Social relations lecture on social studies. Problematic issues of the “Social Relations” block

Hello colleagues!

I'm finally ready to write this post. The question is relevant and many readers asked me if I would write a similar post, as with.

In general, today I will introduce you to my vision of task No. 4 from the oral part of the Unified State Exam - comparing pictures. If you have any comments, write them in the comments and we’ll discuss them together.

I’ll say right away that the template below is mainly designed for children with a low level of English, but who also need to be prepared for the Unified State Exam, so don’t judge too harshly!

After looking through many publications that talk about the oral part, I decided to create my own template using phrases and cliches from different books. I think this is what many teachers do - they select something average, convenient for memorization!

So, let's take the following task as an example.

Let's take as an example

Task 4. Study the two photographs. In 1.5 minutes be ready to compare and contrast the photographs:
give a brief description of the photos (action, location)
say what the pictures have in common
say in what way the pictures are different
say which of the game presented in the pictures you’d prefer
explain why

Any story should begin with a short introduction.

Introduction

These (Here) are two photos. They are connected with the topic (sport, party, food, family, travelling, weather)

I am going to compare and contrast these two photos (pictures).

Brief description of the photo (no more than 2 phrases for each picture, who is depicted, what they are doing and where they are. Use the Present Continuous)

In the first photo (picture) we can see ...

The second one (picture) shows us (depicts) ...

Let's talk about similarities (it's better to talk about obvious similarities first)

These two photos have a lot in common.

The main similarity between these two photos is ...

Another similarity is...

We talk about the differences (for a successful answer it is desirable to identify at least 2 differences)

However, these photos have some differences.

Firstly, the main difference between two photos is ...

Secondly, in the photo on the left we can see... in the photo on the right ...

Let's talk about our preferences

As for me, I would prefer ... because ...

If it is difficult to justify your answer, you can say something general, for example,

I always wanted to try it
It suits me better
It helps me to...
I like it (I am keen on/enjoy) and I think it"s ...(adjective)

Conclusion

In conclusion, I would like to say…
I hope I have managed to compare and contrast these photos

Well, now let's proceed directly to comparing photographs, using our template phrases and cliches.

These are two photos. They show people playing football in different places. I am going to compare and contrast these two photos.

In the first photo we can see a boy and a girl. They are playing table football in a recreation area. The second one depicts a group of young people. They are playing football on a football pitch.

These two photos have a lot in common. The main similarity between these two photos is the desire to win. Another similarity is the feelings and emotions of players. They are very excited and concentrated.

However, these photos have some differences. Firstly, the photos were taken indoor and outdoor. The second difference is the clothes they are wearing. In the photo on the right the football players have a special uniform. Thirdly, it is the numbers of players.

As for me, I would prefer to play table football because I am keen on this game very much. I think it"s very exciting and I recommend everyone to play it. I"m not a big fan of football. Moreover, it"s hard to run over 90 minutes, especially when it"s cold outside.

I hope I have managed to compare and contrast these photos.

Also, a new product has been released for preparing for the Radislav Milrud Unified State Examination oral exam. English language. Oral part. Practice tests

P.S. You can watch some more tips and examples of comparisons in this video, which you can show to your students. This is one of the options))

Are you taking the Unified State Exam in English? This means that you need to master such a difficult section as speaking, or the oral part. These are tasks C3, C4, C5 and C6 in the Unified State Exam version. It is in these tasks that graduates make the most mistakes.

We have prepared for you two real Unified State Exam tests in English and examples of how to perform these tests. Each of them contains 4 tasks. On this page - Test 1

Task C3 - reading.

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Task 1. Imagine that you are preparing a project with your friend. You have found some interesting material for the presentation and you want to read this text to your friend. You have 1.5 minutes to read the text silently, then be ready to read it out aloud. You will not have more than 1.5 minutes to read it.

Many lands that had once been swamps were drained or filled in. There are different reasons why people drained swamplands. Some were drained to fight diseases caused by insects that lived in them. Because swamps were considered unpleasant places in which to live and harmful to health, many people thought that unless they were drained the land was worthless.

Other swamps were drained to make new land. As the population grew and more land was needed, people drained swamps or filled them to make room for more farms and factories, more roads and airports.

Few people thought that it might be harmful to get rid of swamps. As swamps disappeared, other things happened. There were both more floods and more droughts than before. There were also more fires, for swamps had acted as firebreaks. Hunters noticed that there was less wild game. Wild life that once lived in the swamps was dying out, because it had no place to live.

Task C4 – make up questions.

Task 2. Study the advertisement.
You are going to visit Japan this summer and you’d like to have more information about the flights to Japan. In 1.5 minutes you are to ask five questions to find out the following:

1) departure dates
2) travel time
3) return ticket price
4) discounts for students
5) buying the ticket online
You have 20 seconds to ask each question.

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Example of completing a task:
1. What are the days of departures? (What are departure dates?)
2. How long will it take to travel?
3. How much does the return ticket cost? (What is the price of the return ticket?,
How much is the return ticket?)
4. Do you offer any discounts for students? (Are there any discounts for students available?)
5. Is it possible to book the ticket online?

Task C5 – description of one picture.

Task 3. Imagine that you are showing pictures of your pets to your friend. Choose one photo to present to your friend. You will have to start speaking in 1.5 minutes and will speak for not more than 2 minutes. You have to talk continuously. In your talk remember to speak about:
when you took the photo
what/who is in the photo
what is happening
why you took the photo
why you decided to show the picture to your friend
Don’t forget to start with “I have chosen photo number...”

Example of completed task C5:

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I have chosen photo number 1.
To begin with, people keep pets for different reasons. They make our lives more exciting and become the members of our family. They can also be our closest friends forever.

I took this photo last summer in our country house. We have got several pets and this dog is among them. All our pets are friendly and cute creatures.
Let me tell you a few words about this photo. In the background you can see a wonderful Russian landscape. In the foreground there is a wonderful lawn framed with lovely birches and bushes. In the center you can see my elder sister Sveta and our dog Snowflake. We called him so because he is as white and fluffy as snow.
The weather is fine, sunny and warm. Snowflake likes to go for a walk very much. In the photo Sveta is telling him something to keep him calm. You can’t see me as I am taking the photo.
Taking this photo I wanted to start a collection of our pets’ pictures and to display it on the wall in our living room. Besides, the photos will always remind us of our pets.
I decided to show this picture to you because you told me a lot about your dog. Now it’s my turn to give you the first impression of my pet. Isn’t he friendly and cute?
I believe when you come to our place, Snowflake will accept you as his best friend.
That is all I wanted to tell you about this photo.

Task C6 – comparing and contrasting two photographs.

Task 4. Study the two photographs. In 1.5 minutes be ready to compare and contrast the photographs:
Give a brief description (action, location)
say what the pictures have in common
say in what way the pictures are different
say which kind of life you’d prefer
explain why

You will speak for not more than 2 minutes. You have to talk continuously.

Example of completed task C6:

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In our modern world some jobs are very important for our society.
Here are two pictures to compare and contrast on the topic. This is a photo of a man doing his job outside and that is a photo of a policeman standing on the side of the road.
These two pictures show jobs and this is the first similarity. The people in both pictures are wearing uniforms, and that is also what these pictures have in common. The weather is rather warm.
However, the pictures are somehow different. The main difference is that in picture one we can see a worker, while in picture two there is a traffic policeman. Also, their actions are different: the worker is paving a sidewalk and the policeman is on duty watching the traffic on the road.
As far as I am concerned, the job of a traffic policeman (cop) is more important for the society because people of this profession are responsible for our safety and order on the roads. Besides, they control all drivers to keep and obey traffic rules. It is very important for all drivers and passengers’ lives.
I’ve come to the end of my speaking. Thank you for listening.

Features of the social status of young people:
- transitional position;
- high level of mobility;
- mastering new social roles (employee, student, citizen, family man) associated with changes in status;
- active search for your place in life;
- favorable professional and career prospects;
- mental instability, susceptibility to influence, internal inconsistency;
- low level of tolerance;
- the desire to show one’s individuality, which contributes to the emergence of a youth subculture and informal groups.
Ethnic groups are large groups of people who have a common culture, language, and awareness of a common historical destiny. The stages of development of ethnic communities are clan, tribe, nationality and nation.
A nation is the historically highest stage of development or form of an ethnic group, characterized by compactness of residence, unity of economic life, historical path, language, culture, and national identity.

An interethnic conflict is a complication of relations between nations and peoples, up to and including direct military action.
Depending on the causes and nature of origin, interethnic conflicts are:
. socio-economic (unemployment, delays and non-payment of wages, social benefits, monopoly of representatives of one of the ethnic groups in spheres or sectors of the economy);
. cultural and linguistic (related to the protection, revival and development of the native language, national culture and the rights of national minorities);
. ethnodemographic (increase in the share of the newcomer population due to migration);
. ethno-territorial-status (non-coincidence of state or administrative borders with the boundaries of settlement of peoples, demands of small nations to expand or acquire a new status);
. historical (relationships in the past - wars, deportations and associated negative aspects of historical memory, etc.);
. interreligious and interfaith;
. separatist (demand to create their own independent statehood or reunite with a neighboring state related from a cultural and historical point of view).
The cause of interethnic conflicts can be any thoughtless or deliberately provocative statements by politicians, national leaders, representatives of the clergy, the media, or domestic incidents.

Principles for resolving interethnic conflicts in modern conditions:

renunciation of violence and coercion;

seeking consensus based on the agreement of all participants;

recognition of human rights and freedoms as the most important value;

readiness for a peaceful resolution of controversial issues.

Types of interethnic relations: - ethnic mixing of different ethnic groups and the emergence of a new ethnic group (Latin America);
- assimilation - the merging of one people with another with the loss of one of their language, culture, national identity;
- acculturation - mutual adaptation of different cultures, joint coexistence, borrowing of individual elements, in most cases with the dominance of the culture of a more highly developed people.
Nationalism is an ideology and policy direction, the fundamental principle of which is the thesis about the value of the nation as the highest form of social unity and its primacy in the state-forming process. This is the exaltation of one nation at the expense of the infringement of the rights of others, the dictatorship of one nation over others.
Types of nationalism: 1) ethnic; 2) sovereign-state; 3) household.
Chauvinism is an extreme, aggressive form of nationalism.
Discrimination is the derogation (actually or legally) of the rights of any group of citizens based on their nationality, race, gender, religion.
Segregation is a policy of forced separation of a population group based on race or ethnicity, one of the forms of racial discrimination.
Apartheid is an extreme form of racial discrimination, the deprivation of certain groups of the population, depending on their race, of political, socio-economic and civil rights, up to and including territorial isolation. Modern international law considers apartheid a crime against humanity.
Genocide is the gravest crime against humanity, the extermination of certain groups of the population on racial, national, ethnic or religious grounds, as well as the deliberate creation of living conditions designed to bring about the complete or partial physical destruction of these groups.
National policy is also a purposeful activity to regulate ethnopolitical processes, it is a system of measures aimed at updating and further evolutionary development of the national life of all peoples of Russia within the framework of a federal state, as well as at creating equal relations between the peoples of the country, the formation of democratic mechanisms for resolving national and interethnic problems.
The documents defining national policy in our country are the Constitution of the Russian Federation, as well as the “Concept of National Policy of the Russian Federation” adopted in 1996. The main directions of national policy in the Russian Federation: - development of federal relations that ensure a harmonious combination of the independence of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and the integrity of the Russian Federation states;
- development of national cultures and languages of the peoples of the Russian Federation, strengthening the spiritual community of Russians;
- ensuring political and legal protection of small peoples and national minorities;
- achieving and maintaining stability, lasting interethnic peace and harmony in the North Caucasus;
- support for compatriots living in member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States, as well as in the Republics of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, promoting the development of their ties with Russia. Basic principles of national policy in Russia

Equality of rights and freedoms of a person and citizen, regardless of his gender, race, nationality, language, attitude to religion, membership in social groups and public associations.
Prohibition of any form of restriction of the rights of citizens on the basis of social, racial, national, linguistic or religious affiliation.
Preservation of the integrity and inviolability of the territory of the Russian Federation.
Equality of all subjects of the Russian Federation in relations with federal government bodies.
Guaranteeing the rights of indigenous peoples in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, generally recognized principles and norms of international law and international treaties of the Russian Federation.
The right of every citizen to determine and indicate his nationality without any coercion.
Promoting the development of national cultures and languages of the peoples of Russia.
Timely and peaceful resolution of contradictions and conflicts.
Prohibition of activities aimed at undermining the security of the state, inciting social, racial, national and religious hatred, hatred or enmity.
Protecting the rights and interests of citizens of the Russian Federation outside its borders, supporting compatriots living in foreign countries in preserving and developing their native language, culture and national traditions, in strengthening their ties with their homeland in accordance with international law.

Social conflict is a clash of opposing goals, positions, opinions and views of people participating in social interaction.
The participants in the conflict are called the subjects of the conflict:
— witnesses are people observing the conflict from the outside;
— instigators are those who push other participants into conflict;
— accomplices are people who contribute to the development of the conflict with advice, technical assistance or other means;
- Mediators are people who, through their actions, try to prevent, stop or resolve a conflict.
The issue or benefit over which the conflict flares up is the subject of the conflict.
The cause of the conflict is the objective circumstances that predetermine the emergence of the conflict and is associated with the needs of the conflicting parties.
The reason for the conflict is a minor incident that contributes to the emergence of a conflict, but the conflict itself may not develop; it can be either accidental or specially created.
Contradiction is a fundamental incompatibility, inconsistency of important political, economic, social, ethnic interests.

Types of contradictions:

1) internal contradictions originate in the clash of intragroup, intraorganizational and other interests of participants in small social groups;
2) external contradictions arise between two or more social systems;
3) antagonistic - irreconcilably hostile contradictions - underlie the conflict in which its subjects pursue opposing interests. It is possible to reconcile the subjects of such a conflict only temporarily, by postponing the conflict, but not resolving it;
4) non-antagonistic contradictions take place between the subjects of the conflict, whose interests can be reconciled, i.e. this type of contradiction implies the possibility of compromise through mutual concessions;
5) the main contradictions determine the emergence and dynamics of the conflict, characterize the interaction between its main subjects;
6) minor contradictions accompany the conflict; as a rule, they are associated with secondary subjects of the conflict;
7) objective contradictions are caused by phenomena and processes that do not depend on the will and consciousness of people, therefore it is impossible to eliminate these contradictions without eliminating their very cause;
8) subjective contradictions are caused by the will and consciousness of people: they are associated with the specific character, differences in behavior, worldview, and value orientations.
Contradiction necessarily underlies any conflict and manifests itself in social tension - a feeling of dissatisfaction with the state of affairs and readiness to change it. But the contradiction may not develop into a conflict.
Social conflict is the highest stage of development of contradictions in the system of relations between people, social groups, social institutions, and society as a whole, which is characterized by open opposition and a clash of opposing interests of communities and individuals.

Basic approaches to understanding the essence of social conflicts

Conflict is a clash between the constantly renewed content of life and outdated, outdated forms of culture.

Social conflict is caused by the struggle for existence, which, in turn, is determined by the limited amount of vital resources.

There is a constant conflict between the productive forces and production relations, which, as technology and productive forces develop, becomes increasingly acute until it leads to a change in the method of production. Class struggle, class conflict are the driving force of history, giving rise to social revolutions, as a result of which society moves to a higher level of development.

The conflict is of a value nature. The struggle between social structures, their defense of their social statuses, their lifestyles and values stabilizes society.

Causes of social conflicts: - social heterogeneity of society, the presence of opposing values;
— differences in levels of income, culture, social prestige, access to education, information, power;
- religious differences;
— human behavior, his socio-psychological traits (temperament, intelligence, general culture). Main stages of the conflict 1. Conflict situation - the parties are aware of the existing emotional tension, strive to overcome it, understand the causes of the conflict, evaluate their capabilities; choosing a method of influencing the enemy.
2. The conflict itself is distrust and lack of respect for the enemy; consent is impossible. The presence of an incident (or reason), i.e., social actions aimed at changing the behavior of rivals, open and hidden actions.
3. Conflict resolution - ending the incident, eliminating the causes of the conflict. Types of social conflicts: . by duration: long-term; short-term; one-time; protracted; repetitive;
. by volume: global; national; local; regional; group; personal;
. by source of occurrence: objective; subjective; false;
. by means used: violent; non-violent;
. by shape: internal; external;
. by influence on the course of development of society: progressive; regressive;
. by the nature of development: intentional; spontaneous;
. by spheres of public life: economic (production); political; ethnic; family and household. Ways to resolve social conflicts: - compromise - solving a problem through mutual concessions of the parties;
- negotiations - a peaceful conversation between both parties to resolve the problem;
- mediation - the use of a third party in solving a problem in absentia;
- arbitration - an appeal to a government authority vested with special powers for help in solving a problem;
- the use of force, authority, law - the unilateral use of power or force by the side that considers itself stronger. Ways out of conflicts: - restoration - the return of society to previous forms of social life, social institutions that continue to exist taking into account the new situation;
- non-interference (waiting) - the hope that “everything will work out by itself.” This is the path of delaying and delaying reforms, “treading water”;
- renewal - an active way out of the conflict by discarding, abandoning the old, developing the new.
Social norms are general rules, patterns that establish social behavior approved by society and sanctions for violating them. Social norms develop historically and naturally. They are consolidated and reproduced in the relationships and acts necessary for society.

Option 1

Part A

A1. An element of the social structure of society is

1) estate 2) party 3) enterprise 4) army

A2. Almost a third of US presidents come from poor or middle-class families. This example is a manifestation

A3. Are the following statements about the essence of social control true?

A. Social control is a special mechanism for maintaining social order.

B. Norms and sanctions are elements of social control

A4. A civilized approach to solving national problems involves

A5. Economic differentiation manifests itself in

1) merging of political power and big capital

2) distinguishing the rich, poor and middle strata of society

3) the emergence of new sources of income for certain groups.

4) creation of new industries

A6. Aesthetic standards

1) are enshrined in state legislation

2) are provided by the power of state coercion

3) based on belief in supernatural forces

4) reinforce the idea of beauty and ugliness

A7. What characterizes a traditional (patriarchal) family?

1) the dominant position of the father of the family 2) the increasing role of women in the family

3) mutual respect between spouses 4) active participation of women in social production

A 8. A social group whose members have rights and responsibilities that are inherited

1) nation 2) estate 3) class 4) nomenclature

A9. How do moral norms differ from legal norms?

1) moral norms arose later than legal norms

2) legal norms do not exist in written form

3) moral standards reflect ideas about good and evil

4) moral standards are established and supported by the state

A10. One of the conditions for the emergence of a nation is

1) development of economic and cultural ties between close peoples

2) growth in the level of education of the population

3) increased birth rate

4) formation of the rule of law

A11. Children, youth, men are social communities distinguished by

1) territorial characteristics 2) ethnic characteristics 3) demographic characteristics

4) professional characteristics

A12. Deviant behavior is always

1) causes harm to society 2) causes harm to the individual 3) violates the rule of law

4) does not correspond to social norms

Part B

Q1 Write down the word missing in the diagram:

Answer: ______________________________

AT 2 . Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, relate to the concept of “social institution”. Find and indicate terms that “fall out” from this series and relate to another concept.

Religion, state, education, applicants, family, industry, friends.

Part C

Test on the topic “Social structure, social relations”

Option 2

A1. Attitude towards property, the amount of income, the factor of using power - these are signs

1) ethnic group 2) nation 3) race 4) class

A2. The rules established in society, patterns of expected behavior of people are called

1) social status 2) social mobility 3) social norm 4) social order

A3. Choose the correct statement

1) in the history of society there were different types of families

2) family relations are not regulated by law

3) a modern family includes all relatives

4) family relationships are not regulated by moral norms

A4. A small social group can be classified as

1) believers of Russia 2) people of liberal views 3) women of Moscow 4) a team of workers

A5. Ascending vertical social mobility refers to

1) promotion 2) entrepreneurial activity 3) demotion

4) retirement

A6. Deviant behavior always violates

1) legal norms 2) moral norms 3) social norms 4) customs and traditions

A7. One of the signs of a nation is

1) presence of a constitution 2) common historical path 3) common citizenship 4) common ideology

A8. Among the rich people of Ancient Rome (2nd-1st centuries BC) there were often former slaves. This is an example of manifestation

1) horizontal social mobility 2) vertical social mobility

3) social stratification 4) social adaptation

A9. The power of the state ensures norms

1) moral 2) legal 3) aesthetic 4) religious

A10. A small group based on marriage or consanguinity, whose members are connected by a common life and mutual responsibility, is

1) clan 2) class 3) family 4) elite

A11. A civilized approach to solving national problems involves

1) renunciation of national violence in all its forms

2) providing military assistance to the separatists

3) a course towards weakening multinational states

4) support for all forms of people’s struggle for self-determination

A12. The son provides financial assistance to his mother living with him, who receives a disability pension. This is the function of the family

1) economic 2) leisure 3) emotional-psychological 4) social-status

Part B

IN 1. Write down the word missing in the diagram

Answer: _________________________

AT 2. Below is a list of social groups. All of them, with the exception of two, are formed along religious lines. Find and indicate terms that “fall out” from this series and relate to another concept.

Orthodox, revisionists, Muslims, Protestants, Conservatives, Catholics.

AT 3. Find in the list below what relates to the phenomenon of “subculture” and circle the numbers under which they are indicated and write in ascending order.

1) belonging to a certain social group

2) a set of norms and values of the criminal layer of society

3) the invariability of the value orientations of its bearer throughout life

4) connection with traditional national culture

5) addressing the most diverse segments of the population

Answer _____________

AT 4. Read the text below, each position of which is numbered.

(1) 1503 boys and girls over 18 years old took part in the study. (2) They were asked various questions about marriage, divorce and raising children. (3) Every second respondent claimed that early marriages often end in divorce. (4) In our opinion, such marriages destabilize society and exacerbate the crisis of family values.

Determine which provisions of the text are

A) factual nature B) nature of value judgments C) nature of theoretical statements

Under the position number, write down the letter indicating its nature. Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer form.

AT 5. Read the text below, in which a number of words are missing,

“In society, norms perform a number of important functions. First, they contribute to social _______ (1) (i.e. maintaining cohesion in society). Secondly, they serve as a kind of ________ (2) behavior, a kind of instructions for individuals performing separate roles and social ________ (3). Thirdly, they contribute to _______ (4)

for deviant behavior. Fourthly, they provide ________ (5) to society. Based on the nature of regulation of social behavior, norms are distinguished - expectations and norms-________ (6) ... Norms belonging to the second group are more stringent. Violation of such norms entails the application of serious _______ (7), for example, criminal or administrative.”

Select from the list of words that need to be inserted in place of the spaces. The words in the list are given in the nominative case. Remembering that there are more words in the list than you will need to fill in the gaps, choose one word after another, mentally filling in each gap with words.

A) sanction D) ideal G) rule K) development

B) groups D) control H) management

B) integration E) standard I) stability

Please note that the gaps are numbered. The table below shows the pass numbers. Under each number, write down the letter corresponding to the word you chose.

Part C

C1. Read the text and complete the tasks:

Family structures are falling apart all over the world. Divorce rates are rising in both the developed and underdeveloped world, as is the number of female-headed households.

Family values are threatened not by government programs that interfere with the formation of families (although there are such programs), or by media programs that denigrate the family (although there are such programs); they are threatened by the economic system itself. This system simply does not allow families to exist in the old way, with the father providing most of the earnings and the mother doing most of the work of raising the children. The middle class family with one breadwinner is no more.

Social relations are not determined by economics - there can be many possibilities at the same time - but whatever these relations are, they must be compatible with economic reality. Traditional family relationships are not like that. As a consequence, the family as an institution is in the process of change and is under pressure. The point here is not about “character formation,” but about stubborn economic egoism or, more precisely, an unwillingness to subordinate one’s own interests to the interests of the family. Economic reality has forced us to reconsider the basic issues of family organization.

2. The interaction of what spheres of society’s life does the author reveal using the example of a family? What, in the author's opinion, is the nature of this interaction?

3. Why is the traditional patriarchal family becoming a thing of the past? Based on the text of the source and involving social science knowledge, indicate three reasons.

C2 Choose any one statement and write an essay.

1 “Man is a being who rushes towards the future and is aware that he is projecting himself into the future” (J.P. Sartre).

2 “It is easy to preach morality, but it is difficult to justify it” (A. Schopenhauer).

3 “The lack of a sense of national dignity is as disgusting as the other extreme - nationalism.” (I.N. Shevelev)

4 “People exist for each other” (Marcus Aurelius)

5 “One is born as an individual, one becomes an individual, one defends individuality” (A.G. Asmolov)

6. “The formation of the achieved status is carried out through each individual’s own talent, choice or activity.” (M. Young).

7. “Marginality is the result of a conflict with social norms” (A. Fargeau).

8. “Everyone wants to be the exception to the rule, and there is no exception to this rule” (M. Forbes)

9 “The mass is a multitude of people without special merits.” (H. Ortega y Gaset).

10. Man does what he is and becomes what he does.” (R.Muzil)

Test on the topic “Social structure, social relations”

Option 3

A1. One of the manifestations of social inequality is the difference in

1) income 2) abilities 3) temperament 4) spiritual needs

A2. Are the following statements true?

A. In social norms, people see standards, models, and standards of proper behavior.

B. Aesthetic standards are reflected in laws, international treaties, political principles, and moral standards.

1) only A is true 2) only B is true 3) both A and B are true 4) both judgments are false

A3. Family functions include

1) socialization of the individual 2) determination of the minimum wage

3) establishing a school education system 4) determining the amount of utility bills

A4. Social groups identified on a settlement (territorial) basis include

1) nationality 2) nation 3) townspeople 4) class

A5. Social norms that reflect people's ideas about good and evil are called -

1) customs 2) moral standards 3) aesthetic standards 4) traditions

A6. Are the following statements about self-control correct?

A. External control methods used too frequently can inhibit the development of self-control.

B. Conscience is one of the mechanisms of self-control.

1) only A is true 2) only B is true 3) both A and B are true 4) both judgments are false

A7. Are the following statements true? Interethnic cooperation promotes

A. Development of national culture

B. Overcoming national limitations

1) only A is true 2) only B is true 3) both A and B are true 4) both judgments are false

A8. The fact that representatives of different social strata receive unequal incomes reflects differentiation

1) economic 2) political 3) professional 4) demographic

1) following fashion 2) conformity 3) crime 4) stamp collecting

A10. A democratic (partnership) family, in contrast to a patriarchal (traditional) family, is characterized by

1) cohabitation of at least three generations

2) fair division of household responsibilities

3) the economic dependence of a woman on a man

4) the dominant role of men in the family

A12. The family, unlike other small groups, is characterized

1) high political activity 2) common life 3) common hobbies

4) professional growth

Part B

Q 1. Write down the word missing in the diagram

Answer: ________________________

AT 2. Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of one, relate to the concept of “social norm”. Find and indicate a term that “falls out” from this series and relates to another concept.

Social control, sanction, deviant behavior, social structure, self-control.

Answer _____________________________

AT 3. Find in the list below the manifestations of the economic function of the family and write down the numbers under which they are indicated in ascending order.

1) training children in labor skills 2) material support for loved ones

3) distribution of household labor 4) granting hereditary status

5) leisure activities 6) family entrepreneurship

AT 4. Read the text below, each position of which is numbered.

Determine which provisions of the text are

A) factual nature B) nature of value judgments C) nature of theoretical statements

Under the position number, write down the letter indicating its nature. Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer form.

AT 5. Read the text below, in which a number of words are missing.

“The presence of significant psychological _______ (1) between men and women in itself does not raise any doubts. However, empirical data on this matter, despite the huge number of _______ (2), are insufficient and often contradictory. Perceptions of gender are significantly influenced by common ________(3). Women, in the minds of men, and often women themselves, must first of all successfully fulfill the role traditionally attributed to them_______(4) of “housewife”, “hearth keeper”, etc. Men should engage in professional work, which guarantees them high social _________(5) and allows them to ensure the level and quality of life of their families. In fact, the gender-role division ________ (6) has lost its former rigidity, the relationships between men and women in the family and at work have become, in principle, equal.”

Select from the list below the words that need to be inserted in the gaps. The words in the list are given in the nominative singular. Keep in mind that there are more words in the list than you need to select.

Select one word after another, mentally filling in each gap with words.

A) research B) difference C) work D) communication E) teaching E) stereotype G) role 3) status I) group

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer form.

Part C

C1. Read the text and complete the tasks:

Family structures are falling apart all over the world. Divorce rates are rising in both the developed and underdeveloped world, as is the number of female-headed households.

2. The interaction of what spheres of society’s life does the author reveal using the example of a family? What, in the author's opinion, is the nature of this interaction?

3. Why is the traditional patriarchal family becoming a thing of the past? Based on the text of the source and involving social science knowledge, indicate three reasons.

C2 Choose any one statement and write an essay.

1 “Man is a being who rushes towards the future and is aware that he is projecting himself into the future” (J.P. Sartre).

2 “It is easy to preach morality, but it is difficult to justify it” (A. Schopenhauer).

3 “The lack of a sense of national dignity is as disgusting as the other extreme - nationalism.” (I.N. Shevelev)

4 “People exist for each other” (Marcus Aurelius)

5 “One is born as an individual, one becomes an individual, one defends individuality” (A.G. Asmolov)

6. “The formation of the achieved status is carried out through each individual’s own talent, choice or activity.” (M. Young).

7. “Marginality is the result of a conflict with social norms” (A. Fargeau).

8. “Everyone wants to be the exception to the rule, and there is no exception to this rule” (M. Forbes)

9 “The mass is a multitude of people without special merits.” (H. Ortega y Gaset).

10. Man does what he is and becomes what he does.” (R.Muzil)

Social (stratification) structure is understood as the stratification and hierarchical organization of various layers of society, as well as the set of institutions and the relationships between them The term “stratification” comes from the Latin word stratum - layers, layer. Strata are large groups of people who differ in their position in the social structure of society.

All scientists agree that the basis of the stratification structure of society is the natural and social inequality of people. However, on the question of what exactly is the criterion for this inequality, their opinions differ. Studying the process of stratification in society, K. Marx called such a criterion the fact of a person’s possession of property and the level of his income. M. Weber added to them social prestige and the subject’s affiliation with political parties and power. Pitirim Sorokin considered the cause of stratification to be the uneven distribution of rights and privileges, responsibilities and duties in society. He also argued that social space has many other criteria for differentiation: it can be carried out by citizenship, occupation, nationality, religious affiliation, etc. Finally, supporters of the theory of structural functionalism proposed as a criterion to rely on those social functions that are performed by certain social strata in society.

Historically, stratification, that is, inequality in income, power, prestige, etc., arises with the birth of human society. With the advent of the first states, it becomes tougher, and then, in the process of development of society (primarily European), it gradually softens.

In sociology, there are four main types of social stratification - slavery, castes, estates and classes. The first three characterize closed societies, and the last type - open ones.

The first system of social stratification is slavery, which arose in ancient times and still persists in some backward regions. There are two forms of slavery: patriarchal, in which the slave has all the rights of the youngest member of the family, and classical, in which the slave has no rights and is considered the property of the owner (a talking tool). Slavery was based on direct violence, and social groups during the era of slavery were distinguished by the presence or absence of civil rights.

The second system of social stratification should be recognized as the caste system. A caste is a social group (stratum) in which membership is transferred to a person only by birth. A person's transition from one caste to another during his lifetime is impossible - for this he needs to be born again. A classic example of a caste society is India. In India there are four main castes, which, according to legend, originated from different parts of the god Brahma:

a) brahmins - priests;

b) kshatriyas - warriors;

c) vaishyas - merchants;

d) Shudras - peasants, artisans, workers.

A special position is occupied by the so-called untouchables, who do not belong to any caste and occupy a lower position.

The next form of stratification consists of estates. An estate is a group of people that has rights and responsibilities enshrined in law or custom that are inherited. Usually in society there are privileged and unprivileged classes. For example, in Western Europe, the first group included the nobility and clergy (in France they were called that way - the first estate and the second estate) and the second group included artisans, merchants and peasants. In Russia before 1917, in addition to the privileged (nobility, clergy) and unprivileged (peasantry), there were also semi-privileged classes (for example, the Cossacks).

Finally, another stratification system is class. The most complete definition of classes in the scientific literature was given by V.I. Lenin: “Classes are large groups of people that differ in their place in a historically defined system of social production, in their relationship (mostly fixed and formalized in laws) to the means of production, in their role in the social organization of labor, and, consequently, according to the methods of obtaining and the size of the share of social wealth that they have.” The class approach is often contrasted with the stratification approach, although in fact class division is only a special case of social stratification.

Depending on the historical period in society, the following classes are distinguished as the main ones:

a) slaves and slave owners;

b) feudal lords and feudal-dependent peasants;

c) the bourgeoisie and the proletariat;

d) the so-called middle class.

Since any social structure is a collection of all functioning social communities taken in their interaction, the following elements can be distinguished in it:

a) ethnic structure (clan, tribe, nationality, nation);

b) demographic structure (groups are distinguished by age and gender);

c) settlement structure (urban residents, rural residents, etc.);

d) class structure (bourgeoisie, proletariat, peasants, etc.);

e) vocational and educational structure.

In the most general form, in modern society three stratification levels can be distinguished: highest, middle and lowest. In economically developed countries, the second level is predominant, giving society a certain stability. In turn, within each level there is also a hierarchically ordered set of various social strata. A person who occupies a certain place in this structure has the opportunity to move from one level to another, increasing or decreasing his social status, or from one group located at a certain level to another, located at the same level. This transition is called social mobility.

Social mobility sometimes leads to the fact that some people find themselves at the junction of certain social groups, while experiencing serious psychological difficulties. Their intermediate position is largely determined by their inability or unwillingness, for whatever reason, to adapt to one of the interacting social groups. This phenomenon of a person being, as it were, between two cultures, associated with his movement in social space, is called marginality. A marginal is an individual who has lost his former social status, is deprived of the opportunity to engage in his usual activities and, moreover, has found himself unable to adapt to the new sociocultural environment of the stratum within which he formally exists. The individual value system of such people is so stable that it cannot be replaced by new norms, principles, and rules. Their behavior is characterized by extremes: they are either overly passive or very aggressive, easily transgress moral standards and are capable of unpredictable actions. Among the marginalized there may be ethnomarginals - people who found themselves in a foreign environment as a result of migration; political marginals - people who are not satisfied with legal opportunities and legitimate rules of socio-political struggle: religious marginals - people who are outside the confession or who do not dare to make a choice between them, etc.

The qualitative changes taking place in the economic basis of modern Russian society have entailed serious changes in its social structure. The currently emerging social hierarchy is characterized by inconsistency, instability and a tendency to significant changes. The highest stratum (elite) today can include representatives of the state apparatus, as well as owners of large capital, including their top - financial oligarchs. The middle class in modern Russia includes representatives of the entrepreneurial class, as well as knowledge workers, highly qualified managers (managers). Finally, the lower stratum consists of workers of various professions engaged in medium and low-skilled work, as well as clerical workers and public sector workers (teachers and doctors in state and municipal institutions). It should be noted that the process of social mobility between these levels in Russia is limited, which may become one of the prerequisites for future conflicts in society.

In the process of changing the social structure of modern Russian society, the following trends can be identified:

1) social polarization, i.e. stratification into rich and poor, deepening social and property differentiation;

2) massive downward social mobility;

3) massive change of place of residence by knowledge workers (the so-called “brain drain”).

In general, we can say that the main criteria that determine a person’s social position in modern Russia and his belonging to one or another stratification level are either the size of his wealth or his affiliation with power structures.

2. Personal and social status of a person. Social roles

Status - it is a specific position in the social structure of a group or society, connected to other positions through a system of rights and responsibilities.

Sociologists distinguish two types of status: personal and acquired. Personal status is the position of a person that he occupies in the so-called small, or primary, group, depending on how his individual qualities are assessed in it. On the other hand, in the process of interaction with other individuals, each person performs certain social functions that determine his social status.

Social status is the general position of an individual or social group in society, associated with a certain set of rights and obligations. Social statuses can be prescribed and acquired (achieved). The first category includes nationality, place of birth, social origin, etc., the second - profession, education, etc.

In any society there is a certain hierarchy of statuses, which represents the basis of its stratification. Certain statuses are prestigious, others are the opposite. Prestige is society’s assessment of the social significance of a particular status, enshrined in culture and public opinion. This hierarchy is formed under the influence of two factors:

a) the real usefulness of the social functions that a person performs;

b) a value system characteristic of a given society.

If the prestige of any statuses is unreasonably overestimated or, conversely, underestimated, it is usually said that there is a loss of status balance. A society in which there is a similar tendency to lose this balance is unable to ensure its normal functioning. Authority must be distinguished from prestige. Authority is the degree to which society recognizes the dignity of an individual, a particular person.

The social status of an individual primarily influences his behavior. Knowing the social status of a person, you can easily determine most of the qualities that he possesses, as well as predict the actions that he will carry out. Such expected behavior of a person, associated with the status that he has, is usually called a social role. A social role actually represents a certain pattern of behavior recognized as appropriate for people of a given status in a given society. In fact, the role provides a model showing exactly how an individual should act in a given situation. Roles vary in degree of formalization: some are very clearly defined, for example in military organizations, others are very vague. A social role can be assigned to a person either formally (for example, in a legislative act), or it can also be of an informal nature.

Any individual is a reflection of the totality of social relations of his era. Therefore, each person has not one but a whole set of social roles that he plays in society. Their combination is called the role system. Such a variety of social roles can cause internal conflict of the individual (if some of the social roles contradict each other).

Scientists offer various classifications of social roles. Among the latter, as a rule, there are the so-called main (basic) social roles. These include:

a) the role of a worker;

b) the role of the owner;

c) the role of the consumer;

d) the role of a citizen;

d) the role of a family member.

However, despite the fact that the behavior of an individual is largely determined by the status that he occupies and the roles that he plays in society, he (the individual) nevertheless retains his autonomy and has a certain freedom of choice. And although in modern society there is a tendency towards unification and standardization of personality, its complete leveling, fortunately, does not occur. An individual has the opportunity to choose from a variety of social statuses and roles offered to him by society, those that allow him to better realize his plans and use his abilities as effectively as possible. A person’s acceptance of a particular social role is influenced by both social conditions and his biological and personal characteristics (health status, gender, age, temperament, etc.). Any role prescription outlines only a general pattern of human behavior, offering the choice of ways for the individual to carry it out.

In the process of achieving a certain status and fulfilling the corresponding social role, a so-called role conflict may arise. Role conflict is a situation in which a person is faced with the need to satisfy the demands of two or more incompatible roles.

3. Social mobility

Social mobility is the movement of individuals or social groups from one position in the hierarchy of social stratification to another.

Sociologists distinguish several types of social mobility. First, depending on the reason for the movement, a distinction is made between mobility caused by the voluntary movement of individuals within the social hierarchy of society and mobility dictated by structural changes occurring in society. An example of the latter could be social mobility caused by the industrialization process: one of the consequences of the industrialization process was an increase in the number of people in working professions and a decrease in the number of people engaged in agricultural production. Secondly, mobility can be intergenerational and intragenerational. Intergenerational mobility refers to the movement of children to a higher or lower level compared to their parents. Within the framework of intragenerational mobility, the same individual changes his social position several times throughout his life. Finally, individual and group mobility are distinguished. They talk about individual mobility when movements within society occur for one person independently of others. With group mobility, movements occur collectively (for example, after the bourgeois revolution, the feudal class cedes its dominant position to the bourgeois class).

The reasons that allow a person to move from one social group to another are called social mobility factors. Sociologists identify several such factors.

The first factor in social mobility is education. It played a decisive role in the process of social mobility in some ancient states. In particular, in China only a person who passed a special exam could apply for a government post.

An important factor in social mobility is also the social status of the family to which a person belongs. Many families, in various ways - from marriages to business support - help promote their members to higher strata.

The level and nature of social mobility is influenced by the social structure: in an open society, unlike a closed society, there are no formal restrictions on mobility and almost no informal ones. In a closed society, mobility is limited both quantitatively and qualitatively.

Another factor facilitating social mobility is changes occurring in the technology of social production: they lead to the emergence of new professions that require high qualifications and significant training. These professions are better paid and more prestigious.

In addition to economic changes, the strengthening of the process of social mobility can also be facilitated by social upheavals, for example, wars and revolutions, which, as a rule, lead to a change in the elite of society.

As an additional factor of social mobility, we can note the different levels of fertility in different strata - lower in the upper strata and higher in the lower strata creates a well-known “vacuum” from above and promotes the upward mobility of people from the lower strata.

Movement between strata is carried out through special channels (“elevators”), the most important of which are social institutions such as the army, family, school, church, and property.

The army functions as a conduit for vertical mobility in both wartime and peacetime. However, during periods of war, the process of “rising up” proceeds faster: large losses among the command staff lead to the filling of vacancies by people of lower ranks, who have distinguished themselves due to their talent and courage.

In the past, the church was the second channel of vertical mobility after the army, especially in relation to the middle stratum. As a result of the ban on Catholic clergy marrying, the transmission of church positions by inheritance was excluded, and after the death of clergymen, their positions were filled by new people. Significant opportunities for advancement from the bottom up also appeared during the formation of new religions.

Schools are a powerful channel of social circulation in the modern world. Receiving an education in the most prestigious schools and universities automatically provides a person with belonging to a certain stratum and a fairly high social status.

The family becomes a channel of vertical mobility in cases where people of different social status marry. So, at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. In Russia, a fairly common occurrence was the marriage of impoverished, but titled brides with representatives of the rich, but humble merchant class. As a result of such a marriage, both partners moved up the social ladder, getting what each of them wanted. But such a marriage can only be useful if an individual from a lower stratum is prepared to quickly assimilate new patterns of behavior and lifestyle. If he cannot quickly assimilate new cultural standards, then such a marriage will not yield anything, since representatives of the higher status layer will not consider the individual

Finally, the fastest channel of vertical mobility is property, usually in the form of money - one of the simplest and most effective ways to move up.

Social mobility in an open society gives rise to a number of phenomena, both positive and negative.

The upward mobility of an individual contributes to the realization of his personal qualities. If the movement occurs downward, then it helps a person develop a more realistic self-esteem and, accordingly, a more realistic choice of goal. Social mobility also provides opportunities for creating new social groups, emerging new ideas, and acquiring new experiences.

The negative results of mobility (both vertical and horizontal) include the loss by an individual of his previous group affiliation and the need to adapt to his new group. This identification of behavior results in tension in relationships with other people and often leads to alienation. To overcome this barrier, there are several ways that individuals resort to in the process of social mobility:

1) changing lifestyle, adopting a new material status standard (buying a new, more expensive car, moving to another, more prestigious area, etc.);

2) development of typical status behavior (change in communication style, acquisition of new vocabulary, new ways of spending leisure time, etc.);

3) change in the social environment (the individual tries to surround himself with representatives of the social stratum into which he strives to join).

The positive and negative consequences of social mobility affect not only the individual, but also society. The upward mobility of people is closely related to economic development, intellectual and scientific progress, the formation of new values and social movements; moving down leads to the liberation of the upper layers from less useful elements. But most importantly, increased mobility contributes to the destabilization of society in all its dimensions. By providing individuals with the opportunity to change their social status, an open society gives rise to so-called status anxiety in its individuals - after all, a change in status can happen for the worse. Social mobility often contributes to the severance of social ties in primary social groups, for example, in families in which parents belong to lower strata, and children were able to work their way up.

4. Social norms. Social behavior

In the course of their lives, people constantly interact with each other. Various forms of interaction between individuals, as well as connections that arise between different social groups (or within them), are usually called social relations. A significant part of social relations is characterized by conflicting interests of their participants. The result of such contradictions is social conflicts that arise between members of society. One of the ways to harmonize the interests of people and smooth out conflicts that arise between them and their associations is normative regulation, i.e. regulation of individual behavior through certain norms.

The word "norm" comes from Lat. norma, which means “rule, pattern, standard.” The norm indicates the boundaries within which this or that object retains its essence and remains itself. Norms can be different - natural, technical, social. The actions and actions of people and social groups who are subjects of social relations are regulated by social norms.

Social norms are understood as general rules and patterns, behavior of people in society, determined by social relations and resulting from the conscious activity of people. Social norms develop historically and naturally. In the process of their formation, refracted through social consciousness, they are then consolidated and reproduced in the relationships and acts necessary for society. To one degree or another, social norms are binding on those to whom they are addressed, and have a certain procedural form of implementation and mechanisms for their implementation.

There are various classifications of social norms. The most important thing is the division of social norms depending on the characteristics of their emergence and implementation. On this basis, five types of social norms are distinguished: moral norms, customary norms, corporate norms, religious norms and legal norms.

Moral norms are rules of behavior that are derived from people’s ideas about good and evil, justice and injustice, good and bad. The implementation of these norms is ensured by public opinion and the inner conviction of people.

Norms of customs are rules of behavior that have become habitual as a result of their repeated repetition. The implementation of customary norms is ensured by the force of habit. Customs with moral content are called mores.

A variety of customs are traditions that express people’s desire to preserve certain ideas, values, and useful forms of behavior. Another type of customs are rituals that regulate the behavior of people in the everyday, family and religious spheres.

Corporate norms are the rules of behavior established by public organizations. Their implementation is ensured by the internal conviction of the members of these organizations, as well as by the public associations themselves.

Religious norms refer to the rules of conduct contained in various holy books or established by the church. The implementation of this type of social norms is ensured by the internal beliefs of people and the activities of the church.

Legal norms are rules of behavior established or sanctioned by the state; church norms are rights established or sanctioned by the state, and sometimes directly by the people, the implementation of which is ensured by the authority and coercive power of the state.

Different types of social norms did not appear simultaneously, but one after another, as needed.

With the development of society they became more and more complex.

Scientists suggest that the first type of social norms that arose in primitive society were rituals. A ritual is a rule of behavior in which the most important thing is the strictly predetermined form of its execution. The content of the ritual itself is not so important - it is its form that matters most. Rituals accompanied many events in the life of primitive people. We know about the existence of rituals for seeing off fellow tribesmen on a hunt, taking office as a leader, presenting gifts to leaders, etc. Somewhat later, rituals began to be distinguished in ritual actions. Rituals were rules of conduct that consisted of performing certain symbolic actions. Unlike rituals, they pursued certain ideological (educational) goals and had a deeper impact on the human psyche.

The next social norms to appear, which were an indicator of a new, higher stage of human development, were customs. Customs regulated almost all aspects of the life of primitive society.

Another type of social norms that arose in the primitive era were religious norms. Primitive man, aware of his weakness before the forces of nature, attributed divine power to the latter. Initially, the object of religious worship was a really existing object - a fetish. Then man began to worship some animal or plant - a totem, seeing in the latter his ancestor and protector. Then totemism was replaced by animism (from the Latin “anima” - soul), i.e., belief in spirits, soul or the universal spirituality of nature. Many scientists believe that it was animism that became the basis for the emergence of modern religions: over time, among supernatural beings, people identified several special ones - gods. This is how the first polytheistic (pagan) and then monotheistic religions appeared.

In parallel with the emergence of norms of customs and religion in primitive society, moral norms were also formed. It is impossible to determine the time of their occurrence. We can only say that morality appears along with human society and is one of the most important social regulators.

During the period of the emergence of the state, the first rules of law appeared.

Finally, the last to emerge are corporate norms.

All social norms have common features. They represent rules of conduct of a general nature, i.e., they are designed for repeated use, and operate continuously over time in relation to a personally indefinite circle of persons. In addition, social norms are characterized by such features as proceduralism and authorization. The procedural nature of social norms means the presence of a detailed regulated order (procedure) for their implementation. Authorization reflects the fact that each type of social norms has a specific mechanism for implementing their requirements.

Social norms define the boundaries of acceptable behavior of people in relation to the specific conditions of their life. As already mentioned above, compliance with these norms is usually ensured by the internal beliefs of people or by applying social rewards and social punishments to them in the form of so-called social sanctions.

Social sanction is usually understood as the reaction of society or a social group to the behavior of an individual in a socially significant situation. In terms of their content, sanctions can be positive (incentive) and negative (punitive). There are also formal sanctions (coming from official organizations) and informal sanctions (coming from unofficial organizations). Social sanctions play a key role in the system of social control, rewarding members of society for fulfilling social norms or punishing for deviation from the latter, that is, for deviance.

Deviant behavior is behavior that does not meet the requirements of social norms. Sometimes such deviations can be positive and lead to positive consequences. Thus, the famous sociologist E. Durkheim believed that deviation helps society gain a more complete understanding of the diversity of social norms, leads to their improvement, promotes social change, revealing alternatives to existing norms. However, in most cases, deviant behavior is spoken of as a negative social phenomenon that harms society. Moreover, in a narrow sense, deviant behavior means deviations that do not entail criminal punishment and are not crimes. The totality of an individual’s criminal actions has a special name in sociology - delinquent (literally criminal) behavior.

Based on the goals and direction of deviant behavior, destructive and asocial types are distinguished. The first type includes deviations that cause harm to the individual (alcoholism, suicide, drug addiction, etc.), the second type includes behavior that harms communities of people (violation of rules of conduct in public places, violation of labor discipline, etc.).

While exploring the causes of deviant behavior, sociologists drew attention to the fact that both deviant and delinquent behavior are widespread in societies experiencing a transformation of the social system. Moreover, in conditions of a general crisis of society, such behavior can acquire a total character.

The opposite of deviant behavior is conformist behavior (from the Latin conformis - similar, similar). Conformist is social behavior that corresponds to accepted norms and values in society. Ultimately, the main task of regulatory regulation and social control is the reproduction of a conformist type of behavior in society.

5. Ethnic communities. Interethnic relations

Along with classes, estates and other groups, the social structure of society is also made up of historically established communities, called ethnic ones. Ethnic groups - These are large groups of people who have a common culture, language, and awareness of the indissolubility of historical destiny. Ethnic communities include tribes, nationalities and nations.

Nation - This is the historically highest form of ethnosocial community of people, characterized by unity, territory, economic life, historical path, language, culture, ethnicity, self-awareness. The unity of the territory should be understood as the compactness of the nation.

Representatives of a nation speak and write in one language, understandable (despite dialects) to all members of the nation. Each nation has its own folklore, customs, traditions, mentality (special stereotypes of thinking), national way of life, etc., i.e. its own culture. The unity of the nation is also facilitated by the common historical path traversed by each nation.

National self-awareness is understood as a reflection of the consciousness of a nation in the individual consciousness of its members, expressing the latter’s assimilation of ideas about the place and role of their people in the world, about their historical experience.

A person is aware of his national identity, his belonging to a particular nation, and understands national interests.

A special role among the characteristics of a nation is played by the community of economic life. Based on the development of commodity-money relations, natural isolation and isolation is destroyed, a single national market is formed, and economic ties between individual parts of the nation are strengthened. This creates a solid basis for its unity. An important factor in the education and development of a nation is the state.

Nations are formed during the genesis of commodity-money relations, although a number of scientists trace the history of nations from ancient times. They are preceded by tribe and nationality. The main role in the formation of a tribe is played by consanguinity, and the nationality is characterized by a common territory.

In the modern world there are from 2,500 to 5,000 ethnic groups, but only a few hundred of them are nations. The modern Russian Federation includes more than 100 ethnic groups, including about 30 nations.

In the modern world, two interrelated trends are visible. One is manifested in the economic, cultural and even political rapprochement of nations, the destruction of national barriers, ultimately leading to integration within supranational structures (for example, the European Community). On the other hand, the desire of a number of peoples to gain national independence and to resist the economic, political and cultural expansion of superpowers persists and even grows. In almost all states, the positions of nationalist parties and movements are strong, and even the ideas of national exclusivity have many supporters. True, societies of mass production and mass consumption, by definition, cannot be individual. The scientific and technological revolution also requires deepening cooperation between different states. But even in developed countries (Canada, Spain, Great Britain) the national issue remains acute.

The national question is understood as the question of the liberation of oppressed peoples, their self-determination and overcoming ethnic inequality.

The roots of the national question are in the uneven socio-economic and political development of different peoples. More developed and powerful states conquered weak and backward ones, establishing a system of national oppression in the conquered countries, sometimes expressed in forced ethnic assimilation and even genocide. After the division of Europe, it was the turn of the Third World. Traditional societies of Asia, Africa, and America fell under the onslaught of European industrial civilization and turned into colonial countries. At the same time, the struggle of dependent peoples against national oppression began. By the end of the 20th century. it actually ended with the complete collapse of the colonial system and the formation of many independent states on the political map of the world.

But the discrepancy between ethnic and territorial boundaries, the deterioration of the economic situation, social contradictions, nationalism and chauvinism, elevated to the rank of official policy, persistent national and religious differences (sometimes quite sharp), the burden of past national grievances are the fertile ground for numerous interethnic conflicts.

The degree of their severity largely depends on the nature of the demands of the national minority. Thus, the Sikhs in India, the Tamils in Sri Lanka, the Basques in Spain advocate the creation of their own independent states, so the interethnic conflict here has resulted in many years of bloody armed confrontation. This is also the nature of the Ulster conflict: the Catholic Irish are demanding the reunification of Northern Ireland with the main core of the nation. More moderate demands, such as cultural autonomy or the establishment of true equality (the Korean minority in Japan), also explain more moderate forms of national confrontation.

The collapse of the USSR and the formation of sovereign Russia did not alleviate the urgency of the national issue in the country. All former autonomous republics of the RSFSR declared their sovereignty and renounced the status of autonomies. In a number of republics (Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Yakutia), nationalist forces headed for separation from Russia.

The North Ossetian-Ingush conflict led to a bloody massacre. The Ingush tried to regain territories that were taken from them during the Great Patriotic War and have not been returned to this day. To separate the warring parties, the president and government had to send federal armed forces to the confrontation zone.

But the most serious manifestation of the aggravation of interethnic relations on Russian territory was and remains the Chechen crisis. Back in 1991, the Republic of Ichkeria (Chechnya) announced its secession from the Russian Federation. The federal authorities did not recognize the self-proclaimed state. but for a long time they did not take any measures to normalize the situation. In December 1994, Russian troops were sent into Chechnya with the goal of “restoring constitutional order.” Separatist detachments met the federal armed forces with fierce resistance. The conflict became protracted and bloody. Chechen militants committed a number of terrorist attacks against civilians in several Russian regions. The government proved unable to resolve the crisis militarily, causing a wave of protest both in Russia and abroad. The war in Chechnya revealed the weak combat readiness of the Russian army and the unpreparedness of the command of federal forces to lead military operations in mountainous regions. The failure of such a strategy made a peaceful settlement of the Chechen crisis necessary. In August 1996, the leadership of the Russian Federation and the separatists agreed to cease hostilities and withdraw federal troops from the rebellious republic. The decision on the political status of Chechnya was postponed until 2000. However, after an unsuccessful attempt by Chechen militants in August 1999 to capture a number of regions of Dagestan, the second Chechen campaign began. During the autumn of 1999 - spring of 2000, federal troops, despite sharp criticism of the actions of the Russian authorities by international human rights organizations (for example, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe suspended the powers of the delegation of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation), managed to establish control over most of the territory of the republic (with the exception of mountainous areas ). Now on the agenda are the tasks of a political settlement: restoration of the economy of Chechnya, creation of new authorities (in accordance with the Constitution and laws of the Russian Federation), holding free and democratic elections, real integration of Chechnya into the Federation.

The national issue is also quite acute in the countries of the so-called near abroad. The Russian-speaking population remaining on the territory of the former Soviet republics, and now independent states, found themselves in the position of a national minority. In the Baltic states (especially Latvia and Estonia), discriminatory laws on citizenship and the state language are adopted, directed against the non-indigenous population. For a long time, the Russian authorities did not take adequate measures to protect our compatriots.

A big problem is posed by the numerous Russian refugees from Central Asia, Transcaucasia, and Kazakhstan, who returned to their homeland from areas of military conflicts and national intolerance.

When resolving interethnic conflicts, it is necessary to observe the humanistic principles of policy in the field of national relations:

1) renunciation of violence and coercion;

2) seeking agreement based on the consensus of all participants;

3) recognition of human rights and freedoms as the most important value;

4) readiness for a peaceful resolution of controversial issues.

The family is a complex social entity. A family is a community of people based on a single family activity, connected by the bonds of marriage and thereby carrying out the reproduction of the population and the continuity of family generations, as well as the socialization of children and the maintenance of existence of family members.

The family is both a social institution and a small group. A social institution is a relatively stable type or form of social practice through which social life is organized and the stability of connections and relationships is ensured within the framework of the social organization of society. A small group in sociology is understood as a social group that is small in composition, whose members are united by common activities and are in direct personal communication with each other, which is the basis for the emergence of both emotional relationships and special group values and norms of behavior.

As a social institution, the family satisfies the most important need of people for reproduction; as a small group, it plays a huge role in the upbringing and development of the individual, its socialization, and is the conductor of those values and norms of behavior that are accepted in society.

Depending on the nature of the marriage, the characteristics of parenthood and kinship, the following types of family structures are distinguished:

1) monogamous marriage and polygamy. A monogamous marriage is the marriage of one man to one woman. Polygamy is the marriage of one spouse with several women. There are two types of polygamy: polygyny - the marriage of one man with several women and polyandry - the marriage of one woman with several men;

2) patrilineal and matrilineal families. In patrilineal families, inheritance of the surname, property and social status is carried out through the father, and in matrilineal families - through the mother;

3) patriarchal and matriarchal families. In patriarchal families, the head is the father; in matriarchal families, the mother has the highest authority and influence;

4) homogeneous and heterogeneous families. In homogeneous families, spouses come from the same social stratum; in heterogeneous families, they come from different social groups, castes, classes;

5) small families (1-2 children), medium-sized families (3-4 children) and large families (5 or more children).

The most common in modern urbanized cities are the so-called nuclear families, consisting of parents and their children, i.e., two generations.

The family performs a number of functions, among which the main ones are reproductive, educational, economic and recreational (relieving stressful situations). Sociological scientists distinguish between specific and nonspecific functions of the family. Specific functions stem from the essence of the family and reflect its characteristics as a social phenomenon. These include the birth, maintenance and socialization of children. Nonspecific are those functions that the family is forced to perform in certain historical circumstances. These functions are associated with the accumulation and transfer of property, status, organization of production and consumption, etc.

Another social institution is closely related to the institution of family - the institution of marriage. As a rule, it is the married couple that forms the basis of the family. Marriage in sociology is understood as a socially and personally appropriate, stable form of sexual relations, sanctioned by society. In a legal sense marriage is a legally formalized voluntary and a free union of a woman and a man, aimed at creating a family and giving rise to mutual personal, as well as property rights and obligations of spouses.

Marriage and family relations in the Russian Federation are regulated by family law. The main source of family law is the Family Code of the Russian Federation.

In accordance with the legislation on the family in the Russian Federation, only secular marriage is recognized, that is, a legally formalized marriage, concluded and registered with the civil registry office. At the same time, the Family Code of the Russian Federation recognizes the legal force of marriages performed by Russian citizens according to religious rites, if they took place in the occupied territories of the USSR during the Great Patriotic War, i.e. during the period when the registration authorities did not operate in these territories civil status.

Marriage can be concluded only if the spouses comply with a number of conditions established by law. There are two groups of such conditions. The first group includes positive conditions, the presence of which is mandatory for marriage:

a) mutual voluntary consent of those entering into marriage;

b) reaching marriageable age, i.e. 18 years; If there are good reasons, at the request of those getting married, the age of marriage may be reduced to 16 years. The Family Code provides for the possibility of marriage at an earlier age. This is allowed as an exception, taking into account special circumstances, if the laws of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation establish the procedure and conditions for concluding such marriages.

The second group consists of negative conditions, i.e. circumstances that prevent marriage. The following conditions are considered negative:

a) the status in another registered marriage of at least one of the persons entering into marriage;

b) the presence of a close relationship between the persons entering into marriage. Close relatives are recognized as: relatives in a direct ascending and descending line (parents and children, grandparents and grandchildren), as well as siblings, and this relationship can be either complete or incomplete (when a sister and brother have only a common mother or father);

c) the existence of adoption relations between persons wishing to marry;

d) recognition by the court of the incompetence of at least one of the patients due to a mental disorder.

To enter into a marriage, persons entering into marriage submit a joint written application to the civil registry authorities, in which they confirm their mutual voluntary consent to enter into a marriage, as well as the absence of circumstances impeding the conclusion of a marriage. The marriage is concluded after one month from the date of filing the application. However, the law provides that if there are good reasons, the monthly period can be reduced or increased (in the latter case - by no more than 1 month), and in the presence of special circumstances (pregnancy, childbirth, immediate threat to the life of one of the parties, etc. .) marriage can be concluded on the day of filing the application. The decision to shorten or increase the term of marriage is made by the civil registry office. Marriage is concluded in the personal presence of those entering into marriage.

State registration of marriage is carried out by any civil registry office on the territory of the Russian Federation at the choice of persons entering into marriage.

Family legislation establishes a number of os-. innovations, in the presence of which the marriage may be declared invalid. These include:

a) non-compliance by persons entering into marriage with the conditions established by law;

b) concealment by the person entering into marriage of the presence of a sexually transmitted disease or HIV infection;

c) entering into a fictitious marriage, that is, a marriage into which the spouses or one of them entered into without the intention of starting a family.

A marriage is declared invalid from the date of its conclusion. However, if by the time the case of declaring the marriage invalid is considered, those circumstances that, by force of law, prevented its conclusion have disappeared, then the court may recognize the marriage as valid.

The grounds for terminating a marriage should be distinguished from the grounds for declaring a marriage invalid. The latter, according to the Family Code of the Russian Federation, are the death or declaration of one of the spouses as deceased, as well as divorce in the manner prescribed by law. Divorce is carried out by the civil registry office or in court.

In the civil registry office, divorce is carried out in the following cases:

1) with mutual consent to dissolve the marriage of spouses who do not have common minor children;

2) at the request of one of the spouses, if the other spouse is recognized by the court as missing, incompetent, or sentenced to imprisonment for a term of more than three years for committing a crime. Divorce in these cases is carried out regardless of whether the spouses have common minor children.

In all cases, divorce is carried out after a month from the date of filing the application for divorce.

If disputes arise between spouses during divorce in the civil registry office (for example, about the division of property), they are considered by the court.

Divorce is carried out in court in the following cases:

1) if the spouses have common minor children, with the exception of the cases noted above;

2) in the absence of consent of one of the spouses to divorce;

3) if one of the spouses avoids dissolving the marriage in the registry office, although he does not object to such dissolution (for example, he refuses to submit the appropriate application, etc.).

The law establishes a number of restrictions on the husband’s rights to file claims for divorce (in particular, he does not have the right to initiate proceedings for divorce without the wife’s consent during the wife’s pregnancy and within a year after the birth of the child).

Divorce is carried out if the court determines that further life together of the spouses and preservation of the family is impossible. In this case, the court has the right to take measures to reconcile the spouses. For such reconciliation, the court sets a period of 3 months, and the trial of the case is postponed for this time. If measures to reconcile the spouses are unsuccessful and the spouses (or one of them) insist on dissolution of the marriage, then the court decides to dissolve the marriage. If there is mutual consent to dissolve the marriage of spouses who have common minor children, the court will dissolve the marriage without clarifying the reasons for the divorce.

When considering a divorce case, the court decides on which parent the minor children will live with after the divorce, from which parent and in what amount to collect child support, as well as on the division of property owned jointly by the spouses. On all these issues, the spouses themselves can conclude an agreement and submit it to the court for consideration.

The court dissolves a marriage after a month has passed from the date the spouses filed an application for divorce.

The marriage is considered terminated:

a) in the event of its dissolution in the registry office - from the date of state registration of the divorce in the civil registration book;

b) in the case of divorce in court - on the day the court decision enters into legal force (however, in this case, state registration of divorce is necessary).

Spouses do not have the right to enter into a new marriage until they receive a certificate of divorce from the civil registry office.

7. Child in the family. Child's rights

One of the main goals of a man and a woman creating a family is the birth and joint upbringing of children. It has long been known that for the normal, full development of a child, the family is vital: family education is the best form of raising a child that humanity knows. The family cannot be replaced by any other social institutions or public institutions. The atmosphere within the family has a significant influence on the formation of a child’s personality.

Sociologists identify three fairly stable options for family education:

1) child-centric, the essence of which is a position of forgiveness towards children, a falsely understood love for them;

2) professionalism, within which there is a peculiar refusal of parents to raise children under the pretext that this should be done by teachers and professional educators in kindergartens and schools;

3) pragmatic, i.e. education, the purpose of which is to develop in children “practicality”, the ability to “arrange their own affairs”, orienting them primarily to obtaining immediate material benefit.

The legal basis for the relationship between parents and children is enshrined in the norms of family law.

The definition of the concept “child” is contained in paragraph 1 of Art. 54 of the Family Code of the Russian Federation: a child is a person under 18 years of age. A separate chapter of the code is devoted to the rights of minor children. The main purpose of this chapter is to prevent discrimination against a child in family relationships. Another document establishing children’s rights is the 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, to which Russia has been a party since 1990. The Convention is part of the Russian legal system, although its norms have not been incorporated into domestic legislation and are subject to direct application. The Convention considers the child as an independent person, endowed with a number of rights and capable, to one degree or another, of exercising and protecting these rights. The same approach to the problem of children's rights is enshrined in the norms of the Family Code of the Russian Federation.

Art. 47 of the Family Code of the Russian Federation states that the basis for the emergence of parental legal relations is the origin of children from parents, established legally. Documents certifying the origin are the registration of persons as the father and mother of the child in the registry office and the child’s birth certificate. Regardless of whether the child was born in a registered arak or outside it. he has all the rights granted to him by family law. Every child, in accordance with the convention, has the right to preserve his or her individuality. Individualizing features are first name, last name, citizenship, family ties.

The name is given to the child by agreement between the parents. In this case, parents have the right to give the child any name they wish. If the parents cannot come to an agreement regarding the choice of the child’s first and last name, the dispute between them is resolved by the guardianship and trusteeship authorities. The child's middle name is determined by the father's name. The child's surname is determined by the surname of the parents. If parents have different surnames, then the issue of the child’s surname is resolved by agreement between them, unless otherwise provided by the legislation of the Russian Federation.

If paternity of the child has not been established, then the child’s name is given according to the mother’s instructions, the patronymic is assigned according to the name of the person recorded as the father at the mother’s direction, and the surname is assigned according to the mother’s surname.

Parents have the right to change the child’s first and last name only until he reaches the age of 16. Moreover, if the child has reached the age of 10 years, changing his first or last name is impossible without his consent - this provision is the most important guarantee of the child’s right to preserve his individuality. Upon reaching 16 years of age, only the child himself can, in the usual manner provided for changing names and surnames, apply for their change.

Art. 12 of the Convention and Art. 57 of the Family Code of the Russian Federation provide for the child’s right to freely express his opinion. The legislation does not indicate the minimum age at which a child has this right. The convention enshrines the provision that such a right is granted to a child who is able to formulate his own views. Consequently, as soon as the child reaches a sufficient stage of development to do this, he has the right to express his opinion on any issues affecting his interests. From that time on, he has the right to be heard in any judicial or administrative proceedings directly affecting him. Depending on the age of the child, his opinion is given different legal meaning.

Another important right of the child is his right to family upbringing, provided for in paragraph 2 of Art. 54 of the Family Code of the Russian Federation. This right primarily consists of providing the child with the opportunity to live and be raised in a family.

A child has the right to live together with his parents, except in situations where this is contrary to his interests, including in cases where the parents and the child live on the territory of different states. In accordance with Art. 10 of the convention, states parties are obliged to facilitate the reunification of separated families. The child has the right, as far as possible, to know his parents. This right may be limited in a number of cases when obtaining information about the parents is not possible (for example, the child has been found).

A child has the right to be cared for by his parents, to ensure his interests and respect for his human dignity. A child has the right to communicate with his parents, including separately, if they have terminated their marital relationship.

The child’s right to family upbringing also includes the right to communicate with members of the extended family: grandparents, brothers, sisters and other relatives. This right remains the same in the event of divorce between his parents or recognition of their marriage as invalid.

A child in an extreme situation (arrest, illness, accident) has the right to communicate with parents and other relatives. Refusal to contact loved ones is possible only if there are serious reasons.

The property rights of the child are regulated by civil law. According to it, parents do not have ownership rights to their children's property. However, if they live together, they have the right to own and use each other’s property by mutual consent. There is no special legal regime for the property of parents and children.

The child is the owner of the property belonging to him and the income generated by him. The child has the right to receive maintenance from parents and other relatives in the manner prescribed by the legislation on the payment of alimony. The right of ownership to the amounts of alimony, pensions and benefits received is also recognized by the child. However, the right to dispose of these funds in the interests of the child belongs to his parents or persons replacing them. They must spend these funds on the maintenance, upbringing and education of the child. Sometimes the parent paying child support feels that it is being misused by the other parent. In this case, the payer parent has the right to apply to the court with a request to credit alimony (but not more than 50%) to bank accounts opened in the child’s name.

Civil legislation also determines the child’s right to independently dispose of his property. It depends on the age of the child and, therefore, on the scope of his legal capacity. When managing the child's property, parents have the same rights and bear the same responsibilities as provided for by civil law for guardians.

Most of the rights listed above are not only proclaimed by law, but are supported by sanctions for their violation. The guarantee of their implementation is the child’s right to protection of these rights personally or through his representatives.

Art. 56 of the Family Code of the Russian Federation establishes a provision according to which the responsibilities for protecting the rights of the child are assigned to his parents, legal representatives, as well as guardianship and trusteeship authorities.

A minor, recognized in accordance with the law as fully capable before reaching the age of majority, has the right to exercise his rights and obligations, including the right to defense.

The Family Code enshrines the right of a child to directly seek protection from abuse by parents and other legal representatives. If these persons violate the rights and interests of the child, do not fulfill their responsibilities for the upbringing, maintenance, education of the child, humiliate his dignity, violate the right to express his own opinion, the child can independently seek protection from the guardianship and trusteeship authorities. There are no age limits for such treatment. A child who has reached the age of 14 has the right to directly go to court if his rights are violated by his parents or legal representatives.

However, often children suffering from abuse by their parents not only do not seek protection of their rights, but also try to hide the facts of such abuse for fear that they will be taken away from their parents and placed in children's institutions. In connection with this law, it is established that all officials or citizens who become aware of a violation of the rights of a child, a threat to his life or health, are obliged to immediately report this to the guardianship and trusteeship authority at the child’s place of residence.

8. Social conflict and ways to resolve it

Social heterogeneity of society, differences in income levels, property, power, prestige, horizontal and vertical mobility naturally lead to an aggravation of social contradictions and conflicts. Conflicts are a special type of social interaction, the subjects of which are communities, organizations and individuals with actually or supposedly incompatible goals.

There are various theories regarding the causes and essence of conflicts that arise in society.

The founder of the conflictological tradition in sociology is considered to be the creator of the organic school, Herbert Spencer. Spencer believed that conflicts in society are a manifestation of the process of natural selection and the universal struggle for survival. Competition and inequality lead to the selection of the strongest, dooming the weaker to death. Spencer considered it possible to avoid the revolutionary path of conflict resolution and gave preference to the evolutionary development of humanity.

In contrast to Spencer, sociologists of Marxist orientation were of the opinion that conflict is just a temporary condition that periodically arises in society, and that this condition can be overcome as a result of a revolutionary change in the type of social system. They argued that different socio-economic formations correspond to different conflicting types of class structure of society; There is a struggle between the exploiting and exploited classes for the redistribution of ownership of the means of production. This class struggle, which takes place in a capitalist society between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, inevitably leads to the dictatorship of the proletariat, which represents the transition to a classless (i.e., socially conflict-free) society.

The German sociologist Georg Simmel paid much attention to the theory of social conflict in his research. He proved the thesis that conflicts in society are inevitable, since they are predetermined by: 1) the biological nature of man; 2) the social structure of society, which is characterized by processes of association (unification) and dissociation (separation), domination and subordination. Simmel believed that frequent and not too long conflicts are even useful, since they help various social groups and individual members of society get rid of hostility towards each other.

Modern Western sociologists explain the nature of social conflicts by socio-psychological factors. They believe that the inherent inequality of society gives rise to stable psychological dissatisfaction among its members. This sensory-emotional anxiety and irritability periodically develops into conflict clashes between subjects of social relations.

explain as a manifestation of hostility on the part of the opponent.

The conflicting behavior of the parties itself consists of oppositely directed actions of opponents. All of them can be divided into main and auxiliary. Sociologists include those that are directly aimed at the subject of conflict as the main ones. Auxiliary actions ensure the implementation of the main ones. Also, all conflict actions are divided into offensive and defensive. Offensive means attacking the enemy, seizing his property, etc. Defensive means keeping a disputed object behind oneself or protecting it from destruction. Another possible option is retreat, surrender of positions, refusal to protect one’s interests.

If neither side tries to make concessions and avoid the conflict, then the latter moves into an acute stage. It can end immediately after the exchange of conflicting actions, but it can last quite a long time, changing its form (war, truce, war again, etc.) and growing. The growth of a conflict is called escalation. The escalation of a conflict is usually accompanied by an increase in the number of participants.

Ending a conflict does not always mean resolving it. Conflict resolution is the decision of its participants to end the confrontation. The conflict may end with the parties reconciling, one of them winning, gradually fading, or escalating into another conflict.

Sociologists consider reaching consensus to be the most optimal solution to conflict. Consensus - it is the agreement of a significant majority of representatives of a certain community regarding important aspects of its functioning, expressed in assessments and actions. Consensus does not mean unanimity, since it is almost impossible to achieve a complete coincidence of the positions of the parties, and it is not necessary. The main thing is that neither side expresses direct objections; Also, when resolving a conflict, a neutral position of the parties, abstention from voting, etc. are allowed.

Depending on the basis on which the typology is carried out, sociologists distinguish the following types of conflicts:

a) by duration: long-term, short-term, one-time, protracted and recurring;

b) by source of occurrence: objective, subjective and false;

c) in form: internal and external;

d) by the nature of development: deliberate and spontaneous;

e) by volume: global, local, regional, group and personal;

f) by means used: violent and non-violent;

g) by influence on the course of development of society: progressive and regressive;

h) by spheres of public life: economic (or production), political, ethnic, family and everyday life.

Social policy pursued by the state plays an important role in the prevention and timely resolution of social conflicts. Its essence is the regulation of the socio-economic conditions of society and concern for the well-being of all its citizens.

The sociology of conflict as a special part of sociological science arose relatively recently, but quickly found itself in demand by modern society. Today, conflictologists participate in negotiation processes in “hot spots” and help resolve group and interpersonal conflicts. The relevance and importance of their work is constantly increasing due to the growth of social tension and social polarization of Russian society.

9. Social legislation, social policy

Social policy is understood as part of the internal policy of the state, embodied in social programs and the real conditions of human life, with the help of which it regulates relations in society and satisfies the interests of various groups of the population. Social policy is derived from economics, but not secondary: it plays a major role in the development of the material and spiritual culture of society. A state in which socially oriented policy is the main direction of activity is called a social state.

The idea of social statehood received wide recognition in the world in the second half of the 20th century. Its formation dates back to the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. and was determined by the socio-economic processes taking place in the life of bourgeois society of that time, the property stratification and polarization of which threatened it with serious social upheavals. And in this situation, the classical principle of state non-interference in the economy gave way to the principle of social equality, which required the state to move to active intervention in the socio-economic sphere. The formation of the concept of a social state as a state with special functions began. Among the latter: support for socially vulnerable categories of the population, labor protection and human health, combating unemployment, smoothing social inequality by redistributing income between different social strata through taxation, the state budget, and special social programs.

Subsequently, the idea of a welfare state was embodied in the practice and constitutions of many modern states (Germany, Italy, Turkey, Sweden, Japan, etc.)

Today, a state is recognized as social, the policy of which is aimed at creating conditions for its citizens to realize socio-economic and cultural human rights (rights to work and equal remuneration for work of equal value, rights to social security, rights to education, rights to participate in cultural life and etc.). One of the most important goals of the welfare state is to smooth out social contradictions in society and ideally create social equality.

The main conditions for the existence of a social state include:

1) democratic regime and legal nature of the state;

2) the presence of civil society, in the hands of which the state acts as an instrument for carrying out socially oriented policies;

3) a high level of economic development of the state, the social orientation of its economy;

4) the presence of developed social legislation, the consolidation of the concept of “social state” in the country’s constitution.

Art. 7 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation states: “1. The Russian Federation is a social state whose policy is aimed at creating conditions that ensure a decent life and free development of people.

2 In the Russian Federation, the labor and health of people are protected, a guaranteed minimum wage is established, state support is provided for the family, motherhood, paternity and childhood, the disabled and elderly citizens, a system of social services is developed, state pensions, benefits and other guarantees of social protection are established.”

These provisions form the basis of the currently emerging legislative framework regulating social relations in the country and regulating the provision of social assistance to the population. In addition to the Constitution, social legislation includes laws of the Russian Federation, decrees of the President of the Russian Federation, decrees of the Government of Russia, regulatory documents of federal ministries and departments, legislative acts and orders of authorities of the constituent entities of the Federation, decisions of local governments.

The social policy currently being pursued in the Russian Federation is focused on a wide variety of social groups and includes:

1) the fight against unemployment, the content of which is not to create obstacles to the process of releasing excess labor within the limits of socially acceptable levels of unemployment, but to achieve maximum efficiency of the social insurance system as the most important mechanism for protecting citizens in the event of their losing their jobs;

2) state regulation of the minimum wage, bringing it closer to the subsistence level in the country;

3) universal accessibility and free preschool, basic general and secondary vocational education in state and municipal educational institutions and enterprises, as well as free higher education on a competitive basis. Citizens of the Russian Federation are guaranteed the opportunity to receive an education regardless of race, nationality, language, gender, age, health, social, property and official status, place of residence, attitude to religion, beliefs, party affiliation, or criminal record;

4) free medical care in state and municipal health care institutions. Russian legislation provides for a set of political, economic, legal, social, medical, sanitary-hygienic and anti-epidemic measures aimed at preserving and strengthening the physical and mental health of each person, maintaining his long-term activity, providing him with medical care in case of loss of health;

5) free use of library collections and relatively low fees for visiting museums, art galleries, theaters, concert halls and other cultural institutions.

Other priorities of the social policy of the Russian Federation are:

a) labor protection and health of people;

6) ensuring state support for family, motherhood, paternity and childhood, disabled people and elderly citizens;

c) establishment of state pensions, benefits and other guarantees of social protection.

An analysis of the state of life of Russian society shows that today the provisions of Art. 7 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation are more a program setting than a reality. In modern Russia, there are no economic prerequisites for the formation of a social state; conditions have not been created that would allow for the redistribution of income within society. The current economic situation in the Russian Federation requires increasing the effectiveness of social policy, new ways of implementing it, concentrating limited financial and material resources on solving the most pressing social problems, activating factors that stimulate highly efficient work and personal responsibility of citizens for their material well-being. It should be recognized that the real equalization of people's conditions and the creation of decent living conditions for Russian citizens is a long-term process. The emergence of a real social state in the Russian Federation will become possible only in conditions of complete recovery of the country's economy.