Dynamics of interaction between society and nature. The problem of natural resource restoration

Society is a multifaceted concept. Therefore, first, let's figure out what is hidden under the term “society”? In a narrow sense, society can be understood as: 1) certain group people who were united for some joint activity, or as 2) a specific stage in the historical development of a people or country.

Narrow meaning of the word society:
A) This is a stage in the historical development of mankind
B) Country, state (separate social mechanism)
B) Uniting people by interests and goals
D) A group of people united by origin and values

In a broad sense, society is a part of the material world, isolated from nature, but closely connected with it. It consists of individuals with will and consciousness, and includes ways of interaction between people and forms of their association.

Signs of society according to the American sociologist E. Shils:
· it is no longer part of large system;
· marriages are concluded between representatives of this association;
· it is replenished primarily by the children of those people who are already its recognized representatives;
· the association has a territory that it considers its own;
· society has proper name and own history;
· it has own system management;
· the association exists longer than the average life expectancy of an individual;
· unites him general system values ​​(customs, traditions, norms, laws, rules), which is called culture.

In philosophical science, society is characterized as a dynamic self-developing system that is capable of preserving its essence while changing. As a system, society includes many components. These are, for example, people and the social relations that connect them, things and signs (paintings, books, that is, what are the fruits of spiritual culture). One of the main components of society is a social institution (family. Thus, society is a complexly organized system. In order to understand this system, the concept of “subsystem” was developed. A subsystem is an intermediate complex, more complex than the elements, but less complex, than the system itself. Subsystems that are close in direction are usually called spheres of human life:

Spheres of society	Public relations	Institutions (organizations)
Economic sphere	Relations that develop during the production, distribution, consumption of material goods, property relations	Factories, manufacturing firms, banks, markets, etc.
Social sphere	Relations between classes, estates, nations, professional and age groups, activities to ensure social guarantees	System social security, healthcare, trade unions, non-governmental public organizations, community groups, etc.
Political sphere	Relations between civil society and the state, between the state and political parties	Parliament, government, political parties, judiciary, etc.
Spiritual realm	Relationships arising in the process of creating spiritual values, their distribution, preservation, use	Educational and scientific institutions, theaters, museums, etc.

There is a close relationship between all spheres of human life. In reality, there is a close relationship between the spheres of public life, their interdependence and intersection. It is no coincidence that such terms as social economic relations, spiritual and political, etc.

Let's consider the question: what unites and what distinguishes society and nature?

Man is a part of nature, i.e. society, as a part of nature, is inextricably linked with it.

The meaning of “nature” is used to denote not only natural, but also human-created conditions for existence.
The concept of “nature”, as well as “society”, is used in the narrow and broad sense of the word. In the broadest sense of the word, nature means the entire world around us in the endless variety of its forms and manifestations. In this meaning, nature acts as a synonym for the concept “Universe”.

In a narrow sense, nature is the human environment, the entire material world, with the exception of humans. It should be borne in mind that the concept of “nature” is used to designate not only natural, but also the material conditions of its existence created by man - “second nature” or artifacts - buildings, parks, artificial reservoirs, etc. Thus, society, having isolated itself from nature, is closely connected with it, since nature is a natural condition for the existence of people.

Difference between society and nature:

Nature, like society, is a dynamic system. And it consists of the following parts: biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere.

Initially, man and society were an integral part of the natural world. In the process of development, society became isolated from nature, but retained a close connection with it.

Nature has always influenced human life. Climate and geographical conditions are all significant factors that determine the development path of a particular region. People living in different natural conditions, will differ both in their character and way of life.

The interaction between human society and nature has gone through several stages in its development. The place of man in the world around him has changed, the degree of people’s dependence on natural phenomena. In ancient times, at the dawn of human civilization, people were completely dependent on nature and acted only as consumers of its gifts. The first occupations of people, as we remember from history lessons, were hunting and gathering.
Qualitative changes in the interaction of human society with nature are called technogenic revolutions. Each such revolution generated by development human activity, led to a change in the role of man in nature. In total, three such technogenic revolutions occurred.

Technological revolution	Result
Neolithic or agricultural (8/6-4 thousand BC)	Producing economy, a person provides himself with food, the emergence of crafts, trade, the complication of the social structure of society
Industrial or industrial (XVIII century)	Industrial Revolution, the emergence of factories, the growth of cities, the development of new types of transport and communications, the simplification of contacts between residents of different countries and continents, the complication of the social structure of society
Post-industrial or informational (XX century)	Computerization, Internet, new technologies, human labor is facilitated, labor productivity increases, the creation of global problems

The division of society into spheres is somewhat arbitrary, but it helps to isolate and study individual areas of a truly integral society, diverse and complex social life. Social changes based on the irreversible transition of society to new living conditions are called social development. Social development is a picture of endless diversity, dissimilarity and uniqueness of historical events, since there is not a single people or state with the same historical fate. The diversity of paths and forms of social development is natural historical condition existence of society. It reflects the diversity of external and internal aspects of the life of individual countries, individual peoples, and determines the transition of society from one qualitative state to another.

Sociologists offer several classifications of society. Namely:

1) Pre-written and written;

2) Simple and complex (in simple societies there are no leaders and subordinates, but in complex societies there are several levels of management);

3) Primitive, traditional (agrarian), industrial and post-industrial societies;

4) Primitive, slave, feudal, capitalist and communist societies;

5) Traditional and industrial society (capitalism and socialism were considered as a variant of industrial society).
Traditional (agrarian) society represented the pre-industrial stage of civilization development. All societies of antiquity and the Middle Ages were traditional.

Signs of a traditional (agrarian) society:

Extensive technology and hand tools;

The dominance of subsistence farming and primitive crafts;

Man sought to adapt to the environment as much as possible;

The dominance of the communal form of ownership (conditionally state);

Hierarchical distribution of material goods;

The social structure is stable and immobile;

Lack of social mobility;

The basic social unit is the family;

Perception of human life as the implementation of plans from above.

Traditional society is extremely conservative. Changes in it occur spontaneously, slowly, without the conscious intervention of people.
Traditional society can be observed today - these are the so-called “third world” countries (Asia, Africa). Traditional societies are backward, primitive, closed, unfree social organisms, which Western sociology contrasts industrial and post-industrial.

In countries Western Europe The foundations of a new society - industrial - were laid. But the development of an industrial society is a long process that affects..... The transition from a traditional society to an industrial one is usually called modernization. This modernization is called technogenic, scientific and technical or economic. The economic base of an industrial society is machine-based industry.
Signs of an industrial society:

The principle of natural farming is being destroyed;

Extensive farming is changing into intensive farming;

Structure market economy, based on scientific and technological progress;

Man begins to subjugate nature;

Growth in real income per capita, increase in the well-being of the population;

Social mobility;

Urbanization, the composition of the peasantry is sharply reduced;

New classes emerge - the industrial proletariat and the bourgeoisie;

Individualism, rationalism, utilitarianism are new subsystems of personality coordinates;

Liberation from direct dependence on religion;

A person strives for self-development and self-improvement;

The role of the state is growing sharply;

The dominance of law and law in society.

Thus, industrial society is opposed traditional society in all directions.

Currently, it is customary to distinguish “post-industrial society”. This society is characterized by the promotion of the service sector, the individualization of production and consumption, the increase in small-scale production, and the leading role of science, knowledge and information in society. For post-industrial society erasing class boundaries, the growth of the so-called “middle class”. At the center of such a society is each individual person, his individuality.

The historical process is the temporal sequence of successive events that were the result of the activities of many generations of people.
The basis of the historical process is made up of historical facts, events that have occurred or are occurring in social life, which have had a serious impact on people’s lives.
In the process of cognition, scientists not only state these facts, but also try to give them scientific explanation. When studying such facts, you should remember that:
a) any historical fact is an element objective reality, closely related to its other elements. Therefore, all historical facts must be considered in their interaction, identifying not only the place of a specific fact in the historical process, but also its influence on the subsequent development of society;
b) the content of a historical fact depends on the level of development of a particular society and is the result of the activities of subjects of the historical process.

The subjects of the historical process are usually understood as those individuals and their communities who take a direct part in it. Such subjects can be the masses, social groups and public associations, individual historical figures.

In the most general sense, the masses can be called social communities that have developed in a certain territory (usually the territory of a country), whose members have a common mentality, culture, traditions and customs and jointly create material and spiritual values. The masses of the people are the most significant subject of the historical process. Most scientists believe that it is the masses of the people who play a decisive, and sometimes decisive role in it.

However, a number of scientists believe that it is necessary to separate the concepts of “people” and “mass”. They emphasize that, unlike a people, a mass is a group of people who are not related to each other. Such groups, they say, arise from time to time and in their activities are guided not by reason, but by emotions, and their desire for destruction is sometimes stronger than the desire for creation.
Another subject of the historical process are social groups and public associations.

Social groups can be distinguished according to various criteria - age, gender, professional, religious, etc. The most common social groups that have played a huge role in the historical process are classes, estates and nations. Each social group has some common features, which together constitute the social character of a given group. Each of the groups has its own interests, which they try to defend in the historical process and for the protection of which they create public associations.

Public associations are voluntary, self-governing formations created on the basis of a community of interests to achieve a goal common to all their members. These include political parties, trade union organizations, social movements.

Great influence on historical process Individual personalities, whom scientists call historical figures, also exert influence. First of all, those who exercise power (monarchs, presidents, etc.) are traditionally considered as such. However, besides them, great scientists and cultural and artistic figures have a great influence on the development of society and its self-awareness. Therefore, depending on the specific historical situation and their contribution to the historical process, they can also be classified as historical figures.

Thus, the historical process consists of the actions of both individuals performing important social functions, as well as the actions of associations of people and the activities of the masses as a whole.

There are several approaches to studying the historical process, but we will consider two main ones -

1. socio-economic formation (based on the method of production, the main thing is economic development);
2. civilizational (uniqueness of historical development).

So, the first approach belongs to the Marxist school of social science. Its key concept is the category “socio-economic formation” or “formation”.

Formation is understood as a historically specific type of society, considered in the organic interrelation of all its aspects and spheres, arising on the basis of a certain method of production of material goods.

In the structure of each formation, an economic base and a superstructure are distinguished. Basis (otherwise it was called production relations) - a set public relations, developing between people in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods (the main one among them are the relations of ownership of the means of production). The superstructure is understood as a set of political, legal, ideological, religious, cultural and other views, institutions and relations not covered by the base. Despite the relative independence, the type of superstructure is determined by the nature of the base. It also represents the basis of a formation, determining the formational affiliation of a particular society.

Production relations (the economic basis of society) and productive forces constitute the mode of production, often understood as a synonym for socio-economic formation. The concept of “productive forces” includes people as producers of material goods with their knowledge, skills and labor experience and means of production (tools, objects and means of labor). Productive forces are a dynamic, constantly developing element of the method of production, while relations of production static and inert, do not change for centuries.
At a certain stage, a conflict arises between productive forces and production relations, which is resolved during the social revolution, the transition to a new socio-economic formation. Old relations of production are being replaced by new ones, which open up space for the development of productive forces.

Thus, Marxism understands the historical process as a natural, objectively determined, naturally historical change in socio-economic formations.

According to Marxist scientists, all societies in their development alternately pass through five socio-economic formations: primitive, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and communist, the first phase being socialism.

The formational approach is based on several postulates:
1) the idea of ​​history as a natural, internally determined, progressive, world-historical and teleological (directed towards the goal - the construction of communism) process. The formational approach practically denies the national specificity and originality of individual states, focusing on what was common to all societies;
2) the decisive role of material production in the life of society, the idea of ​​economic factors as basic for other social relations;
3) the need to match production relations with productive forces;
4) the inevitability of transition from one socio-economic formation to another.

Another approach to the study of the historical process is civilization, the civilizational approach. The concept of “civilization” entered scientific circulation thanks to the French enlighteners (Voltaire, D. Diderot, C.-L. Montesquieu). After 100-150 years, the civilizational approach began to quickly gain popularity. There are about 200 definitions of the term “civilization”, civilis - civil, and their number is growing.

Civilization means:
a reflection of a civil society in which freedom, justice and law reign (Voltaire, C.-L. Montesquieu, D. Diderot);
the stage of historical development of mankind following savagery and barbarism (L. Morgan, K. Marx, F. Engels);
a society at a certain stage of development (O. Toffler, W. Rostow);
a set of unique economic, social, political, spiritual, value and other structures that distinguish one historical community of people from others (A. Toynbee);
a set of manifestations of culture (S. Huntington, K. Jaspers);
the final stage of the evolution of any culture, which is characterized by the development of industry and technology, the degradation of literature and art, the concentration of people in big cities, the transformation of peoples into faceless masses (O. Spengler).

However, the following definitions are considered the most commonly used:

Civilization is a set of spiritual, material and moral means by which this community arms its member in his confrontation with the outside world.

Civilization is a stable cultural and historical community of people, distinguished by a commonality of spiritual and moral values ​​and cultural traditions, material, production and socio-political development, peculiarities of lifestyle and personality type, the presence of common ethnic characteristics and corresponding geographical and time frames.

The historical process is the change of a number of civilizations that existed at different times in different regions of the planet and simultaneously exist at the present time. Each civilization is unique and brings its own nuance to the overall diversity. When studying modernity, researchers pay close attention to the national specifics of states.
Various classifications (typologies) of civilizations were created and acquired their followers. The typology is based on different approaches:
linear-stadial (ancient civilizations, medieval civilization
lization, industrial, etc.);
local (Egyptian, Chinese, European, ancient Greek
and so on.).

Any civilization is characterized not so much by its production base as by its specific way of life, value system, vision and ways of interrelating with the outside world.

The uniqueness of each civilization should not be absolutized: they all go through stages common to the world historical process. Usually, the entire diversity of local civilizations is divided into two large groups - eastern and western. The former are characterized by a high degree of dependence of the individual on nature and the geographical environment, a close connection between a person and his social group, low social mobility, dominance among the regulators of social relations, traditions and customs. Western civilizations, on the contrary, are characterized by the desire to subordinate nature to human power, the priority of individual rights and freedoms over social communities, high social mobility, democratic political regime and the rule of law.

In the 19th century, the concept of “civilization” was used to characterize capitalist society. And since the end of the century, new theories have appeared civilizational development. There are many scientists studying the theory of civilizations. We will consider only a few. This is N.Ya. Danilevsky, who considered civilization as cultural and historical types), O. Spengler - civilization - high cultures; A. Toynbee - local civilizations.

The Russian thinker of the second half of the 19th century, N.Ya. Danilevsky, in his book “Russia and Europe,” substantiated the theory according to which there is no World History, there is only a theory of local civilizations that have an individual, closed character. He identified 10 civilizations and formulated the basic laws of their development, according to which each civilization has a cyclical nature:
1) Generation stage
2) The period of cultural and political independence
3) Blooming stage
4) Period of decline.

According to N.Ya. Danilevsky, there are the following types of civilizations:

Primary (they do not have a leading principle that determines their meaning) - Egyptian, Chinese, Iranian, some others;
monobasic (having one distinct beginning from which all their features come) - Jewish (religion), ancient Greek (culture), ancient Roman (politics);
two-basic (based on the predominant development of two principles) - European (politics and culture);
unifying (developing political, cultural, religious and moral-economic principles in harmony) - Slavic (not yet as a reality, but as a possibility).

The German philosopher Oswald Spengler published the first part of the book “The Decline of Europe” in 1918. In it, he clearly distinguished between the concepts of civilization and culture. He understood civilization as a stage of decline, dying of culture, its ossification, loss of creative powers. Speaking about cultures, O. Spengler emphasized their isolation and independence, identifying only eight:
Egyptian;
Babylonian;
Indian;
Chinese;
Arab-Byzantine;
Greco-Roman;
western;
Inca culture.

A. Toynbee, English historian, cultural scientist, in the book “Comprehensions of History”
highlights 21 local civilization and tries to highlight the connections of different civilizations with each other. In them, he identifies a minority of people who are not involved in economic activity (the creative minority, or elite):
professional soldiers;
administrators;
priests; they are the bearers of the basic values ​​of civilization.

Let's summarize:
Formation concentrates attention on the universal, general, repeating, civilization - on the local - regional, unique, original. These approaches are not mutually exclusive. IN modern social science searches are underway in the direction of their mutual synthesis.

It is fundamentally important to find out in which direction a society is moving, which is in a state of continuous development and change.
There are two directions and three forms in the development of society. The two directions are progress and regression.

Progress is understood as a direction of development, which is characterized by forward movement society from the lower and simple shapes public organization to higher and more complex ones. The concept of progress is opposed to the concept of regression, which is characterized by reverse movement- from higher to lower, degradation, return to already outdated structures and relationships. The idea of ​​the development of society as a progressive process appeared in ancient times, but finally took shape in the works of French enlighteners (A. Turgot, M. Condorcet, etc.).

However, some thinkers reject the idea of ​​progress in social development, either viewing history as cyclic cycle with a series of ups and downs (G. Vico), predicting the imminent “end of history”, or affirming ideas about a multilinear, independent from each other, parallel movement of different societies (N. Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee).

It is obvious that the progressive development of society does not exclude return movements, regression, civilizational dead ends and even breakdowns. And the development of humanity itself is unlikely to have an unambiguously linear character; accelerated leaps forward and rollbacks are possible in it. Moreover, progress in one area of ​​social relations may cause regression in another. The development of tools, technical and technological revolutions is clear evidence economic progress, but they brought the world to the brink of an environmental disaster and depleted the Earth's natural resources. Modern society is accused of a decline in morality, a family crisis, and lack of spirituality. The price of progress is also high: the conveniences of city life, for example, are accompanied by numerous “diseases of urbanization.” Sometimes the costs of progress are so great that the question arises: is it even possible to talk about humanity moving forward?

In this regard, the question of the criteria for progress is relevant. There is no agreement among scientists here either.
Over the centuries, scientists have identified the following criteria for progress:

1) Condorcet (18th century) considered the development of reason to be a criterion of progress.
2) Saint-Simon: the criterion of progress is morality. Society should be one where all people are brothers to each other.
3) Schelling: progress - gradual approach to a legal structure.
4) Hegel (19th century): sees progress in the consciousness of freedom.
5) Marx: progress is the development of material production, which allows one to master the elemental forces of nature and achieve social harmony and progress in the spiritual sphere.
6) In modern conditions, progress is:
– life expectancy of society;
- Lifestyle;
- spiritual life.

Consequently, the criterion of progress should be the measure of freedom that society is able to provide individuals for maximum development its potential. The degree of progressiveness of a particular social system must be assessed by the conditions created in it to satisfy all the needs of the individual, for the free development of man (or, as they say, by the degree of humanity of the social system).

There are two forms social progress: revolution and reform.

A revolution is a complete or comprehensive change in all or most aspects of social life, affecting the foundations of the existing social system.

Until recently, revolution was viewed as a universal “law of transition” from one socio-economic formation to another. But scientists have never been able to detect signs of a social revolution during the transition from a primitive communal system to a class one.

According to Marxist methodology, a social revolution is understood as a radical revolution in the life of society, changing its structure and meaning a qualitative leap in its progressive development.

A revolution always represents an active political action of the masses and has the first goal of transferring the leadership of society into the hands of a new class. Social revolution differs from evolutionary transformations in that it is concentrated in time and the masses directly act in it.

Reform is a transformation, reorganization, change in any aspect of social life that does not destroy the foundations of the existing social structure, leaving power in the hands of the former ruling class.
Understood in this sense, the path of gradual (evolutionary) transformation of existing relations is contrasted with revolutionary explosions that sweep away the old order, the old system to the ground.

Today, great reforms (i.e., revolutions “from above”) are recognized as the same social anomalies as great revolutions. In this context, both reform and revolution “treat” an already advanced disease (the first with therapeutic methods, the second with surgical intervention), while constant and possibly early prevention is necessary. Therefore, in modern social science, the emphasis is shifted from the antinomy “reform - revolution” to “reform - innovation”.

Innovation is understood as an ordinary, one-time improvement associated with an increase in the adaptive capabilities of a social organism in given conditions.

Scientists note that the modern world, on the one hand, is diverse and contradictory, on the other, integral and interconnected. Let's take a closer look at these features.

About diversity modern world these facts say:
Modern humanity - 6 billion people, representing three main (equatorial, Mongoloid and Caucasian) and several transitional racial groups, united in more than 1000 ethnic groups speaking different languages, the number of which cannot be accurately counted (from two to three thousand) and which are divided into 23 language families; more than 200 states, diversity of economic structures, forms of socio-political and cultural life.

Reasons for diversity:
· natural conditions
· historical environment, the result of interaction with other peoples
historical experience shows: some of the most important forms and achievements developed by civilization receive universal recognition and dissemination (these are values European civilization):
· achieved level of PS development
· presence of market and commodity-money relations
· democracy and rule of law
· great achievements of science and art
· human rights
The trend towards diversity in the modern world does not contradict the conclusion about its integrity and interconnectedness. Factors of its integrity are:

Development of means of communication. Modern society is becoming an information society. Into a single information flow Almost all regions of the planet are connected;
the development of transport, which has made the modern world “small”, accessible to movement;
the development of technology, including military technology, on the one hand, transforming the world into a single technical and technological space and making the threat of the destruction of humanity real, on the other;
economic development. Production, the market have become truly global, economic, financial, industrial relations are the most important factor in the unity of modern humanity;
the severity of global problems that can only be solved through the joint efforts of the world community.

So there are two points of view:

The world is moving towards a unified civilization, the values ​​of which will become the property of all humanity. The trend towards cultural and historical diversity will continue and intensify. Society will continue to be a collection of a number of independently developing civilizations.

Integration.
The unity of humanity is becoming more and more noticeable. Before our eyes, world civilization is turning into a single whole, consisting of open systems who are in a state of intense interaction with the outside world.
1. economic, political, cultural ties are strengthening
2. 20% of the world economy is involved in international exchange
3. unified credit and banking system (in Japan, 80% of investments are from external sources)
4. international economic unions (OPEC)
5. global politics(the world is divided into zones of political influence of different blocs, in complex interaction which she is born)
6. internationalization of spiritual life (television production, cinema, literature)
7. international tourism
8. increase in the number of international meetings, conferences, symposia
9. dialogue of cultures and civilizations, their achievements become the property of all humanity (Russian ballet)
10. universal human moral values ​​are formed

To indicate new changes in all aspects of society under the influence of the global trend towards interdependence and unity, it was introduced new term– “globalization”. This is the process of integration of states and peoples into different areas activities. A process during which mutual influence and interdependence of peoples and states increase.

Main reasons for globalization:

The transition from an industrial society to an information society, to high technology;
transition from centralization of the economy to its decentralization;
transition from national to global economy;
transition from alternative choice (“either/or”) to variety of choice;
use of new communication technologies(Internet, satellite television, mobile communications, etc.);

Main directions of globalization:

Activities of transnational corporations with branches around the world;
globalization financial markets;
international economic integration within individual regions;
Creation international organizations in the economic and financial spheres (International Monetary Fund, World Bank, World Trade Organization, etc.);

Consequences of the globalization process

Positive Negative
Stimulating effect on the economy:
- the emergence of the opportunity to create goods in those regions where their production will be cheaper;
- the emergence of the possibility of selling goods where it will give the maximum benefit;
- reduction of production costs;
- the emergence of opportunities for further development of production;
- profit growth;
- concentration of efforts on the development of new advanced technologies;
- the fruits of scientific and technological progress can be used by countries that do not have the opportunity to conduct their own scientific and technical research.
Rapprochement of states.
Stimulating consideration of the interests of states and warning them against extreme actions in politics.
The emergence of sociocultural unity of humanity. Planting uniform standard consumption.
Creating obstacles to the development of domestic production
Ignoring the economic, cultural and historical specifics of the development of different countries.

Imposition of a certain way of life, often contrary to the traditions of a given society.
Formalization of the idea of ​​competition: the most economically powerful states strive for leadership, which leads to an explosion of nationalism in economically underdeveloped countries.
Loss of some specific features of national cultures.
Global problems

Global problems are a set of problems that humanity faced in the second half of the 20th century and on the solution of which the existence of civilization depends. For the first time, global problems were raised by the Club of Rome (international non-governmental organization) in the 60s of the twentieth century.

Causes:

The global community of people, the integrity of the modern world;
contradictions, conflicts, problems from local become global;
Actively transformative human activity does not always correspond to the level of social organization, political thinking and environmental consciousness.

Possible classification of global problems:

Intersocial problems (prevention of world nuclear disaster and creating optimal conditions for the social prosperity of all peoples; prevention of underdevelopment developing countries and etc.);
Problems arising from the relationship between society and nature (providing for humanity necessary resources: raw materials, food, energy; prevention of environmental pollution, etc.);
Problems that have arisen in the system of relations between man and society (overcoming the negative impacts of scientific and technological revolution; demographic problem; human health problem, etc.).

Common features:

Affects the life of all humanity;
manifest themselves as an objective factor in the development of society;
urgently require a solution;
involve international cooperation various countries;
depends on their decision further fate human civilization.

Main directions for resolving global problems:

Formation of a new planetary consciousness. Education of a person on the principles of humanism. Widely informing people about global issues;
conclusion international cooperation to a new quality level;
a comprehensive study of the causes and contradictions, conditions leading to the emergence and aggravation of problems;
monitoring and control global processes on the planet. Obtaining objective information from each country and international research necessary for forecasting and decision-making;
concentration of efforts of all countries to solve global problems. Cooperation is needed to create new environmental technologies, a common world center for the study of global problems, a single fund of funds and resources, information exchange;
clear international forecasting system.

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The meaning of technogenic revolutions: agricultural, industrial, information. The contradictory impact of people on the natural environment. In the broad sense of the word, nature means everything that exists, and in the narrow sense of the word, nature is what gave birth to and surrounds man and serves as an object of knowledge for him. Nature is a natural condition for human existence. Society is a part of the world separated from nature. Society as a system coexists with nature, uses natural factors, resources and conditions, changes them in accordance with its needs. Nature influences and influences society. It creates favorable or unfavorable conditions for its development: Landscape and climatic conditions contributed to the development of trade, navigation, intercultural relations, at the same time, the natural environment and natural disasters could not only slow down the development of society, but also cause its death. Society is inseparable from nature. Man (society) came from nature, they are its continuation, part of it. But this part is special, it represents a second, artificially created nature. Nature has been and remains the foundation on which society is based. Technological revolutions are qualitative changes in technological methods of production, the essence of which is a radical redistribution of basic technological forms between the human and technical components of the productive forces of society. Technological revolutions determined the development of mankind for the next few hundred years. They made it possible to use new types of energy, create various equipment that does the job more efficiently and faster than people, conquer space, air and underwater spaces, treat serious diseases and improve the standard of living even in the most remote places planets. The Agricultural Revolution was the transition from hunter-gatherer societies to sedentary agricultural communities that occurred about 10 thousand years ago through the domestication of animals and the cultivation of grain crops. The industrial revolution is a transition from a predominantly agricultural economy to industrial production, as a result of which the transformation of an agrarian society into an industrial one occurs. The information revolution is a significant improvement in social relations due to fundamental changes in the field of collecting and processing information. Society has come into conflict with nature in two respects: 1) as a social reality, it is nothing other than nature itself; 2) it purposefully influences nature with the help of tools, changing it. On the one hand, people save forests from flooding and fires; treat sick animals, save them from death; They are engaged in cleaning rivers and lakes. On the other hand, due to industrial production, toxic fumes enter the air and pollute the atmosphere; industrial waste is discharged into rivers, thereby polluting and poisoning them. People cut down forests (which will grow back only a few decades later), thereby depriving themselves of clean air!

Since ancient times, an important issue in the life of society has been interaction with nature. Nature- the habitat of society, in all the infinite variety of its manifestations, possessing its own laws, independent of the will and desires of man. Initially, man and human communities were an integral part of the natural world. In the process of development, society became isolated from nature, but retained a close connection with it. In ancient times, people were completely dependent on the world around them and did not claim a dominant role on Earth. The earliest religious views proclaimed the unity of humans, animals, plants, and natural phenomena - people believed that everything in nature has a soul and is related to each other. The success of the hunt, the harvest, the success of fishing, and ultimately the life and death of a person, the prosperity of his tribe or poverty and need depended on the vagaries of the weather.

Gradually people began to change the world for their economic needs - to cut down forests, irrigate deserts, raise domestic animals, and build cities. It was as if another nature was created - a special world in which humanity lives and which has its own rules and laws. While some tried to make the most of the surrounding conditions and adapt to them, others completely transformed and adapted nature to their needs.

In modern science, the concept is firmly established environment. Scientists distinguish two sides in it - natural and artificial environments. Nature itself constitutes the first, natural habitat on which man has always depended. In the process of development of human society, the role and importance of the so-called artificial environment increases, "second nature", which consists of objects created with human participation. These are plants and animals bred using modern scientific capabilities, nature transformed as a result of human influence. Today there are practically no places left on Earth where man has not left his mark or changed something with his intervention.

Nature has always influenced human life. Climate and geographical conditions are all significant factors that determine the development path of a particular region. People living in different natural conditions will differ in their character and lifestyle.

The interaction between human society and nature has gone through several stages in its development. The place of man in the world around him has changed, and the degree of people’s dependence on natural phenomena has changed. In ancient times, at the dawn of human civilization, people were completely dependent on nature and acted only as consumers of its gifts. The first occupations of people, as we remember from history lessons, were hunting and gathering. Then people did not produce anything themselves, but only consumed what nature produced.

Qualitative changes in the interaction of human society with nature are called technogenic revolutions. Each such revolution, generated by the development of man and his activities, led to a change in the role of man in nature. The first of these revolutions was the revolution Neolithic or agricultural. Its result was the emergence of a productive economy, the formation of new types of economic activity of people - cattle breeding and agriculture. Thanks to the transition from an appropriating economy to a producing one, man was able to provide himself with food. Following agriculture and cattle breeding, crafts also emerged and trade developed.

The next technological revolution is the revolution industrial, industrial. The beginning of this revolution dates back to the Age of Enlightenment. The essence of the industrial revolution is the transition from manual labor to the machine, the development of large factory industry, when machines and equipment gradually replace a number of human functions in production. The industrial revolution entails the growth and development of large cities - megalopolises, the development of new types of transport and communications, and the simplification of contacts between residents of different countries and continents.

Residents of the 20th century witnessed the third technological revolution. This is a revolution post-industrial or informational associated with the appearance smart cars– computers, development of microprocessor technologies, electronic means communications. The concept of computerization has come into widespread use. mass application computers in production and at home. The World Wide Web has emerged, opening up enormous opportunities for searching and obtaining any information. New technologies have significantly facilitated the work of millions of people and led to an increase in labor productivity. The consequences of this revolution for nature are complex and contradictory.

The first centers of civilization arose in the basins of the great rivers - the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Indus and Ganges, Yangtze and Yellow River. The possibility of developing fertile lands, creating irrigated farming systems are experiments in the interaction of human society with nature. Rugged coastline and the mountainous terrain of Greece led to the development of trade, crafts, the cultivation of olive trees and vineyards, and, to a much lesser extent, the production of grain. Since ancient times, nature has influenced the occupation and social structure of people. So, for example, the organization of large-scale irrigation works throughout the country contributed to the formation of despotic regimes, powerful monarchies, crafts and trade, the development of private initiative of individual producers led to the establishment of republican rule in Greece.

With each new stage of development, humanity exploits natural resources more and more comprehensively. Many researchers note the threat of the death of earthly civilization. The French scientist F. San-Marc writes in his work “The Socialization of Nature”: “a four-engine Boeing flying on the Paris-New York route consumes 36 tons of oxygen. The supersonic Concorde uses over 700 kilograms of air per second during takeoff. The world's commercial aviation burns as much oxygen annually as two billion people consume. The world's 250 million cars require as much oxygen as the entire population of the Earth."

Discovering new laws of nature, intervening more and more actively in the natural environment, man could not always clearly determine the consequences of his intervention. Under the influence of humans, the landscapes of the Earth are changing, new zones of deserts and tundras are appearing, forests - the lungs of the planet - are being cut down, many species of plants and animals are disappearing or are on the verge of extinction. There are fewer and fewer unique ecologically clean corners of nature, which have now become the focus of attention of travel companies. For example, in an effort to turn steppe spaces into sown fields, people created the threat of desertification of the steppe and destruction of unique steppe zones.

The appearance of ozone holes in the earth's atmosphere can also lead to changes in the atmosphere. Significant damage to nature can be caused by testing new types of weapons, primarily nuclear weapons. The Chernobyl disaster of 1986 demonstrates the devastating consequences the spread of radiation can have. Life almost completely dies where radioactive waste appears.

Russian philosopher I.A. Gobozov emphasizes: “We demand from nature as much as it essentially cannot give without violating its integrity. Modern machines allow us to penetrate into the most distant corners of nature and remove any minerals. We are even ready to imagine that everything is allowed to us in relation to nature, since it cannot offer us serious resistance. Therefore, we do not hesitate to interfere with natural processes, disrupt their natural course and thereby take them out of balance. Satisfying our selfish interests, we care little about future generations, who will have to face enormous difficulties because of us.”

Studying the consequences of man's unreasonable use of natural resources, people began to comprehend the harmfulness of the consumer attitude towards nature. People will have to create optimal strategies for environmental management and create conditions for their continued existence on the planet.

Edition: Social Science. A manual for schoolchildren and applicants

Section 1. SOCIETY
Chapter 1. Society and public relations
1.1. Society as a complex dynamic system

The most common understanding of society is associated with the idea of ​​it as a group of people united by certain interests. So, we are talking about a society of philatelists, about a society for nature conservation, often by society they mean the circle of friends of this or that person, etc. Not only the first ones were similar, but even scientific ideas people about society. However, the essence of society cannot be reduced to a collection of human individuals. It must be sought in the connections and relationships that arise in the process of joint activity of people, which is non-individual in nature and gains strength beyond the control of individuals. Social relations are stable, constantly repeated and underlie the formation of various structural parts, institutions, and organizations of society. Social connections and relationships turn out to be objective, dependent not on a specific person, but on other, more fundamental and fundamental forces and principles. Thus, in antiquity such a force was assumed to be the cosmic idea of ​​justice, in the Middle Ages - the personality of God, in modern times - a social contract, etc. They seem to organize and cement the diverse social phenomena, impart movement and development (dynamics) to their complex set.

Because of diversity social forms and the phenomena of society are trying to explain economic sciences, history, sociology, demography and many other sciences about society. But identifying the most general, universal connections, fundamental foundations, primary causes, leading patterns and trends is the task of philosophy. It is important for science to know not only what social structure of this particular society, what classes, nations, groups, etc. are active, what are their social interests and needs, or what economic orders dominate in a particular period of history. Social science is also interested in identifying what unites all existing and possible future societies, what are the sources and driving forces of social development, its leading trends and basic patterns, its direction, etc. It is especially important to consider society as single organism or system integrity, the structural elements of which are in more or less ordered and stable relationship. In them one can even distinguish relations of subordination, where the leading one is the connection between material factors and ideal formations of social life.

In social science, several fundamental views on the essence of society are known, the differences between which lie in the identification in this dynamic system as leading various structural elements. The sociopsychological approach to understanding society consists of several postulates. Society is a collection of individuals and a system of social actions. People's actions are comprehended and determined by the physiology of the body. The origins of social action can be found even in instincts (Freud).

Naturalistic concepts of society are based on the leading role of natural, geographical and demographic factors in the development of society. Some determine the development of society by the rhythms of solar activity (Chizhevsky, Gumilyov), others - by the climatic environment (Montesquieu, Mechnikov), and others - by the genetic, racial and sexual characteristics of a person (Wilson, Dawkins, Scheffle). Society in this concept is viewed somewhat simplistically, as a natural continuation of nature, having only biological specificity, to which the features of the social are reduced.

In the materialist understanding of society (Marx), people are connected into a social organism by productive forces and production relations. The material life of people, social existence determine all social dynamics - the mechanism of functioning and development of society, the social actions of people, their spiritual and cultural life. Social development in this concept acquires an objective, natural-historical character and appears as a natural change in socio-economic formations and certain stages of world history.

All these definitions have something in common. Society is a stable association of people, the strength and consistency of which lies in the power that permeates all social relations. Society is a self-sufficient structure, the elements and parts of which are in a complex relationship, giving it the character of a dynamic system.

In modern society there are qualitative changes in social relations and social connections between people, expanding their space and compressing their time. Universal laws and values ​​cover everything larger number people, and events occurring in a region or remote province influence world processes, and vice versa. The emerging global society simultaneously destroys all boundaries and, as it were, “compresses” the world.

1.2. Society and nature. Human impact on the environment

In any consideration of society, understanding its relationship with nature is extremely important. Some contrast them, focusing on their fundamental difference, others, on the contrary, blur the lines between them, reducing the specificity of the social to the biological. In fact, between these extremes lies the entire real complex dialectic of the unity of opposites. Society does not exist without nature, being its creation. But nature, the Cosmos, the Universe will find their true existence and will be supplemented by society. The essence of this connection is not given initially; it is formed and comprehended in gradual existence and development. In its historical movement, society goes through several stages of this connection with nature.

The connection between nature and society is based on social, primarily production, activity of people. And if in initial period this activity was negligible in its impact on the environment, dependent on it, mainly because of its primitiveness, technical underdevelopment, then with the beginning of the scientific, technical and industrial revolution, over the last two or three centuries there has been intensive development of resources and the energy of nature. If until the middle of the 20th century. The emphasis was on the influence of nature on society (geographical determinism), but by the end of the century humanity realized the opposite picture - anthropogenic pressure on nature had become almost unbearable. At this stage, when the connections between society and nature are most contradictory, man not only puts them at his service. Its impact on nature is becoming more and more noticeable and often has negative consequences. Gradually increasing its power over nature, humanity becomes increasingly dependent on it in pursuit of satisfying its ever-increasing material needs. Are depleted energetic resources nature, flora and fauna, the atmosphere and the world's oceans are becoming increasingly polluted, etc. All this has put humanity before the global environmental problem: While improving the quality of life, it is necessary to maintain a healthy living environment. The search for ways to solve this problem is carried out in a wide range - from the invention of hitherto unprecedented energy sources and population regulation to changes in social orders and human qualities. While the threat global disasters will not decrease, the search for optimal solutions to the problem of transferring the connection between society and nature to the level of harmony will not be completed.

1.3. Causal and functional connections in society. Interrelation of the main spheres of public life

An important task of social science is the classification of the main elements of the content of such a complex education as society and the identification common connections between them, determining the types of these connections, etc. The simplest and at the same time necessary element of society is the person himself. No less significant in society are the objects of social activity - things and symbols. Things are necessary to change, remake and use natural phenomena for the benefit of people. The most important of them - tools and objects of labor - allow a person to ensure adaptation to nature, and symbols - concepts, knowledge, ideas, act as carriers of meanings and meanings, ensure their storage, accumulation, and transmission. Symbols and signs regulate people’s social activities and give them purposefulness.

Property, physical Team work people is formed by material production, where everything necessary to satisfy people’s needs is created and on the basis of which other spheres of people’s social life function - political, social and spiritual. The political sphere regulates the public life and social activities of people, their functioning in accordance with the laws, using the bureaucratic apparatus of coercion. In the social sphere, problems of health care and social security are solved, care is taken for vulnerable segments of the population, and children are raised and educated. The activities of families, schools, cultural and educational institutions are aimed at the social adaptation of people and the sphere of their services. The most important sphere of social life is the spiritual activity of people in the production of scientific, religious, legal and other knowledge, skills, traditions, and rituals.

Elements of society, types and objects of social activity, social groups and institutions, and the spheres they form are in complex relationships and interpenetrating connections. Changes in natural or demographic factors affect all spheres, influencing the entire social mechanism, such spiritual processes as science and education. Identifying functional connections in this diversity is a conceptual task of social science. Marxism considers these to be material, economic factors, Freudianism - physiological, idealism - reason, science, enlightenment.

1.4. The most important institutions of society

All the main spheres of human activity accompany him forever. However, they are specific historical, changeable both in content, volume, and in the methods and forms of functioning. Their development is underway by increasing the volume and complexity of the mechanisms and institutions for their implementation, the nature of their interaction with each other. In all spheres of society, there are structures that ensure the sustainability of social relations: manufacturing enterprises, cultural institutions, health care, science: The leading role in society belongs to political institutions of power, law, and ideology. Through these mechanisms, the stable functioning of all spheres and, in general, of the entire society as a dynamic self-developing system is ensured. Parliament, government, authorities at all levels, law enforcement agencies, parties and movements, means mass media are called upon to defend the interests of both the whole society and its individual groups and members.

The state, as the most important institution of society, influences all aspects of its life, carrying out its functioning as an integral organism. Carrying out numerous internal and external functions, the state, first of all, provides public order, effective economy, establishing communications, dealing with emergencies, protecting state sovereignty, etc.

Control questions

1. What are the main goals of social science in the study of society?
2. What connections are called social relations?
3. What is the meaning of "geographical determinism"?
4. Describe the social sphere of society.
5. What constitutes the content of the spiritual sphere of society's life?
6. What is political institutions society?
7. Explain the place of the state in the political system of society.

Chapter 2. Social development

2.1. Objective and subjective factors in the development of society. Activity as a way of existence of society

Social life appears as labor, production, family and everyday life, moral-aesthetic, political-legal, religious and other activities of people, which have objective and subjective sides. Those factors that lead to changes in society act as the driving forces of history. Among the objective ones is the influence of the geographical environment (climate, terrain, earthquakes, floods, etc.).

Objective factors of people’s existence exist independently of the consciousness and will of people and consist not only of the natural conditions of life, but also include the satisfaction of people’s needs for food, housing, and the continuation of the human race; this includes ordinary life that supports people’s health, etc. The most important factor here is the productive forces of society, which act as the source of its development. The subjective factors of satisfying people's needs associated with the activity of people's consciousness and will, first of all, should include socio-political and spiritual phenomena. These, for example, are ideas, religions, and science. In this regard, some philosophers talk about the material and spiritual levels of the organization of society, positing different relationships between them. Materialists see the root cause of social development in material, objective factors, considering the spiritual activity of people secondary, derivative from them. Marx, in particular, believes that it is not the consciousness of people that determines their real social existence, but, on the contrary, social existence determines social consciousness, its content, development, although existence always experiences the opposite influence of consciousness. Marxism proceeds from the determining role of material production in social life.

2.2. Stages of human history

History, the social life of people is their activity, regardless of whether it is objective, unconscious and independent of consciousness, or subjective, consciously directed. Their unity is organic and largely depends on the depth and adequacy of understanding public actors objective factors of social development.

Thus, the historical process appears as an interaction of many objective and subjective factors. The objective needs of people determine the main direction of the development of society, and their awareness by society as a whole and by each individual individually allows them to choose paths of social development, purposefully act using special methods, institutions and organizations to achieve certain stages of history. Such conscious activity allows people to get rid of many of the “painful” aspects of the spontaneous, unorganized development of history, prevent catastrophic, dead-end consequences, speed up the course of history, reduce human casualties and energy losses, etc. Reliance on science, which allows one to take into account diverse interests, is especially effective leading subjects of history - social groups, classes, nations, etc.

The consciousness and organization of the historical movement of people increases with each stage of history, in which various stages can be distinguished. In the very general view we can talk about savagery, barbarism and civilization. Marx identified five formations - primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and communist. There is a theory of pre-industrial, industrial and post-industrial or information society (D. Bell, A. Toffler). Many philosophers talk about civilizations as stages in the history of mankind, for example A. Toynbee, N. Danilevsky, O. Spengler in their cultural concepts.

2.3. Diversity of ways and forms of social development

All people participate in the historical process, but since the satisfaction of the material needs of people is carried out by labor and production activities, turning out to be the leading objective factor, the masses, classes and other social groups act as the main subjects of history. The activities of the intelligentsia, clergy, and outstanding personalities have an important place in historical development. Since the duration of the subjects of history is ambiguous, the paths of social development are also diverse. Thus, the influence of a great personality on the historical process may depend on the social system, on the state of society, on the needs of the moment for certain personal qualities, etc. Historical experience indicates that the state of chaos and instability allows a public figure to have a much greater influence on history, resorting to the most extreme, revolutionary, military methods of changing the situation.

Although classes and strata are the decisive force, much of their rivalry depends on the leaders, their personal qualities and talent. All subjects of history pursue their own interests. This happens contradictorily, often in fierce struggle, peacefully and militarily, in gradual transformations, slow and stagnant periods of history, and sometimes in leaps - fast, decisive movements forward.

2.4. Evolution and revolution. Revolution and reforms

As a rule, the history of mankind, especially in the early periods, develops spontaneously, slowly, gradually, which is inherent in evolutionary, imperceptible, painless movement forward. Revolutions, on the contrary, mark sharp qualitative changes, revolutions in all social life - in the economic, political, social and spiritual spheres. Revolutions are the result active work subjects of history, the apogee of the conflict of social groups - classes and nations. In modern and contemporary times, revolutions are often the result of conscious setting of goals and purposeful resolution of specific tasks by outstanding individuals, parties, social movements, more or less accurately perceiving and understanding the needs of people and the course of history. Revolutions are combined in real historical development with reforms, relatively slow, gradual social transformations carried out peacefully, as a rule, on the basis of achieving public consent. The dialectics of social development is such that both paths of development are equally natural and historical, and it would be wrong to exaggerate or diminish the role of one at the expense of the other. But the history of the 20th century. with its destructive wars and revolutions, it is instructive for humanity by demonstrating the advantages of reforms that can resolve all kinds of conflicts peacefully, and effectively use scientific methods of managing social and interstate relations.

2.5. Possibility of alternative social development

Unlike natural patterns development, the course of history is multivariate and sometimes unpredictable due to the interaction in it of various factors that are difficult to take into account, especially subjective ones, as well as many heterogeneous driving forces.

People can often influence the pace of history, often avoiding it undesirable consequences, modify inevitable events. Peoples and nations may try to repeat the positive experience of others, to act by analogy, but such an attempt rarely achieves the goal - moreover, the result of people’s activities is sometimes directly opposite to what is desired. Historical development is also based on objective laws and trends, but their manifestation is specific to peoples, which gives scope for social creativity, a variety of paths and forms of social development, for its alternativeness.

The possibilities for alternative development of human society are especially relevant in the context of a globalizing world. Two models of globalization have emerged: liberal and “left,” socially oriented. Opponents of the unfolding real globalization propose regionalization as its specific form, which is designed to contain the pace, scale and negative consequences of globalization being implemented by Western countries, primarily the United States. The problem of choosing the paths of social development has become especially acute for humanity in connection with dangerous trends in the manipulation of information: the vectors of further development of civilization largely depend on who will dominate in the information sphere, the state or transnational corporations.

Post-reform Russia is also faced with a fateful choice: to follow in the footsteps of American globalization or to look for its regional basic values ​​of civil society - these are the main alternatives of its civilizational perspective.

Control questions

1. List the elements of objective and subjective factors of social development.
2. What is the essence of the Marxist understanding of the causes of the development of history?
3. Describe the stages of human history known to you.
4. Who is the subject of history?
5. Can they prominent figures influence the course of historical development? Give examples.
6. Why are alternatives in social development possible?
7. Think about the conditions for Russia's recovery from the crisis and the prospects for its social development.

O.V. Kishenkova.

Theoretical materials for the Unified State Exam in social studies.

Part 1.

Section 1. Society

Society is a special part of the world. Society is a complex, dynamically developing system……………… 4

Society and nature 8

Society and culture 11

The relationship between the economic, social, political and spiritual spheres of society 13

Social institutions 15

Multivariate social development. Typology of societies 17

Concept social progress 24

Globalization processes and the formation of a united humanity 28

Global problems of humanity 32

Section 2. Man

Man as a result of biological and sociocultural evolution 43

Human existence.…………………………..46

Human needs and interests 47

Human activity, its main forms 53

Thinking and activity 56

The purpose and meaning of human life 62

Self-realization 67

Individual, individuality, personality. Socialization of the individual 69

The inner world of a person 72

Conscious and unconscious 74

Self-knowledge 76

Behavior 78

Freedom and responsibility of the individual 83

Section 3. Cognition

Exploring the world 90

Forms of knowledge: sensual and rational 92

Truth, its criteria. Relativity of truth 94

Kinds human knowledge 96

Scientific knowledge 97

Social sciences, their classification 98

Social and Humanities 101

Section 4. Spiritual life of society

Culture and spiritual life 105

Forms and varieties of culture: folk, mass and elite culture; youth subculture...... 108

Media 113

Art, its forms 118

1. Social and personal

importance of education………………………..126

Religion. The role of religion in the life of society. World religions 131

Morality. Moral culture 135

Trends in spiritual life modern Russia 138

Section 5. Economic sphere of society

Economics: science and economy 141

Economic culture 143

Economic content of property 146

Economic systems 147

Variety of markets 150

Measures of economic activity 152

Economic cycle and the economic growth 153

Division of labor and specialization 160

Exchange, trade 162

State budget 165

Public debt 168

Monetary policy 169

Tax (fiscal) policy 169

World economy: foreign trade, international financial system 174

Consumer Economics 180

Producer economics 182

Labor market 185

Unemployment 188

Section 1
Society

1.1. Society is a special part of the world. Society is a complex, dynamically developing system

We live in a world of people. Our desires and plans cannot be realized without the help and participation of those who surround us and are nearby. Parents, brothers, sisters and other close relatives, teachers, friends, classmates, neighbors - they all make up our closest circle communication.

Please note: not all of our desires can be fulfilled if they run counter to the interests of others. We must coordinate our actions with the opinions of people, and for this we need to communicate. After the first circle of human communication there are subsequent circles that become ever wider. Outside our immediate circle, we are looking forward to meeting new people, entire teams and organizations. After all, each of us is not only a family member, a resident of the house, but also a citizen of the state. We can also be members political parties, interest clubs, professional organizations etc.

The world of people, organized in a certain way, constitutes society. What's happened society ? Can any group of people be called this word? Society develops in the process of interaction between people. Its signs can be considered the presence of overall goals and objectives set for it, as well as activities aimed at their implementation.

So, society- this is not just a chaotic multitude of people. It has a core, integrity; it has a clear internal structure.

The concept of “society” is fundamental to social knowledge. IN Everyday life we use it quite often, saying, for example, “he fell into a bad society” or “these people constitute the elite - high society.” This is the meaning of the word “society” in everyday life. Obviously, the key meaning of this concept is that this is a certain group of people, distinguished by special signs and characteristics.

How is society understood in the social sciences? What is its basis?

Science offers different approaches to solving this issue. One of them is the assertion that the original social cell is living, active people, whose joint activities form society. From this point of view, the individual is the primary particle of society. Based on the above, we can formulate the first definition of society.

Society - is a collection of people carrying out joint activities.

But if society consists of individuals, then the question naturally arises: shouldn’t it be considered as a simple sum of individuals?

Such a formulation of the question casts doubt on the existence of such an independent social reality as society as a whole. Individuals really exist, and society is the fruit of the conclusions of scientists: philosophers, sociologists, historians, etc.

Therefore, in the definition of society, it is not enough to indicate that it consists of individuals; it should also be emphasized that the most important condition for the formation of society is their unity, community, solidarity, and connection between people.

Society is a universal way of organizing social connections, interactions and relationships between people.

According to the degree of generalization, the broad and narrow meaning of the concept “society” are also distinguished. In the widest sense society it could be considered:

A part of the material world that has become isolated from nature in the process of historical development, but is closely connected with it;

The totality of all relationships and interactions of people and their associations;

A product of the joint life activity of people;

Humanity as a whole, taken throughout human history;

The form and method of joint life of people.

"Russian Sociological Encyclopedia" ed. G.V. Osipova gives the following definition of the concept “society”: “ Society - is a relatively stable system of social connections and relations between both large and small groups of people, determined in the process of historical development of mankind, supported by the power of customs, traditions, laws, social institutions, based on a certain method of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material and spiritual benefits."

This definition seems to be a generalization of those particular definitions given above.

Thus, in a narrow sense, this concept means any group of people in size that has common features and characteristics, for example, a society of amateur fishermen, a society of wildlife defenders, an association of surfers, etc. All “small” societies are equally like individuals, they are the “building blocks” of a “big” society.

Society as an integral system. System structure society. Its elements

In modern science, a systematic approach to understanding various phenomena and processes. It arose in natural science, one of its founders was the scientist L. von Bertalanffy. Much later than in the natural sciences, the systems approach was established in social science, according to which society is a complex system. In order to understand this definition, we need to clarify the essence of the concept of “system”.

Signs systems :

1) a certain integrity, commonality of conditions of existence;

2) the presence of a certain structure - elements and subsystems;

3) the presence of communications - connections and relationships between elements of the system;

4) interaction of this system and other systems;

5) qualitative certainty, i.e., a sign that allows one to separate a given system from other systems.

In social sciences, society is characterized as dynamic self-developing system, that is, a system that is capable of seriously changing and at the same time maintaining its essence and qualitative certainty. The dynamism of a social system includes the possibility of change over time, both society as a whole and its individual elements. These changes can be either progressive, progressive in nature, or regressive in nature, leading to degradation or even the complete disappearance of certain elements of society. Dynamic properties are also inherent in the connections and relationships that permeate social life. The essence of changing the world was brilliantly captured by the Greek thinkers Heraclitus and Cratylus. In the words of Heraclitus of Ephesus, “everything flows, everything changes, you cannot step into the same river twice.” Cratylus, complementing Heraclitus, noted that “you cannot enter the same river even once.” People's living conditions are changing, people themselves are changing, the nature of social relations is changing.

A system is also defined as a complex of interacting elements. element, integral part system is called some further indecomposable component that is directly involved in its creation. To analyze complex systems, such as the one that society represents, scientists have developed the concept of “subsystem”. Subsystems called “intermediate” complexes, more complex than the elements, but less complex than the system itself.

Society represents complexsystem, since it includes different types of components: subsystems, which themselves are systems; social institutions, defined as a set of social roles, norms, expectations, social processes.

As subsystems The following spheres of public life are represented:

1) economic(its elements are material production and relations arising in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of goods). This is a life support system, which is a kind of material basis of the social system. In the economic sphere, it is determined what exactly, how and in what quantity is produced, distributed and consumed. Each of us is in one way or another involved in economic relations, plays a specific role in them - the owner, producer, seller or consumer of various goods and services.

2) social(consists of social groups, individuals, their relationships and interactions). In this area, there are significant groups of people who are formed not only by their place in economic life, but also by demographic (gender, age), ethnic (national, racial), political, legal, cultural and other characteristics. In the social sphere, we distinguish social classes, strata, nations, nationalities, various groups united by gender or age. We distinguish people by their level of material well-being, culture, and education.

3) sphere of social management, political(its leading element is the state). Political system of society includes a number of elements, the most important of which is the state: a) institutions, organizations; b) political relations, communications; c) political norms, etc. Basis political system is power.

4) spiritual(covers various forms and levels of social consciousness that give rise to phenomena in the spiritual life of people and culture). Elements of the spiritual sphere - ideology, social psychology, education and upbringing, science, culture, religion, art - are more independent and autonomous than elements of other spheres. For example, the positions of science, art, morality and religion can differ significantly in assessing the same phenomena, and even be in a state of conflict.

Which of the following subsystems is the most significant? Each scientific school gives its own answer to the question posed. Marxism, for example, recognizes the economic sphere as the leading and determining one. Philosopher S. E. Krapivensky notes that “it is the economic sphere, as a basis, that integrates all other subsystems of society into integrity.” However, this is not the only point of view. There are scientific schools that recognize the sphere of spiritual culture as its basis.

Each of the named spheres-subsystems, in turn, is a system in relation to the elements that make it up. All four spheres of public life are interconnected and interdependent. It is difficult to give examples of such phenomena that affect only one of the areas. Thus, great geographical discoveries entailed significant changes in the economy, public life, and culture.

The division of society into spheres is somewhat arbitrary, but it helps to isolate and study individual areas of a truly integral society, diverse and complex social life; recognize various social phenomena, processes, relationships.

An important characteristic of society as a system is its self-sufficiency, understood as the ability of a system to independently create and recreate the conditions necessary for its own existence, as well as to produce everything necessary for human life.

Besides the concept itself systems we often use the definition systemic, trying to emphasize a single, holistic, complex nature any phenomena, events, processes. So, for example, when talking about the last decades in the history of our country, they use such characteristics as “systemic crisis”, “systemic transformations”. Systematic nature of the crisis means that it affects more than one particular area, for example, political, public administration, but covers everything - both economics and social relations, politics, and culture. Same with systematic changes, transformations. At the same time, these processes affect both society as a whole and its individual spheres. The complexity and systematic nature of the problems facing society requires it to systematic approach to find ways to resolve them.

Let us also emphasize that in its life activity society interacts with other systems, primarily with nature. It receives external impulses from nature and in turn influences it.

1.2. Society and nature

Since ancient times important issue in the life of society was its interaction with nature.

Nature - the habitat of society in all the infinite variety of its manifestations, which has its own laws, independent of the will and desires of man. Originally, humans and human communities were an integral part of the natural world. In the process of development, society became isolated from nature, but retained a close connection with it. In ancient times, people were completely dependent on the world around them and did not claim a dominant role on earth. The earliest religions proclaimed the unity of humans, animals, plants, and natural phenomena - people believed that everything in nature has a soul and is connected by family relationships. For example, success in hunting, the harvest, the success of fishing, and ultimately the life and death of a person and the well-being of his tribe depended on the weather.

Gradually, people began to change the world around them for their economic needs - cutting down forests, irrigating deserts, raising domestic animals, building cities. It was as if another nature was created - a special world in which humanity lives and which has its own rules and laws. If some people tried to adapt to them using the surrounding conditions as much as possible, others transformed and adapted nature to their needs.

In modern science, the concept is firmly established environment . Scientists distinguish two types of environment in it - natural and artificial. Nature itself constitutes the first, natural habitat on which man has always depended. In the process of development of human society, the role and importance of the so-called artificial environment increases, “ second nature" which consists of objects created with human participation. These are plants and animals bred thanks to modern scientific capabilities, nature transformed by the efforts of people. Today there are practically no places left on earth where a person would not leave his mark or change something with his intervention.

Nature has always influenced human life. Climate and geographical conditions are all significant factors that determine the development path of a particular region. People living in different natural conditions will differ in their character and way of life.

The interaction between human society and nature has gone through several stages in its development. The place of man in the world around him has changed, and the degree of people’s dependence on natural phenomena has changed. In ancient times, at the dawn of human civilization, people were completely dependent on nature and acted only as consumers of its gifts. The first occupations of people, as we remember from history lessons, were hunting and gathering. Then people did not produce anything themselves, but only consumed what nature produced.

Qualitative changes in the interaction of human society with nature are called technogenic revolutions . Each such revolution, generated by the development of human activity, led to a change in the role of man in nature. The first of these revolutions was revolutionNeolithic, or agricultural. Its result was the emergence of a productive economy, the formation of new types of economic activity of people - cattle breeding and agriculture. With the transition from an appropriating economy to a producing one, people were able to provide themselves with food. Following agriculture and cattle breeding, crafts emerged and trade developed.

The next technological revolution was industrial (industrial) revolution. It began in the Age of Enlightenment. The essence industrial revolution consists in the transition from manual labor to machine labor, in the development of large-scale factory industry, when machines and equipment gradually replace a number of human functions in production. The industrial revolution contributed to the growth and development of large cities - metropolises, the development of new types of transport and communications, and the simplification of contacts between residents of different countries and continents.

Residents of the 20th century witnessed the third man-made revolution. This post-industrial, or information revolution, associated with the emergence of “smart machines” - computers, the development of microprocessor technologies, and electronic communications. The concept of “computerization” has firmly entered into everyday life - the massive use of computers in production and in everyday life. The World Wide Web has emerged, opening up enormous opportunities for searching and obtaining any information. New technologies have significantly facilitated the work of millions of people and led to an increase in labor productivity. For nature, the consequences of this revolution are complex and contradictory.

The first centers of civilization arose in the basins of the great rivers - the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Indus and Ganges, Yangtze and Yellow River. The development of fertile lands, the creation of irrigated farming systems, etc. are experiments in the interaction of human society with nature. The rugged coastline and mountainous terrain of Greece led to the development of trade, crafts, the cultivation of olive trees and vineyards, and, to a much lesser extent, grain production. Since ancient times, nature has influenced the occupations and social structure of people. For example, the organization of irrigation work throughout the country contributed to the formation of despotic regimes and powerful monarchies; crafts and trade, the development of private initiative of individual producers led to the establishment of republican rule in Greece.

With each new stage of development, humanity exploits natural resources more and more comprehensively. Many researchers note the threat of the death of earthly civilization. The French scientist F. San-Marc writes in his work “The Socialization of Nature”: “A four-engine Boeing flying on the Paris-New York route consumes 36 tons of oxygen. The supersonic Concorde uses over 700 kilograms of air per second during takeoff. The world's commercial aviation burns as much oxygen annually as two billion people consume. The world's 250 million cars require as much oxygen as the entire population of the Earth."

While discovering new laws of nature and increasingly intervening in the natural environment, man cannot always clearly determine the consequences of his intervention. Under the influence of humans, the landscapes of the Earth are changing, new zones of deserts and tundras are appearing, forests - the “lungs” of the planet - are being cut down, many species of plants and animals are disappearing or are on the verge of extinction. For example, in an effort to turn steppe plains into fertile fields, people created the threat of desertification of the steppe and destruction of unique steppe zones. There are fewer and fewer unique ecologically clean corners of nature left, which have now become the object of close attention of travel companies.

The appearance of atmospheric ozone holes can lead to changes in the atmosphere itself. Significant damage to nature is caused by the testing of new types of weapons, primarily nuclear weapons. The Chernobyl disaster of 1986 has already shown us what devastating consequences the spread of radiation can lead to. Life almost completely dies where radioactive waste appears.

Russian philosopher I. A. Gobozov emphasizes: “We demand from nature as much as it essentially cannot give without violating its integrity. Modern machines allow us to penetrate into the most distant corners of nature and remove any minerals. We are even ready to imagine that everything is allowed to us in relation to nature, since it cannot offer us serious resistance. So we don't hesitate to invade natural processes, we disrupt their natural course and thereby take them out of balance. Satisfying our selfish interests, we care little about future generations, who will have to face enormous difficulties because of us.”

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