The general nature of the writer’s creativity leaves a certain stamp on his poetic syntax, that is, on his manner of constructing phrases and sentences. It is in poetic syntax that the conditioning of the syntactic structure of poetic speech by the general nature of the writer’s creative talent is manifested.
Poetic figures of language are associated with the special role played by individual lexical resources and figurative means of language.
Rhetorical exclamations, appeals, questions are created by the author to focus readers' attention on the phenomenon or problem in question. Thus, they should draw attention to them, and not demand an answer (“Oh field, field, who strewn you with dead bones?” “Do you know the Ukrainian night?”, “Do you like theater?”, “Oh Rus'! Raspberry field...").
Repetitions: anaphora, epiphora, junction. They belong to figures of poetic speech and are syntactic constructions based on the repetition of individual words that carry the main semantic load.
Among the repetitions stand out anaphora, that is, repetition of initial words or phrases in sentences, poems or stanzas (“I loved you” - A.S. Pushkin;
I swear by the first day of creation,
I swear on his last day,
I swear by the shame of crime,
And eternal truth triumph. - M.Yu. Lermontov).
Epiphora is a repetition of final words or phrases in sentences or stanzas - “The master will come” N.A. Nekrasova.
Joint- a rhetorical figure in which a word or expression is repeated at the end of one phrase and at the beginning of the second. Most often found in folklore:
He fell on the cold snow
It's like a pine tree on the cold snow,
Like a pine tree in a damp forest... - (M.Yu. Lermontov).
Oh spring, without end and without edge,
A dream without end and without edge... - (A.A. Blok).
Gain represents the arrangement of words and expressions according to the principle of their increasing strength: “I spoke, convinced, demanded, ordered.” Authors require this figure of poetic speech for greater strength and expressiveness when conveying the image of an object, thought, feeling: “I knew him in love tenderly, passionately, madly, boldly, modestly...” - (I.S. Turgenev).
Default- a rhetorical device based on the omission of individual words or phrases in speech (most often this is used to emphasize the excitement or unpreparedness of speech). - “There are such moments, such feelings... You can only point to them... and pass by” - (I.S. Turgenev).
Parallelism- is a rhetorical device - a detailed comparison of two or more phenomena, given in similar syntactic structures. -
What is foggy, clear dawn,
Did it fall to the ground with dew?
What are you thinking, red maiden,
Are your eyes sparkling with tears? (A.N. Koltsov)
Parcellation- division of a single syntactic structure of a sentence for the purpose of a more emotional, vivid perception of it by the reader - “A child needs to be taught to feel. Beauty. People. All living things around.”
Antithesis(contrast, contrast) is a rhetorical device in which the disclosure of contradictions between phenomena is usually carried out using a number of antonymic words and expressions. -
Black evening, white snow... - (A.A. Blok).
My body is crumbling into dust,
I command thunder with my mind.
I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god! (A.N. Radishchev).
Inversion- unusual word order in a sentence. Despite the fact that in the Russian language there is no fixed word order once and for all, there is nevertheless a familiar order. For example, a definition comes before the word being defined. Then Lermontov’s “A lonely sail turns white in the blue fog of the sea” seems unusual and poetically sublime in comparison with the traditional: “A lonely sail turns white in the blue fog of the sea.” Or “The longed-for moment has come: My long-term work is finished” - A.S. Pushkin.
Unions can also serve to give expressiveness to speech. So, asyndeton usually used to convey the swiftness of action when depicting pictures or sensations: “Cannonballs are rolling, bullets are whistling, Cold bayonets are hanging...,” or “Lightlights are flashing by, Pharmacies, fashion stores... Lions at the gates...” - A. WITH. Pushkin.
Multi-Union usually creates the impression of separate speech, emphasizing the significance of each word separated by a conjunction:
Oh! Summer is red! I would love you
If only it weren't for the heat, the dust, the mosquitoes, and the flies. - A.S. Pushkin.
And the cloak, and the arrow, and the crafty dagger -
The lord is protected by the years. - M.Yu. Lermontov.
The combination of non-union and multi-union- also a means of emotional expressiveness for the author:
The beat of drums, screams, grinding,
The thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning,
And death and hell on all sides. - A.S. Pushkin.
Figures of poetic syntax are various techniques for combining words into sentences, the purpose of which is to enhance the effect of what is said.
Let's look at the most common figures of poetic syntax using examples:
Inversion (or permutation) is a change in the usual word order in an expression. In the Russian language, the order of words is considered arbitrary, but there are still generally accepted constructions, deviation from which entails a partial change in meaning. No one will argue that the expressions “I said it,” “I said it,” and “I said it” have different shades of meaning.
Repeat. In general, repetition is a fundamental feature of poetic speech. Repetitions at the level of phonetics and orthoepy form the rhythmic structure of poems. Repetitions at the level of morphemics (the endings of words that end a line) form a rhyme. Repetition at the syntax level can also play a big role. Syntactic repetitions include anadiplosis (or junction), anaphora and epiphora. Anadiplosis is a text structure in which the ending of one phrase is repeated at the beginning of the next phrase. This technique helps to achieve greater cohesion and fluidity of the text. An example is K. Balmont’s poem “I was caught in a dream,” where “fading shadows,” “the steps trembled,” etc. are repeated. Anaphora is the repetition of the initial word or group of words in each new line of the poem. An example is the poem by M. Tsvetaeva “A rich man fell in love with a poor woman,” where the words “loved” and “don’t love” are repeated. Epiphora is the opposite of anaphora. In this case, words that complete lines or phrases are repeated. An example is a song from the movie “The Hussar Ballad,” each verse of which ends with the words “a long time ago.”
Gradation is the sequential strengthening or weakening of the semantic coloring of words included in a group of homogeneous members. This technique helps to imagine the phenomenon in its development. For example, N. Zabolotsky in the poem “Road Creators” depicts an explosion with the following sequence of words: “howled, sang, took off...”
Rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical appeal - these expressions, unlike ordinary questions, exclamations and appeals, do not refer to anyone in particular, they do not require an answer or response. The author uses them to give his text greater emotionality and dynamism. For example, the poem “Sail” by M. Lermontov begins with rhetorical questions and ends with a rhetorical exclamation.
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» » Figures of poetic syntax
Artistic speech requires attention to its shades and nuances. “In poetry, any speech element turns into a figure of poetic speech”158.
The imagery of literary speech depends not only on the choice of words, but also on how these words are combined in a sentence and other syntactic constructions, with what intonation they are pronounced and how they sound.
The figurative expressiveness of speech is facilitated by special techniques for constructing phrases and sentences, called syntactic figures.
Figure (from Latin figura - outline, image, appearance) (rhetorical figure, stylistic figure, figure of speech) is a generalized name for stylistic devices in which the word, unlike tropes, does not necessarily have a figurative meaning. Their identification and classification began with ancient rhetoric. The figures are built on special combinations of words that go beyond the usual “practical” use and are aimed at enhancing the expressiveness and figurativeness of the text. Since figures are formed by a combination of words, they use certain stylistic possibilities of syntax, but in all cases the meanings of the words forming the figure are very important.
Syntactic figures individualize speech and give it emotional overtones. We can talk about the organizational role of syntactic figures in a particular fragment of a work of art and even in the whole text. There are various classifications of syntactic figures. Nevertheless, with all the variety of approaches to their identification, two groups can be defined: 1)
figures of addition (decrease), which are associated with an increase (decrease) in the volume of the text and carry a certain semantic load; 2)
figures of strengthening, which are associated with increased emotionality and expansion of semantic content. Within this group, one can distinguish such subgroups as “pure” figures of amplification (gradation), rhetorical figures, figures of “displacement” (inversion), figures of “opposition” (antithesis).
Let's look at the figures of addition (decrease). These include all types of repetitions that serve to highlight and emphasize important points and links in the subject-speech fabric of the work.
R.O. Jacobson, referring to the ancient Indian treatise “Natyashastra”, where repetition, along with metaphor, is spoken of as one of the main figures of speech, argued: “The essence of poetic fabric consists of periodic returns”1. All kinds of returns to what has already been said and indicated are very diverse in lyrical works. Replicates were examined
V.M. Zhirmunsky in his work “Theory of Verse” (in the section “Composition of Lyrical Works”), because repetitions of various types are of great importance in the strophic composition of the poem, in creating a special melodic intonation.
Repetitions are very rare in business speech, frequent in oratorical and artistic prose, and quite common in poetry. Yu.M. Lotman, citing the lines of B. Okudzhava:
Do you hear the drum roaring,
Soldier, say goodbye to her, say goodbye to her...
writes: “The second verse does not at all mean an invitation to say goodbye twice. Depending on the intonation of the reading, it can mean: “Soldier, hurry up to say goodbye, and “the chud is already leaving”” or “Soldier, say goodbye to her, say goodbye forever...” But never: “Soldier, say goodbye to her, once again say goodbye to her." Thus, doubling a word does not mean a mechanical doubling of the concept, but a different, new, complicated content of it"159.
The word “contains its material content plus an expressive halo, more or less strongly expressed. It is obvious that when repeating the content, the material (subject, conceptual, logical) does not change, but the expression noticeably increases, even neutral words become emotional<...>a repeated word is always more expressively stronger than the previous one, creates the effect of gradation, emotional intensity, so important in the composition of both the whole lyric poem and its parts”160.
Repetition at a precisely fixed place in the poem has even greater compositional and expressive meaning. We are talking about such types of repetitions as refrain, anaphora, epiphora (they will be discussed below), junction or pickup, pleonasm, etc.
Repeating elements can be nearby and follow one another (constant repetition), or they can be separated by other text elements (distant repetition).
The general form of constant repetition is the doubling of the concept: It's time, it's time! Horns are blowing (A. Pushkin); For everything, for everything I thank you... (M. Lermontov); Every house is alien to me, every temple is empty to me, and it doesn’t matter, and everything is one (M. Tsvetaeva).
Ring, or prosapodosis (Greek rgovarosiosis, lit. - super increase) - repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning and end of the same verse or column: Horse, horse, half a kingdom for a horse! (W. Shakespeare); The sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy! (A. Pushkin).
Joint (pickup), or anadiplosis (Greek apasіірІозіБ - doubling) - repetition of a word (group of words) of a verse at the beginning of the next line:
Oh, spring, without end and without edge -
An endless and endless dream!
and at the end of the verse at the beginning of the next:
Why are you, little ray of light, not burning clearly?
Are you not burning clearly, are you not flaring up?
In book poetry, the junction is rare:
I caught the departing shadows with my dreams.
The fading shadows of the fading day...
(K. Balmont)
Pleonasm (from the Greek pleonasmos - excess) - verbosity, the use of words that are unnecessary both for semantic completeness and for stylistic expressiveness (adult man, path-road, sadness-longing). The extreme form of pleonasm is called tautology.
Amplification (lat. amplificatio - increase, distribution) - strengthening an argument by “piling up” equivalent expressions, excessive synonymy; in poetry it is used to enhance the expressiveness of speech:
Floats, flows, runs like a rook,
And how high above the ground!
(I. Bunin)
You are alive, you are in me, you are in my chest,
As a support, as a friend and as an opportunity.
(B. Pasternak)
Anaphora (Greek anaphora - carrying out) - unity of beginning - repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of several verses, stanzas, columns or phrases:
The circus shines like a shield.
The circus squeals on its fingers,
The circus is howling on the pipe,
It hits the soul.
(V. Khlebnikov)
Daytime thoughts
Day showers - away:
Daytime thoughts have stepped into the night.
(V. Khodasevich)
Examples of verbal anaphora were given above, but it can also be sound, with the repetition of individual consonances:
Open the prison for me,
Give me the shine of the day
The black-eyed girl
Black-maned horse.
(M. Lermontov)
Anaphora can be syntactic:
We won't tell the commander
We won't tell anyone.
(M. Svetlov)
A. Fet in the poem “I came to you with greetings” uses anaphora at the beginning of the second, third, fourth stanzas. He starts like this:
I came to you with greetings,
Tell me that the sun has risen
That it fluttered through the sheets with hot light.
Tell that the forest has woken up;
Tell me that with the same passion,
Like yesterday, I came again,
Tell me that fun is blowing at me from everywhere.
The repetition of the verb “tell”, used by the poet in each stanza, allows him to smoothly and almost imperceptibly move from a description of nature to a description of the feelings of the lyrical hero. A. Fet uses anaphoric composition, which is one of the ways of semantic and aesthetic organization of speech and the development of a thematic image.
An entire poem can be built on anaphora:
Wait for me and I will come back,
Just wait a lot
Wait for the yellow rains to make you sad,
Wait for the snow to blow
Wait for it to be hot
Wait when others are not waiting,
Forgetting yesterday.
(K. Simonov)
V. Khlebnikov’s quatrain is filled with deep philosophical meaning:
When horses die, they breathe,
When the grasses die, they dry up,
When the suns die, they go out,
When people die, they sing songs. E pyphora (from the Greek epiphora - addition) - repetition of a word or group of words at the end of several poetic lines, stanzas:
Dear friend, even in this quiet house the fever strikes me.
I can’t find peace in a quiet house Near a peaceful fire.
The number of steppes and roads is not over:
No account found for stones and rapids.
(E. Bagritsky)
Epiphora can also be found in prose. In “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” the “golden word” of Svyatoslav, who addresses the Russian princes with the idea of unification, ends with a repetition of the call: Let us stand for the Russian land, for the wounds of Igor, dear Svyatoslavich! A.
S. Pushkin, with his characteristic irony, in the poem “My Genealogy” ends each stanza with the same word tradesman, varying it in different ways: I am a tradesman, I am a tradesman, / I, thank God, a tradesman, / Nizhny Novgorod tradesman.
Another type of repetition is a refrain (in translation from French - chorus) - a word, verse, or group of verses rhythmically repeated after a stanza, often differing in their metrical features (verse size) from the main text. For example, every sixth stanza of M. Svetlov’s poem “Grenada” ends with the refrain: Grenada, Grenada, / My Grenada! B.
M. Zhirmunsky in his article “Composition of Lyric Poems” defined the refrain as follows: these are “endings that are isolated from the rest of the poem in metrical, syntactic and thematic terms”1. In the presence of refrains, the thematic (compositional) closure of the stanza is enhanced. It is also strengthened by dividing the verse into stanzas, they are more clearly separated from each other; if the refrain is not in each stanza, but in a pair or three, then it thereby creates a larger compositional unit. Masterfully used the refrain in the ballad “The Triumph of the Winners” by V.A. Zhukovsky. After each stanza he gives different quatrains, “isolated” in metrical and thematic terms. Here are two of them:
The trial is over, the dispute is resolved; Happy is the one whose radiance The struggle has ceased; Being preserved
Fate fulfilled everything: He who is given to taste
The great city was crushed. Goodbye to my dear homeland!
But in “Song of the Wretched Wanderer” by N.A. Nekrasov, at the end of each stanza, two refrains are repeated alternately: It’s cold, wanderer, cold and Hungry, wanderer, hungry. They determine the emotional mood of the poem about the difficult life of the people.
M. Svetlov simultaneously uses several types of repetitions in one of his poems:
All jewelry stores -
they are yours.
All birthdays, all name days - they are yours.
All the aspirations of youth are yours.
And all happy lovers' lips - they are yours.
And all the military bands' trumpets are yours.
This whole city, all these buildings - they are yours.
All the bitterness of life and all the suffering are mine.
The poem by A.S. is also based on repetitions. Kochetkova “Don’t part with your loved ones!”:
Don't be separated from your loved ones!
Don't be separated from your loved ones!
Don't be separated from your loved ones!
Grow into them with all your blood -
And every time say goodbye forever!
And every time say goodbye forever,
When you leave for a moment!
Anaphoric connection is not external, it is not a simple decoration of speech. “Structural connections (repetitions of syntactic, intonation, verbal, sound) express and strengthen the semantic connections of poems and stanzas; it is they, in the initial composition, that make us understand that this is not a simple kaleidoscope of individual images, but the harmonious development of the theme, that the subsequent image follows from the previous one, and does not simply coexist with it”1. The repetition of a word or phrase can also be in prose. The heroine of Chekhov's story "The Jumper" Olga Ivanovna exaggerates her role in the life of the artist Ryabovsky. This is emphasized by the repetition in her improperly direct speech of the word “influence”: But this, she thought, he created under her influence, and in general, thanks to her influence, he changed greatly for the better. Her influence is so beneficial and significant that if she leaves him, he may perhaps die.
The expressiveness of speech also depends on how conjunctions and other function words are used. If sentences are constructed without conjunctions, then speech speeds up, and a deliberate increase in conjunctions makes speech slower and smoother, therefore polysyndeton is considered an addition figure.
Polysyndeton, or polyunion (Greek polysyndetos - multi-connected) - a structure of speech (mainly poetic) in which the number of conjunctions between words is increased; pauses between words emphasize individual words and enhance their expressiveness:
And the shine, and the noise, and the talk of the waves.
(A. Pushkin)
And deity and inspiration,
And life, and tears, and love.
(A. Pushkin)
I carved out the world with flint and saw,
And I brought a shaky smile to my lips,
And the house was lit up with smoke and haze,
And he lifted up the sweet smokiness of the former.
(V. Khlebnikov)
Decrease figures include asyndeton, default, ellipse (is).
Asyndeton, or non-union (Greek asyndeton - unconnected) is a structure of speech (mainly poetic) in which conjunctions connecting words are omitted. This is a figure that gives speech dynamism.
A.S. Pushkin uses it in “Poltava”, since he needs to show a quick change of actions during the battle:
Drumming, clicks, grinding,
The thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning...
With the help of non-union N.A. Nekrasov in the poem “Railroad” enhances the expressiveness of the phrase:
Straight path, narrow embankments,
Columns, rails, bridges.
M. Tsvetaeva conveys a whole range of feelings with the help of non-union:
Here's the window again
Where they don't sleep again.
Maybe they drink wine
Maybe that's how they sit.
Or simply two people can’t separate their hands.
In every home, friend,
There is such a window.
Silence is a figure that makes it possible to guess what could be discussed in a suddenly interrupted statement.
The lines of I. Bunin awaken many thoughts:
I do not love, O Rus', your timid
Thousands of years of slavish poverty.
But this cross, but this white ladle...
Humble, dear features!
Bunin's view of the Russian national character was determined by the dual nature of the Russian person. In “Cursed Days” he defined this duality this way: There are two types among the people. In one, Rus' predominates, in the other - Chud, Merya. Bunin loved ancient Kievan Rus to the point of oblivion - hence the figure of silence in the above lines gives rise to so many thoughts.
An example of the use of this figure in prose is the dialogue between Anna Sergeevna and Gurov in Chekhov’s “The Lady with the Dog.” The silence here is completely justified by the fact that both heroes are overwhelmed with feelings, they want to say a lot, and the meetings are short. Anna Sergeevna recalls herself in her youth: When I married him, I was twenty years old, I was tormented by curiosity, I wanted something better, because there is, I told myself, another life. I wanted to live! To live and live... And curiosity burned me...
Gurov wants to be understood: But understand, Anna, understand... - he said in an undertone, in a hurry. - I beg you, understand...
Elli p s (is) (from the Greek eIeіrviz - omission, loss) - the main type of decreasing figures, based on the omission of an implied word, easily restored in meaning; one of the types of default. With the help of ellipsis, dynamic and emotional speech is achieved:
Whisper, timid breathing,
The trill of a nightingale,
Silver and the swaying of the Sleepy Brook...
Ellipse expresses the deformation of general language syntax. Here is an example of missing an implied word: ... and looked for the last [time] at how the legitimate [husband] lay, pressing the lapel [of his jacket] with his hand... (B. Slutsky).
In artistic literature, ellipsis acts as a figure with the help of which special expressiveness is achieved. Artistic ellipsis is associated with colloquial expressions. Most often, the verb is omitted, which makes the text dynamic:
Let... But chu! This is not the time to go for a walk!
To the horses, brother, and your foot in the stirrup,
My saber is out and I'll cut it! God gives us a different feast.
(D. Davydov)
In prose, ellipsis is mainly used in direct speech and in narration on behalf of the narrator. Maxim Maksimych in “Bel” talks about one episode from the life of Pechorin: Grigory Alexandrovich squealed no worse than any Chechen; the gun out of the case, and there I go with it.
Let us turn to the figures of intensification (gradation, rhetorical figures, inversion, antithesis).
“Pure” figures of amplification include gradation.
Gradation (lat. gradatio - gradual increase) is a syntactic construction in which each subsequent word or group of words strengthens or weakens the semantic and emotional meaning of the previous ones.
There is a distinction between ascending gradation (climax) and descending gradation (anti-climax). The first is used more often in Russian literature.
K l i m a s (from the Greek klimax - ladder) - a stylistic figure, a type of gradation, suggesting the arrangement of words or expressions related to one subject in ascending order: I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry (S. Yesenin) ; And where is Mazepa? Where is the villain? Where did Judas run in fear? (A. Pushkin); Neither call, nor shout, nor help (M. Voloshin); I called you, but you didn’t look back, / I cried, but you didn’t descend (A. Blok).
Anti-climax (Greek anti - against, klimax - ladder) is a stylistic figure, a type of gradation in which the significance of words gradually decreases:
He promises him half the world,
And France only for yourself.
(M. Lermontov)
All sides of feelings
All edges of truth have been erased
In worlds, in years, in hours.
(A. Bely)
like a bomb
like a razor
double-edged
like a rattlesnake
at twenty stings
two meters tall.
(V. Mayakovsky)
A multifaceted gradation lies in the composition of Pushkin’s “Tales of the Fisherman and the Fish,” built on the growing desires of an old woman who wanted to become a noblewoman, a queen, and then “the mistress of the sea.”
Strengthening figures include rhetorical figures. They give artistic speech emotionality and expressiveness. G.N. Pospelov calls them “emotional-rhetorical types of intonation”1, because in artistic speech no one answers emotional-rhetorical questions, but they arise to create emphatic intonation. The definition of “rhetorical” fixed in the names of these figures does not indicate that they developed in oratorical prose, and then in literary literature.
Rhetorical question (from Greek.
GleShe - speaker) - one of the syntactic figures; such a structure of speech, mainly poetic, in which a statement is expressed in the form of a question:
Who gallops, who rushes under the cold darkness?
(V. Zhukovsky)
And if this is so, then what is beauty?
And why do people deify her?
She is a vessel in which there is emptiness,
Or a fire flickering in a vessel?
(N. Zabolotsky)
In the above examples, rhetorical questions introduce an element of philosophy into the text, as in verses 3. Gippius:
The world is rich in triple bottomlessness.
Triple bottomlessness is given to poets.
But don't the poets say
Only about this?
Only about this?
Rhetorical exclamation increases emotional tension. With its help, concentration of attention on a specific subject is achieved. This or that concept is affirmed in the form of an exclamation:
How poor is our language!
(F. Tyutchev) -
Hey, watch out! don't play around under the forests... -
We know everything ourselves, shut up!
(V. Bryusov)
Rhetorical exclamations enhance the expression of feeling in a message:
1 Introduction to literary criticism / Ed. G.N. Pospelov. | \"How good, how fresh the roses were
In my garden! How they seduced my gaze!
(I. Myatlev)
Rhetorical appeal, being an appeal in form, is conditional in nature and gives poetic speech the necessary author’s intonation: intonation of anger, cordiality, solemnity, irony.
A writer (poet) can address readers, the heroes of his works, objects, phenomena:
Tatiana, dear Tatiana!
With you now I shed tears.
(A. Pushkin)
What do you know, boring whisper?
Reproach or murmur
My lost day?
What do you want from me?
(A. Pushkin)
Someday, lovely creature,
I will become a memory for you.
(M. Tsvetaeva)
Of the two functions inherent in an address - inviting and evaluative-characterizing (expressively expressive) - the latter predominates in rhetorical appeal: Mistress of the Earth! I bowed my forehead to you (V. Solovyov).
A rhetorical exclamation, a rhetorical question, a rhetorical appeal can be combined, which creates additional emotionality:
Youth! Oh my! Has she left?
You are not lost - you are dropped.
(K. Sluchevsky)
Where are you, my cherished star,
Crown of heavenly beauty?
(I. Bunin)
O cry of women of all times:
My dear, what have I done to you?!
(M. Tsvetaeva)
In artistic speech there is a rhetorical statement: Yes, there were people in our time -
A mighty, dashing tribe...
(M. Lermontov)
Yes, to love as our blood loves,
None of you have been in love for a long time!
and rhetorical negation:
No, I'm not Byron
I am different.
(M. Lermontov)
Rhetorical figures are also found in epic works: And what Russian doesn’t like driving fast? Is it his soul, striving to get dizzy, to go on a spree, to sometimes say “damn it all!” - Is it his soul not to love her?<...>Eh, three! Bird-three, who invented you? You know, you could only have been born among a lively people, in that land that does not like to joke, but has spread out smoothly across half the world, and go ahead and count the miles until it hits your eyes.
Is it not so for you, Rus', that you are rushing along like a brisk, unstoppable troika? Where are you going? Give an answer. Does not give an answer (N.V. Gogol).
In the above example there are rhetorical questions, rhetorical exclamations, and rhetorical appeals.
Figures of reinforcement include figures of “opposition”, which are based on a comparison of opposites.
Antithesis (Greek antithesis - opposition). This term in the “Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary” refers to two concepts: 1) a stylistic figure based on a sharp contrast of images and concepts; 2) the designation of any meaningfully significant contrast (which can be intentionally hidden), in contrast to which the antithesis is always demonstrated openly (often through layer-antonyms)1:
I am a king - I am a slave. I am a worm - I am a god!
(G. Derzhavin) You won’t be left behind. I am a prison guard.
You are a guard. There is only one destiny.
(A. Akhmatova)
Antithesis enhances the emotional coloring of speech and emphasizes the sharp opposition of concepts or phenomena. A convincing example is Lermontov’s poem “Duma”:
And we hate and we love by chance,
Without sacrificing anything, neither anger nor love.
And some secret cold reigns in the soul,
When fire boils in the blood.
The contrast can also be expressed descriptively: He once served in the hussars, and even happily; no one knew the reason that prompted him to resign and settle in a poor town, where he lived both poorly and wastefully: he always walked on foot, in a worn black frock coat, and kept an open table for all the officers of our regiment. True, his lunch consisted of two or three dishes prepared by a retired soldier, but the champagne flowed like a river (A.S. Pushkin).
In the examples given, antonyms are used. But the antithesis is based not simply on the use of the opposite meaning of words, but also on a detailed opposition of characters, phenomena, properties, images and concepts.
S.Ya. Marshak, translating an English folk song, emphasized in a humorous form two principles that distinguish boys and girls: mischievous, prickly in the former and tender, soft in the latter.
Boys and girls
What are boys made of?
From thorns, shells
And green frogs.
This is what boys are made of.
What are girls made of?
From sweets and cakes,
And all kinds of sweets.
This is what girls are made of.
The emergence of the concept of “antithesis” is associated with ancient times, when people began to realize the difference between such concepts as land/water, earth/sky, day/night, cold/heat, sleep/reality, etc.
The first antitheses are found in myths. Suffice it to recall the antipodean heroes: Zeus-Prometheus, Zeus-Typhon, Perseus-Atlas.
From mythology, the antithesis passed into folklore: into fairy tales (“Truth and Falsehood”), epics (Ilya Muromets - Nightingale the Robber), proverbs (Learning is light, and ignorance is darkness).
In literary works, where moral and idealistic problems are always comprehended (Good and Evil, Life and Death, Harmony and Chaos), there are almost always antipodean heroes (Don Quixote and Sancho Panzo in Cervantes, Merchant Kalashnikov and oprichnik Kiribeevich in M. Lermontov, Pontius Pilate and Yeshua Ha-Notsri by M. Bulgakov). In many works, the antithesis is already present in the titles: “The Wolf and the Lamb”, I. Krylova, “Mozart and Salieri” by A. Pushkin, “Wolves and Sheep” by A. Ostrovsky, “Fathers and Sons” by I. Turgenev, “Crime and Punishment” "F. Dostoevsky, "War and Peace" by L. Tostoy, "Thick and Thin" by M. Chekhov.
A type of antithesis is an oxymoron (oksimoron) (from the Greek oxymoron - witty-silly) - a stylistic device of combining words with opposite meanings for the purpose of an unusual, impressive expression of a new concept or idea. This figure is often used in Russian literature, for example, in the titles of works (“The Living Corpse” by L. Tolstoy, “Dead Souls” 11. Gogol, “Optimistic Tragedy” by V. Vishnevsky).
On the one hand, an oxymoron is a combination of antonymous
a) noun with adjective: I love nature’s lush withering (A.S. Pushkin); Poor luxury of attire (N.A. Nekrasov);
b) a noun with a noun: peasant young ladies (A.S. Pushkin);
c) adjective with adjective: bad good person (A.P. Chekhov);
d) a verb with an adverb and a participle with an adverb: It’s fun for her to be sad so elegantly naked (A. Akhmatova).
On the other hand, the antithesis, brought to the point of paradox, aims to enhance the meaning and emotional tension:
Oh, how painfully happy I am with you!
(A. Pushkin)
But their beauty is ugly
I soon comprehended the mystery.
(M. Lermontov)
And the impossible is possible
The long road is easy.
Sometimes “displacement” figures include inversion.
Inversion (lat. shuegeyu - rearrangement, turning over) is a stylistic figure consisting of a violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech.
Words placed in unusual places attract attention and acquire greater meaning. Rearranging parts of a phrase gives it a unique expressive tone. When A. Tvardovsky writes The battle is on, holy and right..., the inversion emphasizes the rightness of the people waging a war of liberation.
A common type of inversion is the placement of an emotional definition (epithet) in the form of an adjective (or adverb) after the word it defines. It is used by M. Lermontov in the poem “Sail”:
The lonely sail is white
In the blue sea fog!
What is he looking for in a distant land?
What is he looking for in his native land?
There are adjectives at the end of each verse. And this is no coincidence - they are the ones who determine the main semantic and emotional mood of M. Lermontov’s work. In addition, the author used another feature related to the verse in general: the end of the verse has an additional pause, which allows the word at the end of the verse to be especially highlighted.
In some cases, inversion means that words in a sentence are swapped, but those that should be next to each other are separated, and this gives the phrase semantic weight:
Where the light-winged one changed my joy.
(A. Pushkin)
Using inversion, poet A. Zhemchuzhnikov creates a poem in which tragic reflections about his homeland sound:
I know that country where the sun is already without power,
Where the shroud is waiting, the cold earth is waiting, And where the sad wind is blowing in the bare forests, -
Either my native land, or my fatherland.
There are two main types of inversion: anastrophe (rearrangement of adjacent words) and hyperbaton (separating them to highlight them in a phrase): And by the death of a land alien to this land, the guests were not calmed down (A. Pushkin) - that is, guests from a foreign land who were not even calmed down in death.
Many stylistic devices since Antiquity have raised doubts about whether they should be considered figures or tropes. Such techniques also include parallelism - a stylistic device of parallel construction of adjacent phrases, poetic lines or stanzas.
Parallelism (Greek paga11yo1oz - located, or going nearby) is an identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, which, when correlated, create a single poetic image161. Usually it is built on a comparison of actions, and on this basis - persons, objects, circumstances.
Figurative parallelism arose in oral syncretic creativity, which was characterized by parallels between relationships in nature and human life, because people were aware of the connection between nature and human life. Nature has always been in first place, human actions in second. Here is an example from a Russian folk song:
Don't tangle, don't tangle the grass with the dodder,
Don't get used to it, don't get used to the girl.
There are several types of figurative parallelism. “Psychological”162 was widely used in oral folk art:
It is not a falcon that flies across the sky,
It is not the falcon that drops its gray wings,
Well done galloping along the path,
Bitter tears flow from clear eyes.
This technique is also found in prose. For example, in two episodes from the novel by L.N. Tolstoy's "War and Peace" describes an oak tree (in the first - old, gnarled, in the second - covered with spring foliage, awakening to life). Each of the descriptions turns out to be correlated with the state of mind of Andrei Bolkonsky, who, having lost hope of happiness, returns to life after meeting Natasha Rostova in Otradnoye.
In Pushkin's novel Eugene Onegin, human life is closely connected with nature. In it, one or another landscape painting serves as a “screensaver” for a new stage in the life of the novel’s heroes and an expanded metaphor of his mental life. Spring is defined as “the time of love,” and the loss of the ability to love is compared to the “cold storm of autumn.” Human life is subject to the same universal laws as the life of nature; Constant parallels deepen the idea that the life of the novel’s heroes is “inscribed” in the life of nature.
Literature has mastered the ability not directly, but indirectly to correlate the mental movements of characters with one or another state of nature. However, they may coincide or not. Thus, in Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons,” Chapter XI describes the melancholy mood of Nikolai Petrovich Kirsanov, who seems to be accompanied by nature and therefore he... was unable to part with the darkness, with the garden. With the feeling of fresh air on his face and with this sadness, with this anxiety... Unlike Nikolai Petrovich, his brother was not able to feel the beauty of the world: Pavel Petrovich reached the end of the garden, and also thought, and also raised his eyes to the sky. But his beautiful dark eyes reflected nothing but the light of the stars. He was not born a romantic, and his foppishly dry and passionate, in the French way, misanthropic soul did not know how to dream...
There is parallelism built on opposition:
From others I receive praise - what ashes,
From you and blasphemy - praise.
(A. Akhmatova)
Negative parallelism (antiparallelism) is distinguished, in which the negation emphasizes not the difference, but the coincidence of the main features of the compared phenomena:
It is not the wind that rages over the forest,
Streams did not run from the mountains,
Frost the voivode goes around his possessions on patrol.
(N. Nekrasov)
A.N. Veselovsky noted that “psychologically one can look at a negative formula as a way out of parallelism”163. Antiparallelism is often found in oral folk poetry and less often in literature. It cannot serve as an independent means of substantive representation, the basis for constructing an entire work, and is usually used at the beginning of works or in individual episodes.
Another type of parallelism - inverted (inverted) parallelism is designated by the term chiasmus (from the Greek sShaBtoe), in which the parts are arranged in the sequence AB - BA "A": Everything is in me, and I am in everything (F. Tyutchev); usually with the meaning of antithesis: We eat to live, and do not live to eat.
Parallelism can be based on the repetition of words (“verbal” parallelism), sentences (“syntactic” parallelism) and adjacent columns of speech (isocolons)164.
Syntactic parallelism, i.e., a detailed comparison of two or more phenomena given in similar syntactic constructions, belongs to syntactic figures and in its function is similar to comparison:
The stars shine in the blue sky,
The waves splash in the blue sea.
(A.S. Pushkin)
Where the wind blows in the sky,
The obedient clouds rush there too.
(M.Yu. Lermontov)
An equal number of adjacent columns of speech is designated by the term isocolon (from the Greek isokolon).
N.V. Gogol in “Notes of a Madman” in the first phrase creates an isocolon of two members, in the second - of three: Save me! take me! give me three horses as fast as a whirlwind! Sit down, my coachman, ring my bell, soar, horses, and carry me from this world!
The area of poetic syntax includes deviations from standard linguistic forms, expressed in the absence of grammatical connection or its violation.
Solecism (Greek soloikismos from the name of the city of Sola, whose inhabitants spoke uncleanly in Attic) is an incorrect linguistic turn as an element of style (usually “low”): the use of a non-literary word (dialectism, barbarism, vulgarism). The difference between solecism and figure is that figures are usually used to create a “high” style. Example of solecism: I am ashamed as an honest officer (A. Griboedov).
A special case of solecism is the omission of prepositions: Bowed hand; I'm flying through the window (V. Mayakovsky).
Enallaga (Greek ennalage - rotation, movement, substitution) - the use of one grammatical category instead of another:
Having fallen asleep, the creator will arise (instead of “having fallen asleep, he will arise”)
(G. Batenkov)
Enallaga has two meanings: 1) a type of solecism: incorrect use of grammatical categories (parts of speech, gender, person, number, case): There can be no talk of taking a walk (instead of: taking a walk); 2) type of metonymy - transfer of the definition to a word adjacent to the defined one:
A half-asleep flock of old men (instead of: “half-asleep”)
(N. Nekrasov)165
Sylleps (Greek syllepsis - capture) - stylistic figure: the union of heterogeneous members in a common syntactic or semantic subordination; syntactic alignment of heterogeneous members:
Don't wait for Sunday from the grave,
Substances lying in the dirt,
Hungering for fun in her And aloof from the deity.
(G. Batenkov)
Here are examples of sylleps with syntactic heterogeneity: We love fame, and drown profligate minds in a glass (A. Pushkin) - here: the additions expressed by a noun and an infinitive are combined; with phraseological heterogeneity: The gossip's eyes and teeth flared up (I. Krylov) - here: phraseological unit eyes flared up and the extra-phraseological word teeth; with semantic heterogeneity: Full of both sounds and confusion (A. Pushkin) - here: mental state and its cause166. Anakoluth (Greek anakoluthos - incorrect, inconsistent) - syntactic inconsistency of parts or members of sentences:
Who recognizes the new name?
Wearing seals, he is resurrected (instead of: “will rise again”) with the Myrrh-streaming head.
(O. Mandelstam)
Neva all night
Longing for the sea against the storm,
Without overcoming them (instead of: “her”) violent foolishness.
(A. Pushkin)
Anacoluth is one of the means of characterizing a character’s speech. For example, Smerdyakov’s phrase - This is so that it could be, sir, so, on the contrary, never at all, sir... (“The Brothers Karamazov” by Dostoevsky) - indicates uncertainty, inability to express thoughts, and the character’s poor vocabulary. Anacoluth is widely used as a means of satirical depiction: Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat flew off (A.P. Chekhov).
The writer achieves expressiveness and emotionality of speech not only by selecting suitable words, but also by the structure of sentences and their intonation. Features of syntax determined by the content of the work. In the descriptions, stories about events that unfold slowly, the intonation is calm, complete sentences dominate: “Carts creak, oxen chew, days and nights pass, and Chumatsky songs sound between the high graves. They are spacious, like the steppe, and slow, like the step of oxen. , sad and cheerful, but still more sad, because on every road a tragic adventure could befall the Chumaks "(M. Slaboshpitsky).
Where dynamic events, heated debates, conflicts, and deep experiences of characters are told, short, sometimes incomplete, fragmentary sentences predominate:
Mom, where are you? It's me, Vasily, alive! Ivan was killed, mom, but I’m alive! .. I killed them, mom, about two hundred... Where are you?
Vasily ran up to the yard. There was a courtyard right under the mountain. - Mom, my mom, where are you? My dear, why don’t you meet me? (A. Dovzhenko)
Features of syntax depend on the creative intent of the writer, the author’s attitude to the depicted, the type, type, genre, as well as on how the work is written (in poetry or prose), to whom it is addressed (children or adult readers).
The originality of poetic syntax is determined by the peculiarities of the writer’s talent. V. Stefanik strived for brevity and dynamic narration. His speech is simple, precise, economical: “I will tell you about myself with my white lips in an undertone. You don’t hear any complaint, no sadness, no joy in the words. I went in a white shirt, I’m white, they laughed from my white shirt. They offended me and hurt me. And I walked quietly, like a little white cat... A white birch leaf on the trash "(" My word "). The writer repeats the word “white” several times; it sounds in different tones.
The syntactic unit of language is the sentence. A grammatically correct sentence is one in which the main members are placed in direct order: the subject group is in first place, the predicate group is in second place. In our language, this rule is not mandatory; it is not always observed, especially by writers.
Figures provide intonation-syntactic originality in a work of art. Stylistic figures come in different types.
Inversion (lat. Inversio - rearrangement). With inversion, the direct order of words in a sentence is violated. The subject group can stand after the predicate group: “/ the noise of the spring noise is a wide path, majestically and easily rising above the boundless freedom that has become silent before awakening” (M. Stelmakh).
A common type of inversion is the postpositive placement of adjectives: adjectives come after nouns. For example:
I'm going up the steep cream mountain
I will lift a heavy stone.
(Lesya Ukrainka)
Ellipsis, ellipse (Greek Elleirsis - omission, deficiency) is an omission in a sentence of a word or phrase that is understandable from a specific situation or context. Ellipsis provides the language with brevity and emotional intensity:
A wild one will blow there,
How the brother will speak.
(T. Shevchenko)
Unfinished, broken sentences are called breaks. The breaks convey the speaker’s excitement:
Go... they're measuring... Andrei stared at her.
She couldn’t speak, she pressed her hand to her heart and was breathing heavily...
Go ahead and measure...
Who measures? What?
Gentlemen, oh! They came, they will divide the land.
(M. Kotsyubinsky)
Sometimes sentences are broken because the one who speaks does not dare to say everything. The heroine of the poem “The Maid” cannot tell her son Mark that she is his mother:
"I am not Anna, not a maid,
And she became numb.
The incompleteness of a sentence to convey the emotion of the language is called aposiopesis (Greek Aposiopesis - default). Aposiopesis performs the following functions:
1. conveys the character's excitement.
And I was already thinking about getting married,
And have fun and live,
He praises people and the Lord,
But I had to...
(T. Shevchenko)
2. aposiopesis reveals the character’s mental incompetence. The heroine of Mikhail Kotsyubinsky’s short story “The Horses Are Not to Blame” begins her remarks and does not express any thoughts: “I think that...”, “I probably forgot that...”, “As for me, I...”.
3. aposiopesis indicates the confusion of the actor and tries to hide the reasons for the corresponding behavior. Gsrrry comedy by Ivan Karpen-ka-Kary “Martin Borulya” Stepan says: “You know: not because that..., but because... that, that there was no time, a short vacation.”
4. Sometimes the heroes do not say that what is generally known to everyone: “The people are hungry, but no one cares..., one is enjoying, and the other...” (“Fata morgana” by M. Kotsyubinsky).
5. Often aposiopesis is designed for the reader to continue the thought: “I’ve already been driving for several hours, then it’s unknown what...” (“The Unknown” by M. Kotsyubinsky).
Anakoluth (Greek Anakoluthos - inconsistent) is a violation of grammatical consistency between words, members of a sentence. A textbook example of anacoluth is the Chkhiv phrase: “Approaching the station and looking at nature through the window, my head flew off.” Anacoluth creates a comic effect. The hero from the comedy of the same name by M. Kulish “Mina Mazailo” says: “Not a single schoolgirl wanted to go out - Mazailo! They refused love - Mazailo! They didn’t hire a tutor - Mazailo! They didn’t accept me for service - Mazailo! They refused love - Mazailo!
With the help of anacoluth you can convey the emotions of a character; it is used to enhance the expression of poetic language.
Close to anacoluth - eileps (Greek Syllepsis) - a figure of avoidance. Sileps is a union of heterogeneous members in a common syntactic or semantic subordination: “We love fame and drown riotous minds in a glass. (A. Pushkin).” "Kumushka's eyes and teeth flared up" (I. Krylov).
Non-union (Greek Asyndeton - lack of union) is a stylistic figure consisting of the omission of conjunctions connecting individual words and phrases. The lack of union gives the story brevity and dynamism: “The regiment was then advancing in the mountains on the northern bank of the Danube. An uninhabited gloomy land. Bare helmets of hills, dark tracts of forests. A cliff. An abyss. Roads washed out by torrential rains” (O. Gonchar).
Polyunion (Greek Polysyndeton from polys - numerous and syndeton - connection) is a stylistic figure consisting of the repetition of identical unions. Polyunion is used to highlight individual words, it provides the language with triumph:
And they take him by the arms,
And they take him to the house,
And Yarinochka greets,
Like a brother.
(T. Shevchenko)
To enhance the expressiveness of speech, syntactic parallelism is used.
Parallelism (Greek Parallelos - walking side by side) is a detailed comparison of two or more pictures, phenomena from different spheres of life by similarity or analogy. Parallelism is used in folk songs; it is associated with folk poetic symbolism.
Chervona viburnum bent down.
Why is our glorious Ukraine depressed?
And we will raise this red viburnum.
And we will make our glorious Ukraine gay, gay, and cheerful.
(Folk song)
In addition to direct parallelism, there is an objection to parallelism. It is built on negative comparison. For example: “It was not the gray-haired cuckoo that forged, // But it was not a small bird that chirped, // The pine tree did not rustle near the forest, // So the poor widow in her house // spoke to her children...” (People's Duma).
Antithesis (Greek: Antithesis - opposite) is a figure of speech in which opposing phenomena, concepts, and human characters are contrasted. For example:
It's even hard to tell
What kind of trouble has become in the region -
People suffered like hell
The gentleman was comforted as if in heaven.
(Lesya Ukrainka)
An antithesis, reinforced by verbal or root repetition, is called antimetabole (Greek: Antimetabole - using words in the opposite direction).
As in a nation there is no leader,
Then its leaders are poets.
(E. Rice and shock)
Antimetabola acts as a chiasmus (rearrangement of the main members of the sentence). This is reverse syntactic parallelism.
There was no era for poets yet, but there were poets for eras.
(Lina Kostenko)
In order to highlight the desired word or expression, repetition is used. The repetition of the same word or a word similar in meaning or sound is called a tautology (Greek Tdutos is precisely logos - word). The synonyms characteristic of folk art are tautological. For example: early early, down in the valley.
Kill enemies, thieves of thieves,
kill without regret
(P. Tychina)
Development, development, nightingale,
My tight one.
(Grabovsky)
Anaphora (Greek Anaphora - I take it to the mountain, I highlight) - repetition of the same sounds, words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence or poetic line, stanza. There are lexical, strophic, syntactic, and sound anaphora.
Lexical:
Without the wind, rye will not give birth,
Without wind, the water makes no noise,
You can't live without a dream,
You can't love without a dream.
Strophic: in B. Oliynyk’s poem “Mother sowed sleep,” the stanzas begin with the phrase “Mother sowed sleep, flax, snow, hops.”
Sound: “I compose songs for our little beloved: // Darling, love, love, little darling” (Lyubov Golota).
Syntactic: “And you are somewhere beyond the evening, // And you are somewhere beyond the sea of silence” (Lina Kostenko).
Epiphora (Greek Epiphora - transfer, assignment, etc.) is a stylistic figure based on a combination of the same words at the end of sentences, poetic lines or stanzas. For example:
Your smile is the only one
Your torment is the only one
Your eyes are alone.
(V. Simonenko)
Symploka (Greek Symphloke - plexus) is a syntactic construction in which anaphora is combined with epiphora. Symploka is often used in folklore.
Wasn’t it the same Turkish sabers that cut me down as you?
Didn't the same janissary stunners shoot me as they did you?
Tomorrow on earth Other people will walk, Other people will love, Kind, affectionate and evil.
(V. Simonenko)
In addition to the term "symploka", there is also the term "complexity" (Latin Complegio - combination, totality, complektor - I embrace).
Joint, (collision), anadiplosis (Greek Anadiplosis - doubling), epanastrdfa (Greek Epanastrephe - going back) - repetition of a word or phrase at the end of one sentence and at the beginning of the next.
Why was my stylus the stiletto? And the stylus was a stiletto.
(S. Malanyuk)
A junction is also called a pick-up, because each new line picks up, strengthens, and expands the content of the previous one.
Poetic ring (Greek epistrophe - torsion) - repetition of the same words at the beginning and end of a sentence, paragraph or stanza.
We think about you on fine summer nights,
On frosty mornings and in the evenings,
Both on noisy holidays and on working days
We are thinking about you, great-grandchildren.
(V. Simonenko)
Anastrophe (Greek Anastrophe - rearrangement) - repetition of a phrase.
I embrace you. Hugs to you.
(M. Vingranovsky)
Refrain (Greek Refrain - chorus) - repetition of one line at the end of a stanza or sentence. The refrain expresses an important idea. In P. Tychina’s poem “The Ocean is Full,” the line “the ocean is full” is repeated after each stanza.
Pleonasm (Greek Pleonasmos - redundancy, exaggeration) is a stylistic phrase that contains words with the same or similar meanings: quietly, us Yatai-don’t forget, storm-bad weather.
Paronomasia (Greek Para - around, circle, nearby and onomazo - I call)
A stylistic figure built on a comical convergence of consonant words that have different meanings: vote - make noise, experienced
Educated.
Love the blade of grass and the animal and the sun of tomorrow.
(Lina Kostenko)
Paronomasia is used to create puns: “How is your draft power, dragging anything? - Dragging! For two days I took chickens to the steppe” (A. Klyuka, “Telephone Conversation”).
Vocal type of paronomasia: words differ only in sounds: howl - branches, trap - emptiness.
The metathetical type of paronyms is formed by rearranging consonants or syllables: voice - logos.
Palindrome is associated with paronomasia (Greek Palindromeo - running back, werewolf or cancer). These are words, phrases, verses that, when read from left to right and vice versa, have the same meaning: flood. Here is Velichkovsky's cancerous poem:
Anna asks us, I'm a girl's mother,
Anna is the gift of this world.
Anna we have and and we are semolina.
Close to werewolf and metathetic paronomasia is an anagram (Greek Ana - erases and gramma - letter). This is a rearrangement of letters in a word, which gives a word with new content: ash - vine, summer - body. Ukrainian folklorist Simonov chose the pseudonym Nomis, derived from the abbreviated surname Simon. A related metagram with an anagram is a change in the first letter of a word, due to which the content changes. In Anna's poem "Let's get organized" there are the following lines:
The writers created the MUR, the journalists will have the ZHUR The theater unites in the TOUR - There is an echo all around: gur-gur! The rats are already squeaking from their kennels: we are united like a wall, and let’s call that union the Rat.
Gradation (lat. Gradatio - increase, strengthening, gradus - step, step) is a stylistic figure in which each subsequent homogeneous word means strengthening or weakening of a certain quality. There are two types of gradation: increasing and decreasing. Increasing indicates a gradual increase, increasing quality of the depicted phenomenon. The gradation is ascending: “And your only child withers, dries, dies, perishes” (T. Shevchenko). The type of grace is built on the strengthening of meanings called straight, ascending or climax (Greek Klimax - ladder):
Anyway,
it comes out to one thing,
the executioner should have learned by heart long ago:
you can shoot the brain,
that gives birth to a soul,
You can’t drive thoughts in!
(V. Simonenko)
A descending, descending gradation, which reproduces a gradual decrease in the quality highlighted by the author in the subjects of the image, is called reverse, descending, or Anti-climax. In Anticlimax there is a softening of semantic tension:
I look: the king is approaching
To the eldest... and in the face
How it will be flooded! ..
The poor fellow licked his lips;
And less in the belly
It’s almost gone!., Otherwise
Even less an ace
In the back; then less
And less than small.
And then small ones.
(T. Shevchenko)
The gradation in which the increase changes into a narrowing and decline is called a broken climax. An example of a broken climax is given in A. Tkachenko’s textbook “The Art of Words. Introduction to Literary Studies”:
The clouds are already washing over my shoulders,
I'm already standing in the sky,
Already chest-deep in the sky, already waist-deep,
I can already see all of Ukraine,
Both the world and the Universe, full of mystery,
And everything is blessed in life
Waiting with open arms,
So that I can jump up to him below!
And I jumped up... And the woman laughed
A transparent insult to me,
That I didn’t jump up for her either
From the stack of gold to the stubble.
(M. Vingranovsky)
Amplification (lat. Atrifsayo - increase, spread). This is a stylistic device that consists in the accumulation of synonyms, homogeneous expressions, antitheses, and homogeneous members of a sentence to enhance the emotional impact of poetic language.
I will tear those wreaths that were woven together in a difficult day, trample them, scatter them into ashes, into dust, into trash.
(V. Chumak)
Prepositions are sometimes repeated:
By the clear laughter of a child,
By the young singing happy,
But the glorious work is hot.
Forward, strict shelves,
Under the flag of freedom
For our clear stars,
For our quiet waters.
(M. Rylsky)
An amplification may consist of individual sentences that are repeated:
I'm still so small, I can only see
I want to see my mother as a cheerful mother,
I want to see the sun in a golden hat,
I want to see the sky in a blue scarf,
I don’t yet know what Virtue smells like,
I still don’t know what Meanness tastes like,
What color is Envy, whose dimensions are Trouble,
Which is salted by Melancholy, which is indestructible Love,
Which blue-eyed Sincerity, which flickering Cunning,
I still have all the schedules on the shelves...
Amphiboly (Greek Amphibolia - duality, ambiguity) is an expression that can be interpreted ambiguously. The perception of amphiboly depends on the pause:
And I hit the road - to welcome a new spring,
And I’m setting off on a new journey - to welcome spring.
(M. Rylsky)
Depending on the pause (comma), the expression: “execution cannot be pardoned” can be interpreted differently.
Allusion (Latin: Allusio - joke, hint) - an allusion to a well-known literary or historical fact. V. Lesin, A. Pulinet, I. Kachurovsky consider allusion to be a rhetorical, stylistic figure. According to A. Tkachenko, this is “the principle of meaningful interpretation of the text, comparable to its allegorical one. Sometimes it is used as a type of allegory: “Pyrrhic victory” (accompanied by great sacrifices and was equivalent to defeat), Homer’s And such (homeland). The sources of allusion are myths (“Augean stables”), literary works (“The Human Comedy” by O. Balzac).
An aphorism (Greek: Aphorismos - short saying) is a generalized opinion expressed in a laconic form, which is marked by the expressiveness and surprise of the judgment. Proverbs and sayings belong to aphorisms.
A proverb is a figurative expression that formulates a certain life pattern or rule and is a generalization of social experience. For example: without asking for a ford, do not go into the water. All that glitters is not gold. A rolling stone gathers no moss.
A proverb is a stable figurative expression that characterizes a certain life phenomenon. Unlike a proverb, a saying does NOT formulate a life pattern or rule. A proverb states events, phenomena, facts, or indicates a permanent feature of an object. For example: there was no sadness, so I bought a pig. Every dog has his day. The fifth wheel in the cart. Seven Fridays a week.
Literary aphorisms are distinguished:
2) according to the method of expression (definitive - close to definitions, and slogan - appealing)
M. Gasparov calls anonymous literary aphorisms by the Greek term "gnome" (Greek Gnomos - thought, conclusion) and the Latin "sentence", author's - by the Greek term "apophegma". In the ancient tragedy of the dwarves, tragedy ended. Today, gnomes call condensed poems with an aphoristic thought: rubai, quatrains.
Sentence (lat. Sententia - thought, judgment) is an expression of aphoristic content. It is common in works of instructive content (tales) and meditative lyrics. In L. Glebov's fable "Tit" there is the following maxim:
Never boast until you've really done the job.
Apophegma (Greek Apoph and thegma - brief summary, exact word) - a story or replica of a sage, artist, witty person, gained popularity in polemical and instructive oratorical literature. A. Tkachenko finds an example of apothegm from Lina Kostenko: “we eat fruits from the tree of ignorance.”
An aphorism of moral direction is also called a maxim.
Maxima (lat. Maxima regula - the highest principle) is a type of aphorism, a maxim that is moralistic in content, expressed in the form of a statement of fact or in the form of a teaching: “Conquer evil with evil.”
A. Tkachenko proposes to divide aphorisms into three groups:
2) anonymous (gnome)
3) transferable (khriya).
Chria (Greek Chreia from chrad - I inform). According to M. Gasparov’s definition, this is a short anecdote about a witty or instructive aphorism, an act of a great man: “Diogenes, seeing a boy who behaved badly, beat his teacher with a stick.”
A kind of aphorism is a paradox. Paradox (Greek Paradoxos - unexpected, strange) is a poetic expression that expresses an unexpected judgment, at first glance contradictory, illogical: just punishment is mercy. There is an elderberry in the garden, and there is a man in Kyiv. If you don't want your enemy to know, don't tell your friend. “Don’t trust me, I don’t know how to lie, // Don’t wait for me, I’ll come anyway” (V. Simonenko).
Traditional poetics do not consider forms of bringing previous texts into one’s own, in particular paraphrase (a), reminiscence, figurative analogy, stylization, travesty, parody, borrowing, reworking, imitation, quotation, application, transplantation, collage. A. Tkachenko believes that they should be classified as interliterary and intertextual interactions.
Paraphrase (a) (Greek Paraphasis - description, translation) - retelling in your own words someone else's thoughts or texts. Parodies and imitations are built on paraphrase. This stylistic figure is essentially a transfusion of the previous form factor into a new one. L. Timofeev and S. Turaev identify paraphrase with periphrase. Often prose is translated into poetry, and poetry into prose is shortened or expanded. For example, there is a translation for children of “1001 Nights”, in an abbreviated form of the novel by F. Rabelais “Gargantua and Pantagruel”.
Reminiscence (lat. Reminiscencia - mention) is an echo in a work of art of images, expressions, details, motifs from a well-known work of another author, a roll call with him. Borrowed words and expressions are reinterpreted, acquiring a new meaning. Platon Voronko’s poem “I am the one who tore the dams” is based on reminiscences from Lesya Ukrainsky’s “Forest Song”:
I'm the one who broke the dams
I didn't live under a rock.
The one who breaks the dams, and
The one sitting in the rock is the characters from “The Forest Song”.
Application (lat. Applicatio - accession) - inclusion in a literary text of quotations, proverbs, sayings, aphorisms, fragments of a work of art in a modified form. A work assembled from other people's poetic texts is called a centbn (Latin cento - patchwork clothing). I. Kachurovsky uses the term "Kenton". In the "Literary Dictionary-Reference Book" a centon is understood as a stylistic device, "which consists of introducing fragments from the works of other authors to the main text of a certain author without reference to them." Yuri Klen in the poem "Ashes of Empires" introduces lines from M. Zerov's sonnet "Pro domo", Drai-Khmary - from the sonnet "Swans", Oleg Olzhich - "There Was a Golden Age". In addition to the term "centon", the French term "collage" is used (French Collage - gluing).
In addition to the creative use of other people's texts, there is uncreative use, devoid of originality - compilation (Latin Compilatio - rake) or plagiarism (Latin Plagio - steal).
Among the figures forgotten by literary scholars, A. Tkachenko recalls imprecation (curse). it was successfully used by A. Dovzhenko in “The Enchanted Desna”: “As he hangs that little carrot from the damp earth, pulls it out, O Queen of Heaven, and twist his little arms and bottoms, break his fingers and joints, holidays to the Lady.”