What is technical progress? Scientific and technical progress is

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Oh, how rapidly scientific and technological progress has burst into our daily lives! Just twenty years ago you had to stand in line to get a phone installed, but now everyone, regardless of age, owns a personal cell phone and, sometimes, more than one. Previously, only science fiction writers could read about video communication, but now SKYPE program on the Internet makes it possible to both see and hear the interlocutor. Mail, having become electronic, allows you to exchange letters, postcards and photographs with friends in a matter of minutes. What can we say about household appliances! While a modern machine is washing clothes, the bread machine is already browning the next loaf of bread, and the multicooker reports that the borscht is ready. Life is like a fairy tale! So? That's just the number happy people For some reason it's not growing. And it’s not at all about the number of food processors and dishwashers purchased.

Man has always dreamed that hard physical labor, including domestic work, would be replaced by mechanisms and robots. Then he, the person, will be able to do something else, more interesting and useful. What comes to the surface? The Internet (technique again!) fills the vacuum of free time, replaces live communication with a surrogate, displaces real life virtual. A sedentary lifestyle behind a “box”, nervous overstrain of “gaming addiction”, as is known, affect not only today’s health, but also the future of human society as a whole.

Trusting technology, we forget the rules of spelling (the computer will correct it!), we carry out even the simplest calculations on a calculator - all this does not contribute to the progress of the person himself, rather the opposite. Tell me, do we live in a world of information? But is all of it needed? And is it worth filling our memory cells with it? Maybe we should think more about those around us. No machine can replace warm human relationships, and this is precisely what those who “hang out” on the World Wide Web lack.

Man is a child of nature. And, like all children, he loves toys that technological progress supplies him with. But just as kids sometimes grab matches and light them without thinking about the danger (only because it’s interesting to them), so a person, having “played too much,” allows machines to assert themselves in second roles.

It has long been known that movement is life, and no amount of computer technology will challenge this saying. Exactly physical movement activates thought, gives impetus to development and personal improvement. No pictures on the Internet will convey the freshness of the wind, the smell of herbs, or the coolness of sea water. No correspondence with an “online” addressee can replace real feelings of friendship and love. Excessive passion for various gadgets modern man takes him away from what nature has laid down. And she is a serious lady, she does not forgive mistakes, including the dominance of a machine over a person, even in everyday life. Hence all the misfortunes - illness, loneliness, regression. Is this what we really need?

Technical progress is a wonderful thing, but it must be “consumed” within reasonable limits...

Scientific and technological revolution (NTR) - a radical qualitative transformation of the productive forces, a qualitative leap in the structure and dynamics of development of the productive forces.

Scientific and technological revolution in a narrow sense - a radical restructuring of the technical foundations of material production, which began in the middle of the 20th century. , based on the transformation of science into a leading factor of production, as a result of which the transformation of industrial society into post-industrial society occurs.

Before scientific and technological revolution, scientists’ research was at the level of matter, then they were able to conduct research at the atomic level. And when they discovered the structure of the atom, scientists discovered the world quantum physics, they moved on to more deep knowledge in area elementary particles. The main thing in the development of science is that the development of physics in the life of society has significantly expanded human abilities. The discovery of scientists helped humanity take a different look at the world, which led to scientific and technological revolution.

Modern era The scientific and technological revolution began in the 1950s. It was then that its main directions were born and developed: production automation, control and management based on electronics; the creation and use of new structural materials, etc. With the advent of rocket and space technology, human exploration of near-Earth space began.

Classifications [ | ]

the emergence and implementation of language in human activity and consciousness;
invention of writing;
the invention of printing;
invention of the telegraph and telephone;
the invention of computers and the advent of the Internet.

A recognized classic of the theory of post-industrialism, D. Bell, identifies three technological revolutions:

invention of the steam engine in the 18th century
scientific and technological achievements in the field of electricity and chemistry in the 19th century
creation of computers in the 20th century

Bell argued that, just as the Industrial Revolution resulted in assembly line production, which increased labor productivity and prepared a mass consumer society, so now mass production of information should arise, ensuring corresponding social development in all directions.

“Gunpowder, compass, printing,” notes K. Marx, “three great inventions that preceded bourgeois society. Gunpowder blows up chivalry, the compass opens up the world market and establishes colonies, and printing becomes a tool of Protestantism and, in general, a means of reviving science, the most powerful lever for creating the necessary prerequisites spiritual development" Doctor of Philosophy, Professor G.N. Volkov in the scientific and technological revolution highlights the unity of the revolution in technology - with the transition from mechanization to automation of production processes, and the revolution in science - with its reorientation towards practice, the goal of applying research results to the needs of production, in contrast to the medieval (see Scholasticism#Scholastic view of science).

According to the model used by economist from Northwestern University (USA) Professor Robert Gordon, the first scientific and technological revolution, the beginning of which dates back to 1750 with the invention of the steam engine and the construction of the first railways, lasted until approximately the end of the first third of the 19th century. The second scientific and technological revolution (1870-1900), when electricity and the internal combustion engine were invented three months apart in 1897. The third scientific and technological revolution began in the 1960s with the advent of the first computers and industrial robotics; it became globally significant in the mid-90s, when ordinary users massively gained access to the Internet; its completion dates back to 2004.

Russian historian L. E. Grinin, speaking about the first two revolutions in technological development humanity, adheres to established views, highlighting the agricultural and industrial revolutions. However, speaking about the third revolution, he designates it as cybernetic. In his concept, the cybernetic revolution consists of two phases: the scientific and information phase (the development of automation, energy, the field of synthetic materials, space, the creation of controls, communications and information) and the final phase of controlled systems, which, according to his forecast, will begin in 2030-2040. x years. Agrarian revolution: the first phase is the transition to manual farming and animal husbandry. This period began approximately 12 - 19 thousand years ago, and the transition to the legacy stage of the agrarian revolution begins about 5.5 thousand years ago.

The cybernetic revolution is also characterized.

From time immemorial, people constantly improve themselves (that is, learn) and everything that surrounds them in order to make their existence easier and improve their lives. This is the very essence of scientific and technological progress (NTP). Life constantly puts you in front of individual, and before humanity as a whole various questions. By answering them, people learn even more about the world around them and improve it even more.

But maybe there is a limit to this? Maybe it’s time to stop and turn “back to nature” before NTP causes irreparable harm to people and humanity? Life has shown that it is impossible to stop humanity in its development. And there are several reasons for this.

Firstly, without further progress, humanity simply will not survive; it will die out from hunger, cold and disease. Secondly, it is impossible to prohibit people from thinking, developing and creating new things. And thirdly, in our world everything is decided not by humanity and not by its best representatives, but by those who have appropriated the title “ world elite”, although, in fact, they are not. These are the powers that be, for whom scientific and technological progress brings huge profits, and their enterprises provide employment to many people. Therefore, it is unlikely that both of them would suddenly give up their earnings at once. This is why it is so difficult to resolve issues related to the protection of the Earth’s nature, for example, with the reduction of dangerous emissions into the atmosphere. But they can be solved, and they are still being solved. And it is science that can suggest how to avoid the dangerous aspects of scientific and technological progress, and make human society more perfect.

But maybe there is still a line beyond which improving people’s lives will be impossible, and the problems that arise can no longer be solved? Fortunately, the world is infinite, and there are an infinite number of solutions to improve it. For example, in music there are only 7 notes. How many melodies have people composed over the centuries and how many more will they create? We know about 100 atoms alone. Their combination can create an infinite number of molecules, etc., and even more so it is impossible to exhaust infinite universe. Apparently, everything is possible, well, or almost everything that a person can imagine. That is why people have achieved enormous success in science and technology in just a few centuries, and scientific and technological progress is accelerating.

Nature (or God) endowed man with intellect, the ability to think. Man did not become Homo sapiens when he picked up a stick, but when he learned to think first, and only then to do (though not everyone and not always follows this rule). It is thinking that allows a person to understand the world around him, identify the patterns that exist in it, and then, in accordance with these patterns, plan his activities and, if necessary, adjust them in a direction that is useful for people.

And in order to make fewer mistakes and better understand reality, people must learn to use their intellect profitably, to use special rules thinking, that is, learning to do science in order to obtain objective and reliable results. Science in itself does not pose any danger. Scientists work only because they are interested in obtaining new knowledge, but those who use the achievements of scientists act because it is beneficial to them, and this is evil. In the USA, for example, research scientists receive approximately 10 times less than corporate employees who transform new knowledge into new products. As they say, a scientist has a completely different value system (if you want, a different morality).

Evil is not carried atomic bombs and industrial emissions. Evil is caused by people driven by their internal vices - stupidity, greed, selfishness, desire for unlimited power etc. The danger stems not from NTP, but from selfishness, which allows some people to put their personal interests above the interests of the majority of other people, to use the achievements of NTP not only for the benefit, but also to the detriment of people. The danger comes from the cult of insane consumerism, primitive desires that obscure the voice of reason. This is what constantly leads humanity to disaster. Moreover, crazy tycoons hinder the development of science and education, bringing reliable scientific results to people in full, and improving the education of the population. It is important for them that it is easier for people to manage and manipulate, and for this it is necessary that the majority of people remain poorly educated and ignorant, unable to distinguish between truth and lies, even if the truth leaks to the media. Just look at the US leadership's attempt to ban publications on climate change.

There have already been attempts to stop scientific and technological progress in the history of mankind. In Egypt, Japan, and China there were periods when forms were preserved for almost 1000 years public life and technology. This happened because the rulers of these countries decided that the society they ruled had reached perfection, and there was no need to develop further. In England and France, artisanal weavers rebelled and tried to destroy weaving factories. There were other similar cases. What this led to is well known. The new always won.

In prehistoric times, there were many powerful civilizations on Earth. Well, where are they now? So it is useless to fight against NTP, but we need to ensure that its achievements are not used to harm people. 1,200 agricultural scientists managed to get together and make such a decision against the impending catastrophe that most countries in the world are now implementing it without any coercion, including, and above all, developed countries, which is especially impressive.

Well, what should we, mere mortals, do? Well, of course, use given by nature or God's intelligence, to use in everyday life only what is useful to us, and not to use what is harmful (especially tobacco, drugs, alcohol, untested medicines, empty food additives, etc., etc.) . And in this matter it is better to be overcautious than to be undersafe, and doubt is interpreted in favor of the consumer. And then we will benefit, and our health will increase. Therefore, I wish my readers health and good luck!

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Scientific and technical progress

scientific technical progress economic social

Introduction

1.1 The essence of scientific and technological progress

2.1 Main directions of scientific and technological progress

3.2 New economy

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

The process of socio-economic reorganization in Russia has led to an unstable state of all system-forming links of the once established mechanism focused on the production of scientific and technical products.

This immediately affected the economic condition of the country as a whole, since today’s priorities of the leading countries are determined not so much by the size economic potential, embodied in the quantities of labor, natural resources, volumes of the mining industry, i.e. everything that has traditionally been considered signs of the wealth of the state, as much as the degree of use of scientific and technical innovations in a particular area, its scientific and technical potential.

It is known that economic growth reflects the nature of the functioning of the country’s economy as a whole, hence indicators of economic growth are used both to characterize national economies and as parameters for comparing different countries with each other. The determining factor of economic growth is scientific and technological progress.

The purpose of writing the essay is to study the problems of the development of STP (scientific and technological progress) in Russia, to study the main reasons for the emergence of a market economy, to analyze economic relations related to STP innovations.

The objectives of the abstract are to study the essence of scientific and technical progress, its main directions and forms; identifying the advantages and disadvantages of NTP, as well as analyzing the structure and main components of NTP.

The object of research in the abstract is the influence of scientific and technical progress on the development of the Russian economy and the world economy.

The topic of the abstract is relevant to this moment time, because the study of scientific and technical progress as a factor of economic growth makes it possible for Russia to develop a market economy faster and more efficiently.

1. Scientific and technological progress and economic growth in society

1.1 The essence of scientific and technological progress

Scientific and technological progress (STP) is a process of interconnected, progressive development science and technology, determined by the needs of material production, the growth and complexity of the needs of society.

We started talking about this process with late XIX- beginning of the 20th century in connection with the strengthening of the relationship between the development of large-scale machine production and science and technology.

This relationship gave rise to contradictions in scientific and technical progress. The contradictions immediately affected both technical and social side social development. Therefore, in economic science, the contradictions of scientific and technological progress are usually divided into technical and social.

Mass production of the same products over many years allows for the creation of expensive automatic machine systems. This is explained by the fact that over the long service life of the equipment, all costs are easily recouped. The accelerated pace of scientific and technological progress requires continuous improvement the production facilities themselves, forcing them to either modernize or completely replace their products. This is where the contradiction in technology development manifests itself - the contradiction between the service life and the payback period, or the technical contradiction of NTP.

Social contradictions of NTP are associated with human factor: on the one hand, technical innovations should facilitate working conditions, but on the other hand, they provoke monotony and monotony, since they are based on automated processes and conveyor production.

The resolution of these contradictions is directly related to the increasing requirements for scientific and technological progress. These requirements are embodied in social order. Social order is a form of expression of the strategic interests of society for the long term in the field of scientific and technological progress.

1.2 Two forms of scientific and technological progress

Scientific and technological progress, in other words, the progress of science and technology, is accompanied by many factors that influence social development to one degree or another. The combination of these factors led to two forms of scientific and technological progress: evolutionary and revolutionary.

The evolutionary form of scientific and technological progress is a relatively slow improvement of the traditional scientific and technical foundations of production. We are not talking about speed, but about the rate of growth of production: they can be low in a revolutionary form and high in an evolutionary one. For example, if we consider the growth rate of labor productivity, then, as history shows, fast development can be observed when evolutionary form scientific and technological progress and slow at the beginning of the revolutionary stage.

Currently, the revolutionary form prevails, providing a higher effect, large scale and accelerated rates of reproduction. This form of scientific and technological progress is embodied in the scientific and technological revolution, or STR.

The term “scientific and technological revolution” was introduced by J. Bernal in his work “A World Without War.”

A scientific and technological revolution is a radical transformation in the system of scientific knowledge and technology, a set of interrelated revolutions in various sectors of material production, based on the transition to new scientific and technical principles.

The scientific and technological revolution goes through three stages in accordance with the changes taking place in material production. Such changes concern not only production efficiency, including labor productivity, but also the factors determining its growth. It is customary to define next steps development of the scientific and technological revolution:

Scientific, preparatory;

Modern (restructuring of technical and industry structure national economy);

Large automated machine production.

The first stage can be attributed to the early 30s of the XX century, when the development of new scientific theories machine technology and new principles for the development of production preceded the creation of fundamentally new types of machines, equipment, and technology, which subsequently found application in the period of preparation for the Second World War.

During this pre-war period in science there was a radical revolution in many fundamental ideas about the foundations surrounding nature; there was a rapid process in production further development techniques and technologies.

The era of the Second World War coincided with the beginning of the second stage of scientific and technological revolution. The most scientifically and technologically advanced country at that time was the United States of America. The United States did not conduct military operations on its own territory, did not have outdated equipment in industry, had the richest and extremely favorably located natural resources and an abundance of skilled labor.

Our country by the 40s of the XX century. in terms of its technical level, it could not claim a serious role in the field of scientific and technological progress. Therefore, we have the second stage of the scientific and technological revolution due to the Great Patriotic War and huge losses began later - after the restoration of the economy destroyed by the war. The main countries of Western Europe - England, France, Germany, Italy - entered the second stage of scientific and technological revolution much earlier.

The essence of the second stage was technical and sectoral restructuring, when in material production the material prerequisites were created for the subsequent radical revolution in the system of machines, production technology, in the structure of leading industries and the entire national economy.

At the third stage of scientific and technological revolution, large-scale automated machine production arose. Recent decades have been marked by the production of a wide variety of automatic machines and automatic machine lines, the creation of sections, workshops and even individual factories.

Speaking about the third stage of development of scientific and technological revolution, it should be noted that the prerequisites are being created for the subsequent transition to large-scale automated production in the field of objects of labor and technology: new technological methods bring to life new objects of labor and vice versa. New technological methods (together with automatic tools of production) seem to have opened up new use values (from the point of view of the needs of material production) for the “old” objects of labor.

Scientific and technological progress cannot be represented as a simple sum of its constituent elements or the forms of their manifestation. They are in close organic unity, mutually determining and complementing each other. This is a continuous process of the emergence of scientific and technical ideas and discoveries, their implementation in production, the obsolescence of equipment and its replacement with a new, more productive one.

The concept of “scientific and technological progress” is quite broad. It is not limited to the forms of development of science and technology, but includes all progressive changes both in the production sphere and in the non-production sphere. There is no sphere of the economy, production or social aspect of society, the development of which would not be associated with scientific and technological progress.

1.3 Economic growth: essence, types, factors, models

Economic growth is usually understood as an increase in the scale of total production and consumption in a country, characterized primarily by such macroeconomic indicators as gross national product (GNP), gross domestic product (GDP), and national income (NI).

The ultimate goal of economic growth is consumption. However, in economics, along with consumption as the ultimate goal, there is also an immediate goal in the form of profit. Profit determines in most cases the type of economic growth.

There are extensive and intensive types of economic growth.

The extensive type of economic growth assumes that an increase in the volume of production of material goods and services is achieved through the use of more factors of production, i.e. land, raw materials, equipment, labor, etc.

An intensive type of economic growth occurs when the increase in the volume of all types of products is ensured through the use of more advanced factors of production, i.e. through the use of scientific and technological progress.

It is known that in its pure form there are neither extensive nor intensive types of economic growth. Any economic system is multifunctional and uses a combination of types of economic growth. Therefore, we are talking about a predominantly extensive or predominantly intensive type. For example, in our country, the increase in national income in recent years is achieved due to intensive factors by only 10-15%, while in Western Europe, USA, Japan this figure exceeds 50%.

Another classification of economic growth is related to the concept of rate. At first glance, the answer is obvious: high rates are better, because in this case society will receive more products and will have more options for solving economic problems. High tempo most often create a product quality problem. The structure of the created product is no less important. If it is dominated by goods industrial purposes, such as steel, equipment, but the share of consumer goods is small, then the situation in the economy cannot be considered prosperous. Consequently, both high and low rates of economic growth have a right to exist.

The main resources, or factors, of economic growth are classified, in turn, according to the degree of impact on its dynamics and are measured by various indicators - value and natural. It is customary to include among the factors of economic growth: natural resources, i.e. land, minerals, water and its resources, air, etc.; labor resources, i.e. the size of the working-age population and its qualifications; fixed capital, or fixed assets, which include buildings, structures, equipment of enterprises, vehicles etc.; scientific and technological progress, aggregate demand.

Each of these factors is constantly changing depending on the others and performs various functions in influencing economic growth.

The study of problems of economic growth led to the creation of its models. The model necessary for managing (analysis, forecasting) economic growth is most often a system of natural and value flows, including the costs of production.

The first effective attempt to create such a macroeconomic model was made by F. Quesnay (1694-1774). In his “Economic Tables” (1758), for the first time in economic science, he drew up a balance between natural and cash flows, where their movement was limited to two spheres of the economy: agriculture and the rest of the company's economy.

Research on economic growth was continued by K. Marx in the second volume of Capital. The main idea of Marx's reproduction schemes was as follows: social production consists of two large divisions - “production of means of production” and “production of consumer goods”; exchange of products occurs both within departments and between them; In each case, balance must be maintained - a balance in value and in kind.

The next step in creating a model of economic growth is usually associated with the name of V. Leontiev, but even before him, a group of economists led by P. Popov in 1924-1928. carried out the development of the input-output method. The group, for the first time in world practice, compiled an intersectoral balance of the national economy for 1923-1924. The use of the industry balance method now makes it possible to forecast the development of the national economy.

The merit of V. Leontiev lies in the fact that he, clothed with good mathematical and economic training, was able to present the main material and value flows of the national economy in the form of a so-called chess table, which allows the use of the model in practice. The peculiarity of the model is that the number of these streams is not limited, it all depends on the amount of information and the necessary computing resources. The intersectoral balance of production and distribution of the national product, broken down into several hundred industries, is compiled in many countries around the world; it allows one to evaluate the path the economy has taken and predict its development in the future.

In 1973, V.V. Leontiev was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics for the development of the intersectoral balance.

Further research has demonstrated that economic growth is depicted in the form of a model in which the parameters, operating conditions and characteristics of the state of economic growth are represented by random variables and are related by stochastic ones, i.e. irregular dependencies. This leads to the fact that the characteristics of the state of the economic growth model are not determined unambiguously, but through the laws of probability distribution. At the same time, the model looks more realistic than with a strictly deterministic approach, when certain economic decisions lead to strictly defined results.

For a long time, the analysis of economic growth was statistical. The main focus of the researchers was on macroeconomic methods based on statistics, and the main subject of the study was the problem of “limited resources”, as well as the development of conditions for “partial equilibrium” and “general equilibrium”. Equilibrium was considered as an “ideal case” of the normal state of the means (opportunities) and needs available in society. In this case, partial equilibrium corresponds to the state of equilibrium between supply and demand in individual local markets (for example, labor markets, consumer markets) investment goods). General equilibrium reflects the balanced, coordinated functioning of all markets.

In economics there is the concept of a nonequilibrium state, i.e. partially balanced. The closer an economy is to a state of general economic equilibrium, the greater the opportunities effective solution problems of balancing the national product and transferring reproductive processes from one state of partial disequilibrium to another. And vice versa, the further macroeconomic parameters move away from the state of general economic equilibrium, the narrower the zone for effective solution of problems necessary for society.

Currently, with a certain degree of convention, three leading theories and, accordingly, three directions of modeling economic growth can be distinguished: neo-Keynesian; neoclassical; historical and sociological.

The development of the Western economy is close to the neo-Keynesian model. It shows that the corresponding dynamics of effective demand is a condition for a uniform and constant increase in production and income.

Neoclassical models in to a greater extent explore individual technical and economic conditions for balanced growth in the area of a rational production system, where there is no contradiction between production and consumption.

A representative of the historical and sociological direction is the American economist W. Rostow, the author of the theory of stages of economic growth. He identifies the following stages:

Class society: static equilibrium, limited opportunities to use scientific and technological progress, falling per capita income;

Creating conditions for takeoff: conditions for takeoff are gradually being created due to some increase in the efficiency of production processes;

Run-up: due to increase specific gravity investment in national income, the use of scientific and technological progress, resistance to development is overcome;

Path to maturity: economic growth rates are increasing, production growth is outpacing population growth;

High mass consumption society: concerns about production volume restrictions are fading and durable goods are becoming more important.

Comparing these directions, for example, Keynesian models, like the teaching as a whole, are based on demand, which ensures balanced economic growth. The main part of demand is capital investments, which increase profits through a multiplier effect. Keynesians do not share the neoclassical position of the efficiency of factors of production and their interchangeability.

All factors influencing the acceleration of scientific and technical progress in our country, in conditions of market relations, can be classified according to the following criteria:

Depending on the scale of influence: macro level; industry; regional; micro level;

Depending on the duration of exposure: temporary; permanent;

Depending on the degree of influence on scientific and technological progress: significant; less significant; weak influence;

Depending on the nature of the occurrence: objective; subjective;

Depending on the direction of impact: positive; negative.

Depending on the direction of the impact on the acceleration of scientific and technical progress, all factors can be combined into two groups: positive, which have a positive effect on the acceleration of scientific and technological progress; negative, which negatively affect the acceleration of scientific and technical progress (Table 2).

Depending on the nature of its occurrence, all factors influencing the acceleration of scientific and technical progress can be combined into two groups: objective, i.e. factors whose occurrence is not related to human activity; subjective, i.e. factors whose occurrence is associated and conditioned by human activity, in particular managerial and creative.

All factors influencing the acceleration of scientific and technical progress, depending on the duration of their influence, can be divided into temporarily acting and permanently acting.

Depending on the degree of influence on the acceleration of scientific and technical progress, all factors can be divided into three groups: those that have a significant impact; having a less significant impact; having little influence.

This classification is valid only for a short period of time, since as the situation changes, the degree of influence of individual factors also changes.

From all of the above we can conclude that in modern conditions the most significant factors influencing the acceleration of scientific and technical progress are: the amount of financial resources allocated for the development of science and technology; creation for enterprises normal conditions their functioning; the rise of the national economy; active participation of the state in the management of scientific and technological progress in order to accelerate it; the presence of a civilized innovation market; presence of demand for research results and innovations.

World practice confirms that high-tech production is not able to develop without government support.

2.1 Main directions of scientific and technological progress

Any state, in order to ensure an effective economy and not lag behind other countries in its development, must pursue a unified state scientific and technical policy.

A unified scientific and technical policy is a system of targeted measures that ensure the comprehensive development of science and technology and the introduction of their results into the economy. This requires a choice of priorities in the development of science and technology and those sectors in which scientific achievements should be realized first. This is also due to the limited resources of the state to conduct large-scale research in all areas of scientific and technical progress and their implementation in practice. Thus, at each stage of its development, the state must determine the main directions of scientific and technical progress and provide conditions for their implementation.

The main directions of scientific and technical progress are those areas of development of science and technology, the implementation of which in practice will ensure maximum economic and social efficiency in the shortest possible time.

There are national (general) and sectoral (private) areas of scientific and technical progress. National - areas of scientific and technical progress that are at this stage and in the future are a priority for the country or for a country or group of countries. Sectoral - areas of scientific and technical progress that are the most important and priority for individual sectors of the national economy and industry. For example, the coal industry is characterized by certain areas of scientific and technical progress, and mechanical engineering - by others based on their specifics.

At one time, the following areas of scientific and technical progress were identified as national ones: electrification of the national economy; comprehensive mechanization and automation of production; chemicalization of production.

The most important, or decisive, of all these areas is electrification, since without it other areas of scientific and technical progress are unthinkable. It should be noted that for their time these were successfully chosen areas of scientific and technical progress, which played a positive role in accelerating, developing and increasing production efficiency. They are also important at this stage of development of social production, so we will dwell on them in more detail.

Electrification is a production process and widespread use electricity in public production and everyday life.

This is a two-way process: on the one hand, electricity production; on the other hand, its consumption in various fields, starting from production processes occurring in all sectors of the national economy, and ending with everyday life.

These aspects are inseparable from each other, since the production and consumption of electricity coincide in time, which is determined by the physical characteristics of electricity as a form of energy.

The electrification of mechanical technology means that electricity should displace and replace the working tool of a mechanical tool (a cutter in metalworking).

The importance of electrification lies in the fact that it is fundamental for the mechanization and automation of production, as well as the chemicalization of production, helps to increase production efficiency, increase labor productivity, improve product quality, reduce its cost, increase production volume and profit at the enterprise.

Another important area of scientific and technical progress is comprehensive mechanization and automation of production.

Mechanization and automation of production processes is a set of measures that provide for the widespread replacement of manual operations with machines and mechanisms, the introduction of automatic machines, individual lines and production facilities.

Mechanization of production processes means replacing manual labor with machines, mechanisms and other equipment.

The mechanization of production is continuously developing and improving, moving from lower to higher forms: from manual labor to partial, small and complex mechanization and further to the highest form of mechanization - automation.

In mechanized production, a significant part of labor operations is performed by machines and mechanisms, and a smaller part is performed manually. This is partial (not comprehensive) mechanization, in which there may be separate weakly mechanized units.

Integrated mechanization is a way of performing the entire range of work included in a given production cycle using machines and mechanisms.

The highest degree of mechanization is the automation of production processes, which allows the entire cycle of work to be carried out without the direct participation of a person in it, only under his control.

Automation is a new type of production, which is prepared by the cumulative development of science and technology, primarily by the transfer of production to electronic basis, through the use of electronics and new advanced technical means. The need to automate production is caused by the inability of human organs to control complex complexes with the required speed and accuracy. technological processes. Huge energy powers, high speeds, ultra-high and ultra-low temperature conditions turned out to be subject only to automatic control and management.

Currently at high level mechanization of main production processes (80%) in most industries, auxiliary processes are still insufficiently mechanized (25-40); many works are performed manually. Largest quantity auxiliary workers are used in transport and movement of goods, in loading and unloading operations. If we take into account that the labor productivity of one such worker is almost 20 times lower than that of someone employed in complex mechanized areas, then the urgency of the problem of further mechanization of auxiliary work becomes obvious. In addition, it is necessary to take into account the fact that mechanization of auxiliary work in industry is 3 times cheaper than the main one.

But the main and most important form is production automation. Currently, computers are increasingly entering all areas of science and technology. In the future, these machines will become the basis of production automation and will control the automation.

The creation of new automatic technology will mean a broad transition from three link machines (working machine - transmission - engine) to four link machine systems. The fourth link is cybernetic devices, with the help of which enormous power is controlled.

The main stages of production automation are: semi-automatic machines, automatic machines, automatic lines, sections - and automatic workshops, factories - and automatic factories. The first step, which is transitional form From simple machines to automatic ones, there are semi-automatic machines. The fundamental feature of machines in this group is that a number of functions previously performed by humans are transferred to the machine, but the worker still retains certain operations that are usually difficult to automate. Highest level is the creation of factories - and automatic factories, i.e. fully automated enterprises.

The economic and social significance of mechanization and automation of production lies in the fact that they make it possible to replace manual labor, especially heavy labor with machines and automatic machines, increase labor productivity and, on this basis, ensure real or conditional release of workers, improve the quality of products, reduce labor intensity and production costs, increase production volume and thereby provide the enterprise with higher financial results, which makes it possible to improve the well-being of workers and their families.

Chemicalization is the process of production and use of chemical products in the national economy and everyday life, the introduction of chemical methods. processes and materials into the national economy.

Chemicalization as a process is developing in two directions: the use of advanced technologies in the production of various products: the production and widespread use of chemical materials in the national economy and everyday life.

From all this it follows that chemicalization has a very significant and direct effect on production efficiency. Moreover, this influence is diverse.

There is also a negative side to chemicalization - chemical production, as a rule, is hazardous industries, and to neutralize them, additional funds must be spent.

The basis for the chemicalization of social production is the development chemical industry In Russian federation.

The main indicators of the level of chemicalization are divided into specific and general.

2.2 Priority areas of scientific and technological progress for modern stage

The main directions of scientific and technical progress, which are common and long-term for all sectors of the national economy, were discussed above. The state at each stage of its development must determine priority areas of scientific and technical progress and ensure their development.

It should be noted that during the end of the CMEA, a comprehensive long-term scientific and technological progress program was developed and the following priority areas were identified in this program: comprehensive automation of production; electronization of the national economy; development of nuclear power industry; creation of new materials and technologies for their production; development of biotechnology; creation and development of other advanced technologies. In our opinion, these were successfully chosen priority areas for the development of scientific and technical progress, which can be called acceptable for our country in the near future.

EU countries are implementing a comprehensive scientific and technological progress program called “Eureka”, and it essentially contains the same priority areas of scientific and technological progress. In Japan, the list of priority areas includes more than 33, but the development of biotechnology is in first place.

One of the most important areas in technology is a new rapidly developing branch of science and production, based on the industrial application of natural and purposefully created living systems (primarily microorganisms). Production based on biological processes arose in ancient times (baking, winemaking, cheese making). Thanks to advances in immunology and microbiology, the production of antibiotics and vaccines began to develop. Biotechnology products have found wide application in medicine and agriculture.

Robots, robotics - a field of science and technology associated with the study, creation and use of fundamentally new technical means complex automation of production processes - robotic systems.

The term “robot” was introduced by the Czech writer K. Capek in 1920.

Depending on the main functions, they distinguish: manipulation robotic systems; mobile, moving in space; information robotic systems.

Robots and robotics are the basis for comprehensive mechanization and automation of production processes.

A rotary line (from the Latin roto - I rotate) is an automatic line of machines, the operating principle of which is based on the joint movement around the circumference of the tool and the object being processed by it. The discovery of the rotor principle belongs to the Soviet scientist Academician L.N. Koshkin.

The simplest rotary device consists of disks located on one shaft, on which the tool, workpiece holders and copiers (simple means that ensure coordinated interaction of the tool, holder and workpiece) are mounted.

Rotary lines are used in packaging, packaging, stamping, casting, assembly, pressing, painting, etc.

The advantage of rotary lines over conventional automation means is simplicity, reliability, accuracy, and enormous productivity.

The main disadvantage is low flexibility. But it has been overcome in rotary-conveyor lines, in which the tool blocks are located not on the rotor disks, but on the conveyor that goes around them. In this case, automatic replacement of tools and thereby reconfiguring lines to produce new products does not cause any particular difficulties.

There are other advanced production technologies, but all of them are characterized by one very important circumstance - higher productivity and efficiency.

2.3 Economic and social efficiency of scientific and technological progress

At the present stage and in the future, it is hardly possible to find a factor that would have such a strong influence on production, the economy and social processes in society, such as the acceleration of scientific and technical progress.

In general terms of acceleration, scientific and technological progress creates several types of effects: economic, resource, technical, social.

The economic effect is, in essence, an increase in labor productivity and a decrease in labor intensity, a decrease in material intensity and production costs, an increase in profits and profitability.

The resource effect is the release of resources in the enterprise: material, labor and financial.

The technical effect is the appearance new technology and technology, discoveries, inventions and innovation proposals, know-how and other innovations.

The social effect is an increase in the material and cultural standard of living of citizens, a more complete satisfaction of their needs for goods and services, improvement of working conditions and safety precautions, a decrease in the share of heavy manual labor, etc.

These effects can only be achieved if the state creates the necessary conditions to accelerate scientific and technological progress and manage modern scientific and technological progress in the direction necessary for society. Otherwise, negative social consequences for society in the form of pollution environment, extinction of the animal world in rivers and lakes, etc.

2.4 Forecasting and planning scientific and technical progress at the enterprise

Foreign and domestic practice has long proven that enterprises, especially large and medium-sized ones, cannot count on success without systematic forecasting and planning of scientific and technical progress. In general, forecasting is a scientifically based prediction of the development of socio-economic and scientific and technical trends.

A scientific and technical forecast is a reasonable probabilistic assessment of the prospects for the development of certain areas of science, engineering and technology, as well as the resources and organizational measures required for this. Forecasting scientific and technical progress at an enterprise makes it possible to look into the future and see what the most likely changes may occur in the field of equipment and technology used, as well as in manufactured products, and how this will affect the competitiveness of the enterprise.

Forecasting scientific and technical progress at an enterprise is, in essence, finding the most likely and promising ways for the development of an enterprise in the technical field.

The object of forecasting can be equipment, technology and their parameters, organization of production and labor, enterprise management, new products, required finances, and research. Preparation scientific personnel and etc.

In terms of time, forecasts can be: short-term (up to 2-3 years), medium-term (up to 5-7 years), long-term (up to 15-20 years).

It is very important that the enterprise achieves continuity of forecasting, i.e. the presence of all temporary forecasts, which must be periodically reviewed, clarified and extended.

Domestic and foreign practice numbers about 150 various methods forecast development, but in practice the most widely used following methods: extrapolation methods; methods of expert assessments; modeling methods.

The essence of the extrapolation method is to extend the patterns that have developed in science and technology in the pre-forecast period to the future. The disadvantage of this method is that it does not take into account many factors that may appear in the forecast period and significantly change the existing pre-forecast pattern and (trend), which can significantly affect the accuracy of the forecast.

Extrapolation methods are most appropriate to use for predicting areas of science and technology that change over time in an evolutionary way, including for predicting processes that develop extensively. When forecasting new directions in the development of science and technology, methods that take into account advanced information about new technical ideas and principles are more effective. One of these methods may be the method of expert assessments.

Methods of expert assessments are based on statistical processing of forecast estimates obtained by interviewing highly qualified specialists in relevant fields.

There are several methods of expert assessments. An individual questionnaire allows you to find out independent opinion experts. The Delphi method involves conducting a secondary survey after the experts have read the initial assessments of their colleagues. If there is a fairly close agreement of opinions, the “image” of the problem is expressed using average estimates. Group method forecasting is based on a preliminary discussion of the “tree of goals” and the development of collective assessments by the relevant commissions.

A preliminary exchange of opinions increases the validity of assessments, but creates the opportunity for individual experts to be subject to the influence of the most authoritative members of the group. In this regard, the method of collective generation of ideas can be used - “brainstorming”, in which each member of a group of 10 - 15 people independently expresses original ideas and proposals. Their critical assessment is carried out only after the end of the meeting.

Modeling-based forecasting methods are also varied: logical, informational and mathematical-statistical. These forecasting methods are not widely used in enterprises, mainly due to their complexity and lack of necessary information.

In general, forecasting scientific and technical progress includes: establishing the object of the forecast; choice of forecasting method; development of the forecast itself and its verification (probabilistic assessment).

After forecasting, the process of planning scientific and technical progress at the enterprise begins. When developing it, you must adhere to the following principles:

Priority. This principle means that the plan must include the most important and promising areas of scientific and technical progress provided for in the forecast, the implementation of which will provide the enterprise with significant economic and social benefits not only for the immediate period of time, but also for the future. Compliance with the principle of priority follows from the limited resources in the enterprise;

Continuity of planning. The essence of this principle is that the enterprise should develop short-term, medium-term and long-term scientific and technical progress plans that would flow from each other, which will ensure the implementation of this principle;

End-to-end planning. All components of the “science - production” cycle should be planned, and not its individual components. The “science - production” cycle consists of the following elements: basic research; exploratory research; applied research; design developments; creation of a prototype; technological preparation of production; release of new products and their replication. This principle can be fully implemented only at large enterprises, where it is possible to implement the entire “science - production” cycle;

Comprehensive planning. The NTP plan should be closely linked with other sections of the economic and social development enterprises:

Production program, capital investment plan, labor and personnel plan, cost and profit plan, financial plan. In this case, first a scientific and technical progress plan is developed, and then the remaining sections of the economic and social development plan of the enterprise;

Economic feasibility and resource availability. The NTP plan should include only economically justified measures (i.e. beneficial for the enterprise) and secured necessary resources. Quite often this the most important principle NTP planning is not followed, and hence its weak feasibility.

To provide an economic justification for the introduction of new equipment and technology, and the production of new products, the enterprise must develop a business plan. It is needed not only to ensure that the enterprise’s employees are convinced of the profitability of a particular project, but also to attract investors, especially foreign ones, if the enterprise does not have or does not have enough of its own funds to implement a profitable project.

The main method of planning scientific and technological progress at an enterprise is the program-target method.

Sections of the NTP plan depend on the current situation at the enterprise, specific needs forecast estimates and the availability of own and borrowed resources.

The scientific and technical progress plan at an enterprise may consist of the following sections:

Implementation of scientific and technical programs;

Introduction of new equipment and technology;

Introduction of computers;

Improving the organization of production and labor;

Sale and purchase of patents, licenses, know-how;

Plan for standardization and metrological support;

Plan scientific organization labor (LOT);

Improving the quality and ensuring the competitiveness of products;

Carrying out research and development work;

Economic justification for the NTP plan.

The NTP plan may include other sections, since there is no strict regulation on the number and names of sections.

After the NTP plan has been drawn up and approved, taking this plan into account, the remaining sections of the economic and social development plan of the enterprise are drawn up. To adjust the remaining sections of this plan, it is necessary to know how the implementation of the scientific and technical progress plan will affect the technical and economic indicators of the enterprise (profit, cost, labor productivity, etc.) in the planning period.

Social and environmental results of the implementation of scientific and technological progress measures are determined by the degree of deviation of social and environmental indicators from established standards, as well as by the scale of impact on the environment and social sphere.

In a market economy, scientific and technological progress will be facilitated by the development of healthy competition and the implementation of antimonopoly measures to change forms of ownership in the direction of denationalization and privatization.

3. The influence of scientific and technical progress on the development of the Russian economy

3.1 Impact of investment on the structure of production

The modern Russian economy, along with economic and social turmoil, is going through a period of formation of new economic relations, the determining factor of which will be the influence of scientific and technical progress.

Analyzing market relations as economic platform scientific and technological progress, most experts agree that it is Russia that has favorable environment for innovation.

High inflation, combined with low production volumes and effective demand of enterprises and the population, make even the most insignificant investment projects economically unprofitable in our country. State state budget forced to make a sharp reduction in absolute and relative percentage to the GNP of the scale of funding for research and development (research and development). The total number of scientific workers in Russia has decreased. With such an orientation, one cannot count on the emergence in the country of an environment favorable for effective national system innovations that contribute to the creation of new equipment and technology, growth real income population, increasing the competitiveness of domestic industry in the domestic and foreign markets.

The experience of developed Western countries shows that it is precisely on this path that true dynamism of scientific and technological progress is achieved. The same experience suggests that during the transition to such a model it cannot be spontaneous; it requires thoughtful development and consistent implementation of economic policy.

Condition for the emergence in Russia effective system innovation can only be an adequate change in the structure of the economy.

Structural restructuring is a long process. It must be preceded by financial stabilization, which is the main condition for the demand for innovation and investment.

There is also a psychological barrier. A country for a long time was in a position tuned to the immutability of connections and relationships. Meanwhile, economic growth at innovative basis requires continuous changes, adaptation to them, and is often associated with turning points and periods of crisis. Innovations undermine established production structures and cause a chain reaction of instability in all related areas.

Obviously, in modern conditions it is impossible to do without developing agreement on the common goal of scientific- technical development Russia. This goal can be formulated as a transformation on market principles of a national innovation system capable of ensuring the creation of technologies and services necessary for economic growth based on improving the standard and quality of life, the competitiveness of domestic industry and resource conservation.

Without trying to develop all areas of science and technology, it is nevertheless possible to use world achievements as a source of saving one’s own resources.

Information infrastructure and convergence of domestic and world education standards are extremely important. A feature of cognitive work that makes it most effective is its focus on studying the laws of nature and developing methods for their technological use.

The main content of scientific research work is knowledge of the laws of nature for the purpose of their practical application. The content of design work is the creation of specific mechanisms, machines, structures using laws, established by science. The work of a designer is more specific than that of a researcher, his final result famous. In addition to the creative contribution, one cannot ignore the costs of participants in the creation of new equipment, since the volume of research, development and other work to create new equipment reflects the degree of complexity of skilled labor. From an economic point of view, the expenditure of qualified labor, which includes work in the field of science, is manifested in the implementation difficult work, as well as increased labor intensity.

The value of research results for use and production is created at the stages of the cycle " applied research-- production" and then enters into the composition of the product through the labor of direct producers. Using Results Value scientific research makes it possible to save labor in the production process and create an additional amount of new value.

The next step is the creation of new areas of fundamental research. Highly qualified specialists with a unique research range are emerging.

The further development of space-related research entails the discovery of new laws in astronomy, geology, and chemistry. In the field of medicine, there is also a need to study the functions of the body in unusual conditions. A new sphere is being created -- space medicine During this period, the general rise of scientific and technical potential can be harmoniously traced.

The above allows us to identify significant reserves for increasing the efficiency of development of the areas currently being converted.

Discussions about the impact of investment on the structure of production inevitably lead to an assessment of the main macroeconomic characteristics of the national economy - economic growth trends.

Investments can affect the economics of production in different ways. Some investments lead primarily to labor savings and increased capital costs. They are usually called labor-saving. They lead to an increase in profits relative to wages. Other investments reduce the use of capital more than labor. They are called capital-saving. As a result of their implementation, wages increase relative to profits. There are also so-called neutral investments.

Modern economic science makes it possible to determine the main trends in economic growth.

The growth of capital-labor ratio occurs in conditions rapid growth population and relatively slow capital accumulation.

Economic growth is carried out in the context of a progressive upward trend in wages.

The ratio “wages - total income on property” changes slightly.

The rate of profit or the level of return on capital does not undergo significant deviations within economic cycles.

Thanks to the changes associated with the state of scientific and technical progress in the mid-century, trends began to simultaneously increase capital productivity, labor productivity, as well as reduce capital and material intensity.

The share of savings in the volume of national production does not change for a long time. At the same time, foreign investments do not have a significant impact on economic processes.

As a result of using the achievements of scientific and technological progress, the national product increases on average at a constant pace.

3.2 New economy

For a long time, the isolation of Russian industry, science and economics did not allow even our country to influence the general international position in the field of scientific and technical progress and the market. And as a result, it led to the absence of Russian participation in the conflict that began at the end of the 20th century. active process cooperation at the R&D stage (research and development), which has already led to the formation of international technological alliances and cross-national integration of innovative processes.

This does not benefit Russia. But it impoverishes and Western countries. The economic levers of state influence developed in Russia today are only approaching the testing stage in the West.

In the United States, a program has been proposed to speed up scientific and technical progress, in which the first point is the accelerated development of civilian technologies that ensure long term prospects stable economic growth, increasing labor productivity and at the same time ensuring the creation of new jobs that contribute to regional development and environmental conservation. It is emphasized that the private sector is not always interested in creating such technologies, not to mention the fact that financing such large-scale developments exceeds the capabilities of individual firms.

48. Main directions of scientific and technological progress.

The main directions of scientific and technological progress and the development of science and technology are aimed at solving the most pressing problems facing society, which are to improve living standards, meet growing needs, ensure security and economic growth. Only a policy of increasing the effectiveness of scientific and technical progress, its deeper penetration into the most important areas of human activity and the reasonable use of scientific and technological achievements can solve many problems of modern society.

The main directions of STP - scientific and technological progress- these are areas of development of science and technology, the implementation of which in practice will ensure maximum economic and social efficiency in the shortest possible time.

There are:

national (general),

industry (private) areas of scientific and technological progress.

In economics, it is customary to distinguish between the main directions of scientific and technical progress and the forms of their manifestation.

These include the following areas:

electrification of the national economy;

comprehensive mechanization and automation of production;

chemicalization of production;

introduction of the latest technologies.

49. Economic and social efficiency of scientific and technological progress.

NTP- is a continuous process of introducing new equipment and technology, organizing production and labor based on the achievements of scientific knowledge.

It is characterized by the following symptoms:

development and widespread use of fundamentally new machines and machine systems,

working in automatic mode;

creation and development of qualitatively new production technologies;

discovery and use of new types and sources of energy;

creation and widespread use of new types of materials with predetermined properties;

widespread development of automation of production processes based on the use of machine tools

numerical control, automatic lines, industrial robots,

flexible production systems;

introduction of new forms of labor and production organization.

At the present stage, the following features of scientific and technological progress are observed: There is an increase in the technological orientation of scientific and technological progress, its technological component. Progressive technologies are now the main link of scientific and technological progress, both in terms of the scale of implementation and results.

STP is intensifying: the volume of scientific knowledge is growing, the quality of scientific personnel is improving, the cost efficiency of its implementation is increasing and the effectiveness of STP activities is increasing.

At the present stage, scientific and technological progress is becoming more and more complex, systemic nature. This is expressed, first of all, in the fact that scientific and technical progress now covers all sectors of the economy, including the service sector, and penetrates all elements of social production: the material and technical base, the process of organizing production, the process of personnel training and the organization of management. In quantitative terms, complexity is also manifested in the mass introduction of scientific and technical achievements.

An important pattern of scientific and technical progress is the strengthening of its resource-saving orientation. As a result of the introduction of scientific and technical achievements, material, technical and labor resources are saved, and this is an important criterion for the effectiveness of scientific and technical progress.

There is a strengthening of the social orientation of STP, which is manifested in the increasing impact of STP on social factors human life: conditions of work, study, life.

There is an increasing focus on the development of science and technology towards preserving the environment - the greening of scientific and technological progress. This is the development and application of low-waste and non-waste technologies, the introduction of effective methods for the integrated use and processing of natural resources, and a more complete involvement of production and consumption waste into economic circulation.

To ensure the effective functioning of the economy, it is necessary to pursue a unified state scientific and technical policy. To do this, priority directions for the development of science and technology should be chosen at each stage of planning.

The main directions of scientific and technical progress are electrification, comprehensive mechanization, production automation and chemicalization of production.

Electrification is the process of widespread introduction of electricity into public production and everyday life. It is the basis for mechanization and automation, as well as chemicalization of production.

Integrated mechanization and automation of production is the process of replacing manual labor with a system of machines, apparatus, and instruments in all areas of production. This process is accompanied by a transition from low to higher forms, that is, from manual labor to partial, small and complex mechanization and further to the highest form of mechanization - automation.

Chemicalization of production- the process of production and use of chemical materials, as well as the introduction of chemical methods and processes into technology.

The priority areas of scientific and technical progress at the present stage are: biotechnology, electronization of the national economy, complex automation, accelerated development of nuclear energy, the creation and introduction of new materials, and the development of fundamentally new technologies.

NTP allows you to solve the following problems: firstly, it is NTP that is the main means of increasing labor productivity, reducing production costs, increasing product output and improving its quality. Secondly, as a result of scientific and technical progress, new efficient machines, materials, and technological processes are created that improve working conditions and reduce the labor intensity of manufacturing products. Thirdly, scientific and technical progress has a strong impact on the organization of production, stimulates the growth of production concentration, and accelerates the development of its specialization and cooperation. Fourthly, the progress of science and technology ensures the solution of socio-economic problems (employment of the population, ease of labor, etc.), serves to more fully satisfy the needs of both society as a whole and each person. Efficiency of scientific and technical progress

The result of the implementation of scientific and technical progress achievements is an increase in the efficiency of the national economy.

The effectiveness of scientific and technical progress is understood as the ratio of the effect and the costs that caused this effect. The effect is understood as a positive result that is obtained as a result of the implementation of scientific and technical progress achievements.

The effect may be:

economic (reducing production costs, increasing profits, increasing labor productivity, and so on);

political (ensuring economic independence, strengthening defense capability);

social (improving working conditions, increasing the material and cultural level of citizens, and so on);

environmental (reducing environmental pollution).

When determining the economic efficiency of implementing scientific and technical progress, a distinction is made between one-time and current costs. One-time costs are capital investments for the creation of new equipment. Current costs are costs that are incurred during the entire service life of the new equipment.

There are absolute and comparative economic efficiency. Absolute economic efficiency is defined as the ratio of the economic effect to the entire amount of capital investments that caused this effect. By national economy in general, absolute economic efficiency (Ee.ef.n/x) is determined as follows:

Ee.ef.n/x = DD/K

where DD is the annual increase in national income, rub.; K - capital investments that caused this increase, rub.

Comparative economic efficiency.

Calculations of comparative economic efficiency are used when choosing options for capital construction, reconstruction and technical re-equipment of enterprises, technological processes, design, and so on. Comparison of various options for solving economic and technical problems is carried out using a system of basic and additional indicators.

What is technical progress? Scientific and technical progress is

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48. Main directions of scientific and technological progress.

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