means the transfer of the name of an object (action, quality) based on similarity; it is a phrase that has the semantics of a hidden comparison. If an epithet is not a word in the dictionary, but a word in speech, then all the more true is the statement: metaphor is not a word in the dictionary, but a combination of words in speech. You can hammer a nail into a wall. You can hammer thoughts into your head - a metaphor arises, rough but expressive.

Speech actualization of the semantics of metaphor is explained by the need for such guessing. And the more effort a metaphor requires for consciousness to turn a hidden comparison into an open one, the more expressive, obviously, the metaphor itself is. Unlike a binary comparison, in which both what is being compared and what is being compared with are given, a metaphor contains only the second component. This gives the trail imagery and compactness. Metaphor is one of the most common tropes, since the similarity between objects and phenomena can be based on a wide variety of features: color, shape, size, purpose.

The metaphor may be simple, detailed and lexical (dead, erased, petrified). A simple metaphor is built on the bringing together of objects and phenomena according to one particular common feature- “the dawn is burning”, “the talk of the waves”, “the sunset of life”.

The extended metaphor is built on various associations of similarity: “Here the wind embraces flocks of waves in a strong embrace and throws them with wild anger onto the cliffs, smashing the emerald masses into dust and splashes” (M. Gorky).

Lexical metaphor is a word in which the initial transfer is no longer perceived - “steel pen”, “clock hand”, “door handle”, “sheet of paper”. Close to metaphor is metonymy (from the Greek metonymia - renaming) - the use of the name of one object instead of the name of another based on external or intercom between them. Communication may be

1) between the object and the material from which the object is made: “The amber in his mouth was smoking” (A. Pushkin);

3) between the action and the instrument of this action: “The pen is his revenge
breathes” (A. Tolstoy);

5) between the place and the people located in this place: “The theater is already full, the boxes are shining” (A. Pushkin).

A type of metonymy is synecdoche (from the Greek synekdoche - co-implication) - the transfer of meaning from one to another based on the quantitative relationship between them:

1) part instead of the whole: “All flags will come to visit us” (A. Pushkin); 2) generic name instead of specific name: “Well, why, sit down, luminary!” (V. Mayakovsky);

3) the specific name instead of the generic name: “Take care of the penny above all else” (N. Gogol);

4) singular instead of plural: “And it was heard until dawn how the Frenchman rejoiced” (M. Lermontov);

5) plural instead of singular: “Even the bird does not fly to him, and the beast does not come” (A. Pushkin).

The essence of personification is to attribute inanimate objects and abstract concepts of the qualities of living beings - “I will whistle, and bloody villainy will obediently, timidly crawl towards me, and will lick my hand, and look into my eyes, there is a sign of my will in them, reading my will” (A. Pushkin); “And the heart is ready to run from the chest to the top...” (V. Vysotsky).

Hyperbole (from the Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - stylistic

a figure consisting of figurative exaggeration - “they swept a stack above the clouds”, “the wine flowed like a river” (I. Krylov), “The sunset burned in one hundred and forty suns” (V. Mayakovsky), “The whole world is in the palm of your hand...” (In Vysotsky). Like other tropes, hyperboles can be proprietary and general language. In everyday speech, we often use such general linguistic hyperboles - seen (heard) a hundred times, “be scared to death”, “strangle in your arms”, “dance until you drop”, “repeat twenty times”, etc. The opposite stylistic device to hyperbole is - litotes (from the Greek litotes - simplicity, thinness) - stylistic figure, consisting of emphasized understatement, humiliation, reticence: “a boy as big as a finger”, “... You should bow your head to a low blade of grass...” (N. Nekrasov).

Litota is a type of meiosis (from the Greek meiosis - decrease, decrease).

Meiosis represents the trope of understatement

intensity of properties (signs) of objects, phenomena, processes: “wow”, “will do”, “decent”, “tolerable” (about good), “unimportant”, “hardly suitable”, “leaving much to be desired” (about bad ). In these cases, meiosis is a mitigating version of the ethically unacceptable direct name: cf. “old woman” - “a woman of Balzac’s age”, “not in her first youth”; “an ugly man” - “it’s hard to call him handsome.” Hyperbole and litotes characterize deviation in one direction or another quantification subject and in speech can be combined, giving it additional expressiveness. In the comic Russian song “Dunya the Thin-Spinner” it is sung that “Dunya spun a tow for three hours, spun three threads,” and these threads were “thinner than a knee, thicker than a log.” In addition to the author’s, there are also general linguistic litotes - “the cat cried”, “just a stone’s throw”, “can’t see beyond your own nose”.

Periphrasis (from the Greek periphrasis - from around and I speak) is called

a descriptive expression used instead of a particular word (“who writes these lines” instead of “I”), or a trope consisting of replacing the name of a person, object or phenomenon with a description of them essential features or by indicating their characteristic features (“the king of beasts is the lion”, “foggy Albion” - England, “Venice of the North” - St. Petersburg, “the sun of Russian poetry” - A. Pushkin).

Allegory (from the Greek allegoria - allegory) consists of an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept using a concrete, life-like image. Allegories appear in literature in the Middle Ages and owe their origin to ancient customs, cultural traditions and folklore. The main source of allegories is tales about animals, in which the fox is an allegory of cunning, the wolf is an allegory of anger and greed, the ram is stupidity, the lion is power, the snake is wisdom, etc. From ancient times to the present day, allegories are most often used in fables, parables, and other humorous and satirical works. In Russian classical literature allegories were used by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A.S. Griboyedov, N.V. Gogol, I.A. Krylov, V.V. Mayakovsky.

Irony (from the Greek eironeia - pretense) is a trope that consists in the use of a name or an entire statement in an indirect sense, directly opposite to the direct one, this is a transfer by contrast, by polarity. Most often, irony is used in statements containing a positive assessment, which the speaker (writer) rejects. “Where are you, smart one, are you delusional?” - asks the hero of one of I.A.’s fables. Krylova at Donkey's. Praise in the form of censure can also be ironic (see A.P. Chekhov’s story “Chameleon”, characterization of a dog).

Anaphora (from the Greek anaphora -ana again + phoros bearing) - unity of origin, repetition of sounds, morphemes, words, phrases, rhythmic and speech structures at the beginning of parallel syntactic periods or poetic lines.

Bridges demolished by a thunderstorm, A coffin from a washed-out cemetery (A.S. Pushkin) (repetition of sounds) ... A black-eyed maiden, a black-maned horse! (M.Yu. Lermontov) (repetition of morphemes).

It was not in vain that the winds blew, It was not in vain that the storm came. (S.A. Yesenin) (repetition of words)

I swear by the odd and even, I swear by the sword and the right battle. (A.S. Pushkin).

Team: Victoria Grishchenko, Anastasia Kucheruk, Anna Meshkanova, Elizaveta Nichemerzhina, Kirill Khoteshov.

The work was presented at a school scientific and practical conference.

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MUNICIPAL BUDGETARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF THE CITY OF MURMANSK

"SECONDARY SCHOOL No. 42"

Expressive Possibilities

direction: philology

The work was completed by students of grade 7 A:

Grishchenko Victoria

Kucheruk Anastasia

Meshkanova Anna

Nichemerzhina Elizaveta

Khoteshov Kirill

Head: Evseeva S.P.

Murmansk 2017

Introduction…………………………………………………….……………….2
Main part…………………………………..………………..3
Conclusion………………………………………….………………6
Conclusions…………………………………………………………..……………...7
Literature…………………………………………..…………….7

If they talk about advertising, it's badadvertising .

If they talk about a product, it's good advertising.

David Ogilvy

Introduction

The language of advertising is of interest because... has its own characteristics at all levels studied in the branches of linguistics. The advertising genre requires that information be presented concisely, often it can be just a sign, a picture, or other non-verbal images. We are interested in the word and the verbal image. Because The purpose of an advertising slogan is to attract attention and interest the buyer; there are special requirements for words in advertising. An advertising slogan is no longer just a carrier of information, but a sales agent, taking into account the age and character of the client, his social status, his interests and hobbies. The advertising slogan must be verified from the point of view of the buyer’s psychology.

Research the audience to whom your activities will be directed. Who are these people you are talking to?

Young or old? Rich, poor or middle class? Singles or married? Their interests, lifestyle...

David Ogilvy

Therefore, creating advertising is the concern of many specialists: psychologists, linguists, artists, marketers, etc. It would be interesting to imagine the buyer through the eyes of the advertising compilers: how they see the consumer of their products. We selected 85 advertising texts for our study.

The purpose of our work- studying linguistic features advertising texts and analysis linguistic phenomena presented in them.

Tasks :

2. Classify the material into sections of linguistics;

3. Determine the effectiveness of such word usage;

4. Create an image of a client-buyer, the addressee of the advertisement.

Main part

Among the variety of literature on advertising, we would like to highlight the works of David Ogilvy “Secrets of the Advertising Yard” and “Revelations of an Advertising Agent”.David Ogilvy is the founder of the advertising agencies Ogilvy & Mather, Ogilvy PR, and a successful copywriter. Many recognize David Ogilvy as the “father of advertising”. In 1962, the American magazine Time described him as "the most famous wizard in the modern advertising industry." He is the commander of the Order British Empire. In 1977 he entered the US Advertising Hall of Fame. Ogilvy named eight components of successful advertising. In second place, after the super idea, comes the text.

According to researchmarketers , commercial texts based on the model work best“Attention”, “Interest”, “Desire”, “Action”. This is exactly how any advertising text should be structured to be as effective as possible.

First of all, it is necessary to attract the attention of the consumer.
Once the consumer's attention is captured, it is necessary to provide him with information that will pique his interest.
At the end of the text, to consolidate the emotional mood of the consumer and better remember information, there should be an echo phrase.

Let us turn to our material and verify (or refute) the effectiveness of some advertising slogans.

Vocabulary.

The frequently used formula “Prices jumped”, “Prices fell” is based on the reception personification.

The formula “impossible is possible” - oxymoron , combines two opposite phenomena.

“Lada at factory price” - metonymy , the plant refers to the people who carry out management and management.

In the name of the store underwear"Coward" - pun , played on ambiguity.

A common technique in advertising is the use phraseological units . For example, “seize the moment”, “look at stress from above”, “they won’t hang around us”, “everyone rides on us”, “relieve headaches”, “from hand to hand”, “Moscow is not rubber”, “life – an amazing thing,” “I guarantee decency.”

Some slogans are used appropriately and inappropriately.foreign language vocabulary. For example, “The Boutique de France is holding a tasting of French perfumery,” and below it is written “Everything will be bon parfum!” Or on a beer stall the name is “Buchen House”, completely in Russian.

This same example illustrates the ability of copywriters to invent neologisms . Just like in advertising about Cheburaktsia or Japanese sushi. Neologisms with national flavor.

Morphology.

When analyzing the advertising text from the point of view of morphology, we observed the frequency of use of parts of speech and their forms. The most common verb was in the imperative mood - 20%. These are verbs: get, get out, take, think, look, catch, wait, be, use, believe, don’t give, become, do, buy, bury, give in. The adjective is used much less frequently in the degree of comparison. For example, “Children’s fashion is brighter than adult fashion” and “Yogurt is more lively than Pinocchio.” Some slogans are built like nominative sentences, i.e. use nominative case nouns, but more about them in the syntax section.

Syntax.

Syntax is closely related to morphology; they constitute the grammar of a language. What are the features syntactic constructions we noted. The most numerous are incentive sentences, the basis of which is an imperative verb (we talked about them in the previous section). Next in frequency are exclamatory sentences. The purpose of such offers in advertising is not to leave the buyer indifferent, to help him make a “discovery” in choosing a product, to remind him what joy and what relief this purchase will bring him. For example, “A girl’s best friend is a fish!”, “Everyone goes after us. And we are glad! Often, a slogan is constructed as a dialogue using interrogative and exclamatory sentences. For example, “Why wait? It's time to buy! or “Stolen? It should have been CLIFFORD!” Although advertising texts should be brief, they often use complex sentences. For example, “4G awaits those who don’t wait”, “Use a hair dryer that doesn’t dry out”, “Believe me, you are stronger than you seem”, “You good man, if you took a picture of a cheburek!” Among simple sentences, we note sentences with a complicating component. For example, “Melts in your mouth, not in the heat”, “I’m waiting for someone smart, gentle, accurate” - homogeneous terms. “My dear, I have abracadabra in my coffee!” - appeal. And as mentioned above, some sentences are constructed using only nouns in nominative case, so-called nominative sentences. But there are not many of them. The use of punctuation marks is sometimes ignored altogether; apparently, the advertising slogan is presented as a headline. But of those that we found, the most common ones are exclamation and question marks and commas. We also saw the dash “Children’s fashion is brighter than adult fashion” and the ellipsis “They ride on us... And we are glad!”

Word formation.

The main words of an advertisement, which carry the idea itself, are often formed using the prefix super. She means top quality, increased, enhanced effect. For example, “Take a super photo!”, “Super prices for supermen!”, “Super ultra mega duper cool prices!”

Graphic arts.

In some cases, to achieve greater effect, advertising texts use an unusual graphic style of the word. For example, the first part of the phrase “Restoring visual acuity” is written blurry, as if it were being read by a person with poor eyesight. The slogan “Think Fresh!” the last word it is written the other way around, apparently this is a “fresh”, non-standard approach to presenting information. Offer "Always" Huge Selection"Adezhdy" is nothing more than an acrostic poem, which apparently suggests the name of the store owner. The word “Then” contains five letters O in a row. The length of the sound indicates long-term lending services in favor of the client. In the phrase “Set up for success” it is highlighted in capital letters and in a different font the word STROY, which indicates the company providing services, StroyCity.

Unusual move.

Authors of advertising texts are constantly looking for non-standard presentation of information, new scheme constructing a phrase. We found interesting options, some of which could be attributed to an erroneous, from a logical point of view, construction or regarded as a provocation regarding moral standards. For example, “Bury your mother-in-law in the sand” is suggested by a travel agency, hinting at a beach holiday. “I’ll make friends with your borscht,” says sour cream, asserting the necessity of its presence. “Do you want a bad website? Then don't call us! Some copywriters construct advertising phrases in verse. Such texts are closest to everyday life, because their goal is not to amaze with a high style, but rather to entertain. You can easily imagine the recipient of such advertising. For example, “Best pizza. You can’t help but fall in love!”, “Here you’ll get delicious food, Here there’s forest and peace. Even your mother-in-law and his wife won’t find you here,” “Small wholesaler Vasily buys without effort,” “Become handsome and gentle with a fresh sock,” “I can’t sell my new Opel without tears and sniffles.” Last text It’s more like an ad, but an advertising ploy was used to attract a buyer.

Errors.

The next group that we have identified can perhaps be considered anti-advertising. Because for cultural and educated person information about the product is correlated with the quality of the product. If we see text with errors, it makes us distrustful.

Conclusion

Our observations have shown that when creating an advertising slogan, the capabilities of all levels of language are widely used: lexical, morphological, word-formation, graphic, syntactic, and even the creation of poetic text. But we must remember about moderation and appropriateness, we must maintain a sense of taste and style. We must remember the main purpose of advertising:Target it is not about entertaining the viewer, but about selling him a product 2 . David Ogilvy made high demands on advertising authors:A good surgeon differs from a mediocre one in that he knows much more... The same thing with advertising managers. Good managers know much more than others.Especially on spelling and punctuation.

How do copywriters see their client? The advertising presented in our work is street, simple, designed for the average city dweller, for his average income, purchasing necessary goods and services at economical prices. You can entice him with accompanying gifts. For example, if you bought a laptop, you get headphones in your ears. Communication with him is simple, his problems evoke sympathy: is it difficult with your mother-in-law? Here's an inexpensive trip for her. Tired of family problems? Here is a quiet motel where you can eat, relax and hide from your wife. And there are elite goods for wealthy clients, which means elite advertising.

conclusions

The expressive capabilities of advertising language include:

Personification, metonymy, pun, use of phraseological units, neologisms and borrowed words;
Use of imperative verbs;
Use of incentive, exclamatory and interrogative sentences;
Use of complex sentences;
The use of simple sentences with a complicating component;
Use foreign language prefixes super, mega;
Using non-standard, unusual approaches in transmitting advertising information;
Using graphic design as a technique;
Cases observed misspelling texts in terms of spelling and punctuation.

Literature

1. Leading.

2. Expressive means language

3. Conclusion

4. References

Introduction

The word is the subtlest touch to the heart; it can become a tender, fragrant flower, and living water, restoring faith in goodness, and a sharp knife, picking at the delicate fabric of the soul, and a red-hot iron, and lumps of dirt... Wise and kind word brings joy, stupid and evil, thoughtless and tactless - brings misfortune, in a word you can kill - and revive, wound - and heal, sow confusion and hopelessness - and spiritualize, dispel doubts - and plunge into despondency, create a smile - and cause tears, generate faith in a person - and instill mistrust, inspire work - and numb the strength of the soul.

V.A. Sukhomlinsky

Expressive means of language

The lexical system of a language is complex and multifaceted. The possibilities of constant updating in speech of the principles, methods, and signs of combining words taken from different groups within the whole text also conceal the possibility of updating speech expressiveness and its types.

The expressive capabilities of the word are supported and strengthened by the associativity of the reader’s figurative thinking, which largely depends on his previous life experience and the psychological characteristics of the work of thought and consciousness in general.

Expressiveness of speech refers to those features of its structure that support the attention and interest of the listener (reader). Linguistics has not developed a complete typology of expressiveness, since it would have to reflect the entire diverse range of human feelings and their shades. But we can speak quite definitely about the conditions under which speech will be expressive:

The first is the independence of thinking, consciousness and activity of the author of the speech.

The second is his interest in what he talks or writes about. Third, a good knowledge of the expressive capabilities of the language. Fourth - systematic conscious training of speech skills.

The main source of increased expressiveness is vocabulary, which provides a number of special means: epithets, metaphors, comparisons, metonymies, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, personification, periphrases, allegory, irony. Syntax, the so-called stylistic figures of speech, have great potential to enhance the expressiveness of speech: anaphora, antithesis, non-union, gradation, inversion (reverse word order), polyunion, oxymoron, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, silence, ellipsis, epiphora.

Lexical means of a language that enhance its expressiveness are called tropes in linguistics (from the Greek tropos - a word or expression used in a figurative sense). Most often, tropes are used by authors of works of art when describing nature and the appearance of heroes.

These figurative and expressive the means are of an author's nature and determine the originality of the writer or poet, helping him to gain an individual style. However, there are also general language tropes that arose as the author’s own, but over time became familiar, entrenched in the language: “time heals,” “battle for the harvest,” “military thunderstorm,” “conscience has spoken,” “curl up,” “like two drops.” water ".

In them, the direct meaning of words is erased, and sometimes completely lost. Their use in speech does not give rise to an artistic image in our imagination. The trope can develop into a speech cliche if used too often. Compare expressions that define the value of resources using the figurative meaning of the word “gold” - “white gold” (cotton), “black gold” (oil), “soft gold” (fur), etc.

Epithets (from the Greek epitheton - application - blind love, foggy moon) artistically define an object or action and can be expressed by full and short adjectives, nouns and adverbs: “Whether I wander along noisy streets, or enter a crowded temple...” (A.S. Pushkin)

1) constant (characteristic of oral folk art) - “kind
well done”, “pretty maiden”, “green grass”, “blue sea”, “dense forest”
“the mother of cheese is the earth”;

2) pictorial (visually draw objects and actions, give
the opportunity to see them as the author sees them) -

“a crowd of motley-haired fast cats” (V. Mayakovsky), “the grass is full of transparent tears” (A. Blok);

3) emotional (convey the author’s feelings, mood) -

“The evening raised black eyebrows...” - “A blue fire began to sweep...”, “Uncomfortable, liquid moonlight...” (S. Yesenin), “... and the young city ascended magnificently, proudly” (A. Pushkin ).

Comparison is matching (parallelism) or

opposition (negative parallelism) of two objects according to one or more common characteristics: “Your mind is as deep as the sea. Your spirit is as high as the mountains"

(V. Bryusov) - “It is not the wind that rages over the forest, it is not the streams that run from the mountains - Voivode Frost is patrolling his possessions” (N. Nekrasov). Comparison gives the description a special clarity and imagery. This trope, unlike others, is always two-part - it names both compared or contrasted objects. 2 In comparison, three necessary existing elements are distinguished - the subject of comparison, the image of comparison and the sign of similarity.

1 Dantsev D.D., Nefedova N.V. Russian language and speech culture for technical universities. - Rostov n/D: Phoenix, 2002. p. 171

2 Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook / ed. V.I. Maksimova - M.: 2000 p. 67.

For example, in the line by M. Lermontov “Whiteer than the snowy mountains, the clouds go to the west...” the subject of comparison is the clouds, the image of comparison is the snowy mountains, the sign of similarity is the whiteness of the clouds - The comparison can be expressed:

1) comparative phrase with conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “like”
as if”, “exactly”, “than... that”: “Crazy years of faded fun

It’s hard for me, like a vague hangover, “But, like wine, the sadness of days gone by In my soul, the older I get, the stronger it is” (A. Pushkin);

2) comparative degree of an adjective or adverb: “there is no beast worse than a cat”;

3) a noun in the instrumental case: “The white drifting snow rushes along the ground like a snake...” (S. Marshak);

“Dear hands - a pair of swans - dive into the gold of my hair...” (S. Yesenin);

“I looked at her with all my might, like children look...” (V. Vysotsky);

“I will never forget this battle, the air is saturated with death.

And the stars fell from the sky like silent rain” (V. Vysotsky).

“These stars in the sky are like fish in ponds...” (V. Vysotsky).

“Like Eternal Fire, the peak sparkles with emerald ice during the day...” (V.

Vysotsky).

Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora) means transferring the name of an object

(actions, qualities) based on similarity, this is a phrase that has the semantics of a hidden comparison. If an epithet is not a word in the dictionary, but a word in speech, then all the more true is the statement: metaphor is not a word in the dictionary, but a combination of words in speech. You can hammer a nail into a wall. You can hammer thoughts into your head - a metaphor arises, rough but expressive.

There are three elements in a metaphor: information about what is being compared; information about what it is being compared with; information about the basis of comparison, i.e. about a characteristic common to the objects (phenomena) being compared.

compactness of the path. Metaphor is one of the most common tropes, since the similarity between objects and phenomena can be based on a wide variety of features: color, shape, size, purpose.

The metaphor may be simple, detailed and lexical (dead, erased, petrified). A simple metaphor is built on the convergence of objects and phenomena according to one common feature - “the dawn is blazing,” “the talk of the waves,” “the sunset of life.”

Lexical metaphor is a word in which the initial transfer is no longer perceived - “steel pen”, “clock hand”, “door handle”, “sheet of paper”. Close to metaphor is metonymy (from the Greek metonymia - renaming) - the use of the name of one object instead of the name of another on the basis of an external or internal connection between them. Communication may be

1) between the object and the material from which the object is made: “The amber in his mouth was smoking” (A. Pushkin);

3) between the action and the instrument of this action: “The pen is his revenge
breathes"

5) between the place and the people located in this place: “The theater is already full, the boxes are shining” (A. Pushkin).

A type of metonymy is synecdoche (from the Greek synekdoche - co-implication) - the transfer of meaning from one to another based on the quantitative relationship between them:

1) part instead of the whole: “All flags will come to visit us” (A. Pushkin); 2) generic name instead of specific name: “Well, why, sit down, luminary!” (V. Mayakovsky);

3) the specific name instead of the generic name: “Take care of the penny above all else” (N. Gogol);

4) singular instead of plural: “And it was heard until
dawn, how the Frenchman rejoiced” (M. Lermontov);

5) plural instead of singular: “Not even a bird flies to him, and
the beast is not coming” (A. Pushkin).

The essence of personification is to attribute to inanimate objects and abstract concepts the qualities of living beings - “I will whistle, and bloody villainy will obediently, timidly crawl towards me, and will lick my hand, and look into my eyes, in them is a sign of my will, reading my will” (A. Pushkin); “And the heart is ready to run from the chest to the top...” (V. Vysotsky).

Hyperbole (from the Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - stylistic

a figure consisting of figurative exaggeration - “they swept a stack above the clouds”, “the wine flowed like a river” (I. Krylov), “The sunset burned in one hundred and forty suns” (V. Mayakovsky), “The whole world is in the palm of your hand...” (In Vysotsky). Like other tropes, hyperboles can be proprietary and general language. In everyday speech, we often use such general linguistic hyperboles - seen (heard) a hundred times, “be scared to death”, “strangle in your arms”, “dance until you drop”, “repeat twenty times”, etc. The opposite stylistic device to hyperbole is - litotes (from the Greek litotes - simplicity, thinness) is a stylistic figure consisting of emphasized understatement, humiliation, reticence: “a little boy”, “...You should bow your head to a low blade of grass...” (N. Nekrasov).

Litota is a type of meiosis (from the Greek meiosis - decrease, decrease).

MEIOSIS represents the trope of understatement

intensity of properties (signs) of objects, phenomena, processes: “wow”, “will do”, “decent*, “tolerable” (about good), “unimportant”, “hardly suitable”, “leaving much to be desired” (about bad ). In these cases, meiosis is a mitigating version of the ethically unacceptable direct name: cf. “old woman” - “a woman of Balzac’s age”, “not in her first youth”; “an ugly man” - “it’s hard to call him handsome.” Hyperbole and litotes characterize a deviation in one direction or another in the quantitative assessment of an object and can be combined in speech, giving it additional expressiveness. In the comic Russian song “Dunya the Thin-Spinner” it is sung that “Dunya spun a tow for three hours, spun three threads,” and these threads were “thinner than a knee, thicker than a log.” In addition to the author’s, there are also general linguistic litotes - “the cat cried”, “just a stone’s throw”, “can’t see beyond your own nose”.

Periphrasis (from the Greek periphrasis - from around and I speak) is called

a descriptive expression used instead of one word or another (“the one who writes these lines” instead of “I”), or a trope consisting of replacing the name of a person, object or phenomenon with a description of their essential features or an indication of their characteristic features (“the king of beasts is the lion” , “foggy Albion” - England, “Northern Venice” - St. Petersburg, “the sun of Russian poetry” - A. Pushkin).

Allegory (from the Greek allegoria - allegory) consists of an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept using a concrete, life-like image. Allegories appear in literature in the Middle Ages and owe their origin to ancient customs, cultural traditions and folklore. The main source of allegories is tales about animals, in which the fox is an allegory of cunning, the wolf is an allegory of anger and greed, the ram is stupidity, the lion is power, the snake is wisdom, etc. From ancient times to our time, allegories are most often used in fables, parables, and other humorous and satirical works. In Russian classical literature, allegories were used by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A.S. Griboyedov, N.V. Gogol, I.A. Krylov, V.V. Mayakovsky.

Anaphora (from the Greek anaphora -ana again + phoros bearing) - unity of beginning, repetition of sounds, morphemes, words, phrases, rhythmic and speech structures at the beginning of parallel syntactic periods or poetic lines.

Bridges demolished by thunderstorms,

A coffin from a washed-out cemetery (A.S. Pushkin) (repetition of sounds) ...A black-eyed maiden, a black-maned horse! (M.Yu. Lermontov) (repetition of morphemes)

It was not in vain that the winds blew,

It was not in vain that the storm came. (S.A. Yesenin) (repetition of words)

I swear by odd and even,

I swear by the sword and the right battle. (A.S. Pushkin)

Conclusion

In conclusion of this work, I would like to note that the means of expression, the stylistic figures that make our speech expressive, are diverse, and it is very useful to know them. Word, speech - indicator general culture man, his intellect, his speech culture. That is why mastering the culture of speech and its improvement, especially at the present time, is so necessary for the current generation. Each of us is obliged to cultivate respectful, reverent and careful attitude To native language, and each of us should consider it our duty to contribute to the preservation of the Russian nation, language, and culture.

List of used literature

1. Golovin I.B. Fundamentals of speech culture. St. Petersburg: Slovo, 1983.

2. Rosenthal D.E. Practical style. M.: Knowledge, 1987.

3. Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B. Secrets of stylistics: rules of good speech M.: Znanie, 1991.

4. Farmina L.G. Let's learn to speak correctly. M.: Mir, 1992.

5. Dantsev D.D., Nefedova N.V. Russian language and speech culture for technical universities. - Rostov n/D: Phoenix, 2002.

6. Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook / ed. V.I. Maksimova - M.: Gardariki, 2000.

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Grammatical means of expressiveness are less significant and less noticeable compared to lexical and phraseological ones. Grammatical forms, phrases and sentences correlate with words and, to one degree or another, depend on them.

Therefore, the expressiveness of vocabulary and phraseology comes to the fore, while the expressive capabilities of grammar are relegated to the background.

The main sources of speech expressiveness in the field of morphology are the forms of a certain stylistic coloring, synonymy and cases of figurative use grammatical forms.

A variety of expressive shades can be conveyed, for example, by using one form of number of nouns instead of another. Thus, the singular forms of personal nouns in the collective meaning vividly convey generalized plurality. This use of singular forms is accompanied by the appearance of additional shades, most often ¾ negative: Moscow, burned by fire, was given to the French (M. Lermontov). Expressiveness is characteristic of plural forms, collective names, used metaphorically to designate not a specific person, but a typified phenomenon: We all look into the poleons (A. Pushkin); Silent people are blissful in the world (A. Griboyedov). The usual or occasional use of the plural noun singularia tantum can serve as a means of expressing disdain: I decided to go to courses, study electricity, all sorts of oxygen! (V. Veresaev).

Pronouns are characterized by a richness and variety of emotional and expressive shades. For example, the pronouns some, some, some, some, used when naming a person, introduce a shade of disdain into speech (some doctor, some poet, some Ivanov).

The uncertainty of the meaning of pronouns serves as a means of creating a joke, comedy. Here is an example from V. Pikul’s novel “I Have the Honor”: His wife had Astrakhan herring. I think ¾ why would a lady drag around Europe with our stinking herring? He cut her belly (not a lady’s, of course, but a herring), and from there, dear mother, diamond after diamond ¾ fell out like cockroaches.

Special expressive shades are created by the opposition of the pronouns we ¾ you, our ¾ your, emphasizing two camps, two opinions, views, etc.: Millions of you. We are ¾ of darkness, and darkness, and darkness. Try it and fight us! (A. Blok); We stand against society, whose interests you are ordered to defend, as irreconcilable enemies of it and yours, and reconciliation between us is impossible until we win... You cannot refuse the oppression of prejudices and habits, ¾ of the oppression that has spiritually killed you , ¾ nothing prevents us from being internally free, ¾ the poisons with which you poison us are weaker than those antidotes that you ¾ unwittingly ¾ pour into our consciousness (M. Gorky).

Verbal categories and forms with their rich synonymy, expression and emotionality, the ability to figurative use. The possibility of using one verb form instead of another makes it possible to widely use in speech synonymous substitutions of certain forms of tense, aspect, mood or personal forms verb by others. The additional semantic shades that appear in this case increase the expression of the expression. Thus, to indicate the action of the interlocutor, the 3rd person singular form can be used, which gives the statement a disparaging connotation (He is still arguing!), 1st person plural(Well, how are we resting? ¾ in the meaning ‘resting, resting’) with a shade of sympathy or special interest, an infinitive with a particle with a hint of desirability (You should rest a little; You should visit him).

Past tense perfect form when used in the meaning of the future, it expresses a particularly categorical judgment or the need to convince the interlocutor of the inevitability of an action: ¾ Listen, let me go! Drop me off somewhere! I'm completely lost (M. Gorky).

There are many expressive forms of moods (May there always be sunshine!; Long live world peace!). Additional semantic and emotionally expressive shades appear when one form of mood is used to mean another. For example, the subjunctive mood in the imperative sense has a connotation of a polite, cautious wish (You should go to your brother)", the indicative mood in the imperative sense expresses an order that does not allow objection, refusal (You'll call tomorrow!)); the infinitive in the imperative sense expresses categoricalness (Stop arms race!; ban testing atomic weapons!). The particles yes, let, well, well, -ka, etc. contribute to strengthening the expression of the verb in the imperative mood: ¾ Come on, isn’t it sweet, buddy. // Reason in simplicity (A. Tvardovsky); Shut up!; So, say!

The expressive possibilities of syntax are associated primarily with the use of stylistic figures (turns of speech, syntactic constructions): anaphora, epiphora, antithesis, gradation, inversion, parallelism, ellipsis, silence, non-union, polyunion, etc.

The expressive capabilities of syntactic constructions, as a rule, are closely related to the elements that fill them, their semantics and stylistic coloring. Thus, the stylistic figure of antithesis, as noted above, is often created by using antonym words; The lexical basis of antithesis is ¾ antonymy, and the syntactic basis is ¾ parallelism of construction. Anaphora and epiphora are based on lexical repetitions:

In the silence and darkness of the forest

I think about life under a pine tree.

That pine tree is clumsy and old,

That pine is harsh and wise,

That pine tree is sad and calm,

Quieter than the streams in a big, big river,

Like a mother

me with a pine palm

Carefully strokes the cheek.

(V. Fedorov)

Stringing together synonymous words can lead to gradation, when each subsequent synonym strengthens (sometimes weakens) the meaning of the previous one: She [the German] was there, in a hostile world, which he did not recognize, despised a l, n e n a videl (Yu. Bondarev).

The expressiveness of speech depends not only on the semantic volume and stylistic coloring of the word, but also on the methods and principles of their combination. See, for example, how and what words V. Vysotsky combines into phrases:

Trusting Death was wrapped around his finger, She hesitated, forgetting to wave her scythe.

The bullets were no longer catching up with us and were falling behind.

Will we be able to wash ourselves not with blood, but with dew?!

Death is ¾ trusting; death was wrapped around the finger (i.e. deceived); the bullets did not catch up, but lagged behind; wash with dew and wash with blood.

Search for fresh, accurate combinations, expansion, updating lexical compatibility characteristic primarily of artistic and journalistic speech: She is a ¾ young woman, Greek, suspected of loving freedom (from newspapers). The phrase suspected of loving freedom gives a clear idea of the situation in which love of freedom is considered a very suspicious quality.

Ever since Ancient Greece a special semantic type of phrases is known: ¾ oxymoron (Greek.

Oxymoron ¾ witty-silly), i.e. "a stylistic figure consisting of a combination of two concepts that contradict each other, logically excluding one another" ( hot Snow, ugly beauty, truth of lies, ringing silence). An oxymoron allows you to reveal the essence of objects or phenomena, emphasizing their complexity and inconsistency. For example:

(V. Fedorov)

A widely used oxymoron in fiction and in journalism as a bright, catchy headline, the meaning of which is usually revealed by the content of the entire text. Thus, in the newspaper "Soviet Sport" a report from the World Team Chess Championship was entitled "Original Template." The original template is the attempt of grandmaster Polugaevsky to make wider use of the typical positions that appeared on the board, analyzed in detail in textbooks on chess theory, knowledge of which makes it easier for the athlete to find a way out.

By apt definition A.S. Pushkin, “language is inexhaustible in combining words,” therefore, its expressive capabilities are inexhaustible. Updating connections between words leads to updating verbal meanings. In some cases this manifests itself in the creation of new, unexpected metaphors, in others - in an almost imperceptible shift in verbal meanings. Such a shift can be created not by short-range, but by long-range connections of words, individual parts of the text, or the entire text as a whole. This is how, for example, the poem by A.S. is constructed. Pushkin’s “I loved you”, which is an example of expressiveness of speech, although it mainly uses words that do not have a bright expressive coloring and semantic connotations, and only one periphrasis (Love, perhaps, // In my soul has not completely faded away). The poet achieves extraordinary expressiveness through the methods of combining words within the entire poem, organizing its speech structure as a whole and individual words as elements of this structure.

The syntax of the Russian language, in addition, has many emotionally and expressively colored constructions. Thus, various modal-expressive meanings are characterized by infinitive sentences, having a colloquial coloring: You will not see such battles (M. Lermontov); You can’t hide // You can’t hide your amazement // Neither forges nor masters (V. Fedorov).

An emotional-evaluative attitude to the content of a statement can be expressed using exclamatory sentences: How beautiful life seems to me when I meet restless, caring, enthusiastic, searching, generous-hearted people in it! (V. Chivilikhin); sentences with inversion: Fate has reached its conclusion! (M. Lermontov), segmented and parceled structures: Winter ¾ is so long, so endless; Tal, where we will live, is a real forest, not like our grove... With mushrooms, with berries (V. Panova), etc.

Enlivens the narrative, allows you to convey the emotional and expressive features of the author’s speech, and show it more clearly internal state, attitude to the subject of the message, direct and improperly direct speech. It is more emotional, expressive and persuasive than indirect. For example, compare an excerpt from the story of A.P. Chekhov" Dear Lessons"in the first and second editions:

They give liveliness to the statement, emphasize the dynamism of the presentation of definitely personal proposals; Nominatives have great semantic capacity and expressiveness; various emotions are expressed by vocative and other sentences: The people of the whole earth // Let the alarm sound: // Let us take care of the world! // Let's stand as one, ¾ // Let's say: we won't let // The war start again (A. Zharov); Oh, roads! // Dust and fog, // Cold, anxiety // Yes, steppe weeds (L. Oshanin); ¾ Verochka, tell Aksinya to open the gate for us! (Pause.) Verochka! Don't be lazy, get up, honey! (A. Chekhov).

The expressive capabilities of syntactic (as well as other) language means are updated thanks to various stylistic devices using them in speech. Interrogative sentences, for example, are a means of expressiveness if they not only contain an incentive to obtain information, but also express a variety of emotionally expressive shades (Is it morning?; So you won’t come?; Again this nasty rain?); awaken the recipient’s interest in the message, make them think about the question posed, emphasize its significance: How far will you swim on the wave of the crisis?; Is the postman's bag heavy?; Is it warm for us?; Will the CIS strengthen its position? (these are some article titles). Rhetorical questions, widely used in public speaking, help attract the attention of the addressee and enhance the impact of speech on his feelings: Don’t we have overflowing creativity? Do we not have an intelligent, rich, flexible, luxurious language, richer and more flexible than any of the European languages?

Why should we creak our feathers in a boring way when our ideas, thoughts, images should thunder like the golden trumpet of a new world? (A.N. Tolstoy)

In practice oratory worked out special welcome use of interrogative sentences ¾ question-and-answer move (the speaker poses questions and answers them himself): How did these ordinary girls become extraordinary soldiers? They were ready for heroism, but were not ready for the army. And the army, in turn, was not ready for them, because most of the girls went voluntarily (S. Alexievich).

The question-and-answer course dialogizes monologue speech, makes the addressee an interlocutor of the speaker, and activates his attention. Dialogization enlivens the narrative and gives it expressiveness.

Thus, the expressiveness of speech can be created by the most ordinary, stylistically unmarked linguistic units thanks to the skillful, most appropriate use of them in the context in accordance with the content of the statement, its functional and stylistic coloring, general expressive orientation and purpose.

Deviations from norms are deliberately used as means of verbal expressiveness in a certain situation. literary language: the use in one context of units of different stylistic colors, the collision of semantically incompatible units, non-normative formations of grammatical forms, non-normative construction of sentences, etc. The basis of such use is the conscious choice of linguistic means, based on deep knowledge language.

It is possible to achieve speech expressiveness only with the correct correlation of the main aspects of speech - logical, psychological (emotional) and linguistic, which is determined by the content of the statement and the author’s goal setting.

The same idea can be expressed using independent simple sentences and complex ones. However, depending on the sum of which sentences the thought is expressed, the stylistic character of the statement changes completely.

The purpose of simple sentences is to emphasize the independent, independent nature of the parts of the statement, highlighting individual details. Moreover, the statement expressed simple sentences, has the character of a laconic, often relaxed colloquial speech. This is the prose of A.S. Pushkina, A.P. Chekhov.

Thoughts expressed using complex sentences are carefully linked to each other into a single complex whole and act as its organic elements. Complex sentences provide the richest and most varied opportunities for expression semantic relations And syntactic connections between parts of a statement.

Analyzing the figurative and expressive means of syntax, it is necessary to find out what role they play various elements poetic syntax, stylistic figures.

Using the trick inversions(rearrangement of words) leads to the logical or emotional selection of those elements of the statement that are most significant for the author in a given context and on which he wants to focus the attention of readers, for example, in I.S. Turgenev: What was this warm, this sleepy night waiting for? She was waiting for the sound; This sensitive silence awaited a living voice - but everything was silent.

Asyndeton gives speech speed, impetuosity, energy: Swede, Russian - stabs, chops, cuts. Drumming, clicks, grinding... (P.), A multi-union slows down speech, makes it the main one: And it’s boring, and sad, and there’s no one to give a hand to in a moment of spiritual adversity... (L.).

One of the brightest syntactic means – pairwise combination of homogeneous members of a sentence. This technique is used in literary and journalistic styles as one of the expressive language means. Very often antonyms act as homogeneous members: Nothing comes naturally, without effort and will, without sacrifice and labor. (A. Herzen).

Parcellation- dismemberment of a single syntactic structure sentences for the purpose of a more emotional, vivid perception of it: A child needs to be taught to feel. Beauty. Of people. All living things are around.

Anaphora ( lexical repetition)	Repeat parts in beginning lines (unity of beginning)	This morning, this joy, This power of day and light, This blue vault, This cry and strings, These flocks, these birds...
Epiphora (lexical repetition)	Repeat parts, same syntactic construction end proposals	I've been coming to you all my life. I believed in you all my life. I've loved you all my life.
Compositional junction (lexical repetition)	Repetition at the beginning of a new sentence of a word or words from a previous sentence, usually ending it	My Motherland did everything for me. My homeland taught me, raised me, and gave me a start in life. A life I'm proud of.
Antithesis	Opposition	Long hair, short mind; Yesterday I was choking with happiness, and today I am screaming in pain.
Gradation	Arrangement of synonyms according to the degree of increase or decrease of the characteristic	Huge blue eyes glowed, burned, and shone on her face. But you must understand this loneliness, accept it, make friends with it and overcome it spiritually...
Oxymoron	Connecting words that contradict each other, logically exclude each other	Look, it’s fun for her to be sad so elegantly naked. Dead souls, living corpse, hot snow
Inversion	Changing the usual word order. Usually: attribute + subject + adverbial + predicate verb + object (e.g. The autumn rain was loudly knocking on the roof)	He came - he came; It was a shame, they were expecting a fight; He passed the doorman and flew up the stone steps like an arrow. – (cf. “he flew past the doorman like an arrow”)
Parallelism	Comparison in the form of juxtaposition	Parallelism happens straight: Overgrown with grass graves- is overgrown with age pain And negative, in which the coincidence of the main features of the compared phenomena is emphasized: It is not the wind that bends the branch, It is not the oak tree that makes noise - It is my heart that groans, How autumn leaf trembling.
Ellipsis	Omission of some part of the sentence that is easily restored from the context	Guys - for the axes! (the word “taken” is missing)
Parcellation	Division of a single meaning statement into independent sentences	And again Gulliver. Costs. Slouching.
Polyunion (polysyndeton)	Homogeneous members or sentences connected by repeating conjunctions	What a strange, alluring, and carrying, and wonderful thing there is in the word road! And how wonderful this road itself is.
Asyndeton	Homogeneous members of a sentence are connected without the help of conjunctions	Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts...
Rhetorical exclamation	An exclamation that enhances the expression of feelings in the text	Who didn't scold stationmasters!
A rhetorical question	A question that is asked not with the goal of giving or receiving an answer, but with the goal of having an emotional impact on the reader	What Russian doesn't like driving fast? = “all Russians love”
Rhetorical appeal	An appeal directed not to a real interlocutor, but to the subject of an artistic depiction	Goodbye, unwashed Russia!
Default	Deliberate interruption of speech in anticipation of the reader's guess, who must mentally complete the phrase	But listen: if I owe you... I own a dagger, / I was born near the Caucasus.

Check yourself!

Exercise 1.

Find cases of parallelism, polyunion and non-union. Determine their functions in texts.

1) Black raven in the snowy twilight,
Black velvet on dark shoulders.(A. A. Blok)

2) Hour hand It's approaching midnight.
The candles fluttered like a wave of light.
Thoughts stirred like a dark wave.
Happy New Year, heart!(A. A. Blok)

3) No, I will say positively, there was no poet with such universal responsiveness as Pushkin, and it’s not just responsiveness that matters, but its amazing depth, but the reincarnation of his spirit into the spirit of foreign peoples, an almost perfect reincarnation.(F. M. Dostoevsky)

4) If such masters as Akhmatova or Zamyatin are walled up alive for the rest of their lives, condemned to the grave to create in silence, without hearing the echo of their writing, this is not only their personal misfortune, but the grief of the entire nation, but a danger for the entire nation.(A.I. Solzhenitsyn)

5) Each of them (who died during the Great Patriotic War) was the whole world. And this world went out forever. Along with him went to the graves unfulfilled dreams, unfulfilled weddings, unborn children, unsung songs, unbuilt houses, unwritten books.(V.V. Bykov)

Topic 7. Text. Speech styles