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1.The importance of studying history. Credibility problem historical knowledge. Historical sources, their types, basic methods of working with them. Auxiliary historical disciplines.
2. The most ancient states. Features of the civilizations of the Ancient World - ancient Eastern and ancient. Examples of civilizations.
1.Historical event and historical fact. Concepts of historical development (formational, civilizational, their combination). Periodization of world history. The history of Russia is part of world history.
2. Great powers of the Ancient East. Prerequisites for the emergence of great powers, their features. Consequences of the emergence of great powers.
1. Origin of man. People of the Paleolithic era. Archaeological sites of the Paleolithic on the territory of Russia.
2. Ancient Greece. Hellenistic states - a synthesis of ancient and ancient eastern civilization. Ancient Rome.
1.Neolithic Revolution and its consequences. Neolithic revolution on the territory of modern Russia. Indo-Europeans and the problem of their ancestral homeland.
2.Culture and religion of the Ancient World. Features of culture and religious views of the Ancient East. Ancient culture as the foundation of modern world culture. The emergence of Christianity.
1. Eastern Slavs: origin, settlement, occupation, social structure. Background and reasons for education Old Russian state. The first Russian princes, their domestic and foreign policies.
2. Middle Ages: concept, chronological framework, periodization. The Great Migration of Peoples and the formation of barbarian kingdoms in Europe. The synthesis of late Roman and barbarian principles in European society of the early Middle Ages.
1. The beginning of the reign of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich. The Baptism of Rus': reasons, main events, significance. Spread of culture and writing.
2.The emergence of Islam. The formation of the Arab Caliphate and Arab conquests. Culture of the Islamic world.
1. Socio-economic and political system Ancient Rus'. Politics of Yaroslav the Wise and Vladimir Monomakh. Ancient Rus' and its neighbors.
2.Byzantine Empire. Byzantium and the Slavs. The influence of Byzantium on the statehood and culture of Russia.
1. Political fragmentation: causes and consequences. The largest independent centers of Rus', features of their geographical, socio-political and cultural development. The emergence of the desire for the unification of Russian lands.
2. East in the Middle Ages. Medieval India. Features of China's development. Formation and evolution of statehood in Japan.
1. Features of ancient Russian culture. The emergence of writing. Development of local art schools.
2. The Empire of Charlemagne and its collapse. Feudal fragmentation in Europe. Normans and their campaigns.
1.Mongol invasion. Rus''s struggle against expansion from the West. Dependence of Russian lands on the Horde and its consequences.
2.Medieval society. Feudalism: concept, main features. Structure and estates of medieval society.
1. Reasons and main stages of the unification of Russian lands. Moscow and Tver: the struggle for the great reign. Battle of Kulikovo, its significance.
2. Cities of the Middle Ages, the reasons for their emergence. City republics. The significance of medieval cities.
1. Rus' under the successors of Dmitry Donskoy. Ivan III. The formation of a unified Russian state and its significance.
2. Separation of churches, Catholicism and Orthodoxy. Catholic Church in the Middle Ages. Crusades.
1. Russia during the reign of Ivan the Terrible. Reforms of the 1550s and the oprichnina. Expansion of the territory of the state, foreign policy.
2.England and France in the Middle Ages. Education in Spain and Portugal. Hussite wars in the Czech Republic and their consequences.
1. The reign of B. Godunov. Time of Troubles early XVII century. The beginning of the reign of the Romanov dynasty.
2.Medieval culture of Western Europe. The beginning of the Renaissance. Cultural heritage of the European Middle Ages.
1. Economic and social development Russia in the 17th century. The final enslavement of the peasants. Popular movements.
2. Economic development and changes in Western European society in early modern times. Manufactory. Discoveries in science, improvements in technology, introduction of technical innovations into production.
1. The formation of absolutism in Russia. Reforms of Patriarch Nikon and church schism. Russian foreign policy in the seventeenth century.
2. Great geographical discoveries, their technical, economic and intellectual prerequisites. Divisions of spheres of influence and the beginning of formation colonial system. Political, economic and cultural consequences of the Great Geographical Discoveries.
1. Culture of the XIII-XVII centuries. Literature, architecture, iconography. Traditions and new trends, strengthening the secular nature of culture in the 17th century.
2. The concept of “Protestantism”. Martin Luther and John Calvin. Counter-Reformation and attempts at reform in the Catholic world.
1. Russia in the era of Peter’s reforms. The reign of Princess Sophia. Crimean campaigns of V.V. Golitsyn.
2.The Renaissance. Humanism and a new concept of human personality.
The influence of humanistic ideas in literature, art and architecture.
1. The beginning of the independent reign of Peter I. Azov campaigns. Grand Embassy.
2. The formation of absolutism in European countries. Absolutism in France, Spain, England. Making England Great sea power under Elizabeth I.
1. Northern War: causes, main events, results. The significance of the Battle of Poltava. Prut and Caspian campaigns.
2.England in the 17th-18th centuries. Causes, results, nature and significance of the English Revolution. Socio-economic development of England in the 18th century.
1. First transformations. Government reforms Peter I. Reorganization of the army.
2.Countries of the East in the 16th-18th centuries. Ottoman conquests in Europe. Manchu conquest of China. Tokugawa Shogunate in Japan.
1. Reforms government controlled Peter I (establishment of the Senate, collegiums, provincial reform, etc.). Decree on unity of inheritance. Table of ranks.
2. Colonial conquests of England, Holland and France. English colonies in North America: socio-economic development and political structure. The capture of India by England and its consequences.
1. Proclamation of Russia as an empire. Affirmation of absolutism. Church reform.
2.International relations in the XVII-XVIII centuries. Causes, course, features, consequences of the Thirty Years' War. Seven Years' War prototype of the world war.
1. Russia under Peter I. Economic development. Policy of protectionism and mercantilism. Social movements.
2. Development of European culture and science in the 17th-18th centuries. Age of Enlightenment. The doctrine of natural law and social contract.
1. The development of industry and trade in the second quarter - the end of the 18th century. The growth of landownership. The main classes of Russian society, their position.
2.The War of Independence and the formation of the United States. French Revolution of the late 18th century. Results and international significance of the revolution.
1. The main classes of Russian society, their position. Strengthening serfdom. The uprising led by E.I. Pugachev and its significance.
2. The industrial revolution and its consequences. The most important inventions. Social consequences industrial revolution.
1. Palace coups: causes, essence, consequences. Domestic and foreign policy of the successors of Peter I. Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War.
2. Economic development of England and France in the 19th century. The end of the era of “free capitalism”. Monopolies and their forms.
1.The reign of Catherine II. The policy of “enlightened absolutism”: main directions, activities, significance. Letters granted to the nobility and cities.
2. Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars. Eastern Question and the exacerbation of contradictions between European powers. Formation of a system of alliances.
1.Foreign policy of Catherine II. Russian-Turkish wars and their results. Russia's participation in the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
2. Political development of the countries of Europe and America in the 19th century. Spreading socialist ideas. The teachings of K. Marx.
1. Domestic policy of Paul I, his overthrow. Foreign policy of Paul I. Italian and Swiss campaigns of A.V. Suvorov, Mediterranean expedition of F.F. Ushakov.
2. Development of Western European culture of the 19th century. The most important scientific discoveries. The influence of cultural changes on people's daily lives and everyday life.
1. Russian culture of the 18th century. Innovations in the culture of Peter the Great. Enlightenment and scientific knowledge. The formation of domestic science.
2. Colonial division of Asia and Africa. The liberation struggle of the peoples of the colonies and dependent countries. The Sepoy Mutiny and Reforms in Indian Governance.
1. Russian culture of the 18th century. Literature and art. Culture and life of Russia in the second half of the 18th century.
2. Transformation of China into a dependent country. The forced "opening" of Japan. The Meiji Revolution and its consequences.
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Page creation date: 2017-11-23
5 Russia in the 16th century
15 The formation of Soviet society
16 During the years of severe trials
17 From the Soviet Union to modern Russia
Answers to History tickets:
1 Subject and tasks of historical science.
Historical science is a broad concept that includes several related scientific disciplines (economics, politics, culture, etc.) aimed at obtaining knowledge about various historical processes.
In general, the subject of historical science is the regularity of the development process human society and the characteristics of individual nations and states.
Precisely because historical science tries to give a holistic vision of the historical process and logically highlight the following tasks of its activities:
1) study of the historical process for a better understanding of reality;
2) an objective explanation of phenomena and events of the past;
3) search for cause and effect relationships as the basis of events;
4) awakening of historical memory, national self-awareness;
5) education of patriotism, responsibility for the fate of the country.
2 Eastern Slavs and the formation of the Old Russian state in the 9th - first third of the 13th centuries.
According to most historians, the separation of the Slavs from the Indo-European community occurred in the 2nd millennium BC. The Slavs developed the territory of Central and South-Eastern Europe during the period of the Great Migration of Peoples. As they developed, they developed a settled agricultural economy and formed the Bulgarian kingdom, the Khazar Khaganate and the Turkic Khaganate.
The Eastern Slavs occupied the territory from the Carpathian Mountains in the west to the Middle Oka and the upper reaches of the Don in the east, from the Neva and Lake Ladoga in the north to the Middle Dnieper region in the south. Having mastered the East European Plain, the Slavs began to contact Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. Since that time, the process of assimilation of peoples has been noted. Already in the VI-IX centuries. The Slavs began to form communities that had a tribal and territorial-political character.
The Slavs have come a long way in their development. Agriculture and cattle breeding developed successfully, but the low level of productivity required great labor effort, so the community played a huge role as a body of control over its relatives. However, already by the 8th century. There was a division of the communal system into farms in which each family had the right to its share of communal property.
At the head of the East Slavic tribal unions were princes from the tribal nobility and the former clan elite - “deliberate people”, “the best men”. And the main clan issues were resolved at veche gatherings. There was a militia with commanders in chief - sotskys and squads. Tribal unions became the starting point on the path to statehood Eastern Slavs. One of the largest associations of tribal principalities was the union of tribes led by Kiy (5th-6th centuries), and the first state formed at the beginning of the 9th century. On the basis of the Polyansky Union of Tribes it received the name Rus.
Formation of the state of Rus' (Old Russian state, Kievan Rus) became a natural and final stage in a long process of decomposition of the primitive communal system of a huge number of Slavic tribal unions. Khakan-Rus became the first prince of the state.
3 The struggle of Rus' against the Horde yoke and Swedish-German crusader aggression.
The struggle against the Horde yoke went on from the moment of its formation in the form of spontaneous popular uprisings, which were too weak for a complete overthrow, but contributed to its weakening.
The “Batu pogrom” had serious consequences, as a result of which a large number of people died and artisans were captured. Cities suffered, experiencing decline, complex crafts disappeared and stone construction ceased.
The second half of the 8th century is marked by Horde invasions (the Mongol-Tatars undertook large campaigns against North-Eastern Rus' 15 times). "Dudenev's army" in its destructive consequences in 1293 was reminiscent of Batu's campaign.
A system of robbery was founded by collecting regular tribute - these are 14 different burdens that “break” the economy of Rus', preventing it from recovering after ruin. There was a massive leak of jewelry and silver.
The result of such invasions was the division of Russian lands, the weakening of the southern and western principalities, which became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: the Polotsk and Turov-Pinsk principalities - by the beginning of the 14th century, Volyn - in the middle of the 14th century, Kiev and Chernigov - in the 60s years 14th century, Smolensk - at the beginning of the 15th century.
The Mongol-Tatar conquest led to the fact that the masses fell under the influence not only of their feudal lords but also of the Mongol-Tatar ones. And the khan’s policy emphasized inciting the feudal
strife to prevent the country from uniting.
At the same time, in the 13th century it was necessary to fight the German-Swedish invaders who were attracted by the land Northern Rus'(Novgorod is the richest trading city).
German companies are being created in the Baltics spiritual-knightly orders: Order of the Sword (1202) and Teutonic Order (at the end of the 12th century), attacking the borders in 1220.
The Swedes, also wanting to capture Novgorod, in agreement with the Order, attempted to capture the city, under the leadership of the Pope. Erik Kartavy’s campaign took place under the slogan “Turn the Rus into true Christians.” Alexander Yaroslavich with his squad and militia made a lightning-fast transition from Novgorod and suddenly attacked the Swedes’ camp, hitting the commander himself. Alexander's victory on the Neva became a turning point in liberation and made it easier for the Russian people in their long struggle against the Horde yoke.
4 From Rus' to Russia. The formation of the Russian centralized state.
From the middle of the 14th century. Northeastern Rus' sought to unite the lands. The center of unification became the Moscow principality, which was separated from the Vladimir-Suzdal principality in the 12th century.
The main factors leading to the unification were the collapse of the Golden Horde, the struggle for national independence, the development of trade and economic ties and the strengthening of the nobility. The center gravitated towards a system of landownership: the nobles received land plots for their service and for the duration of its performance, which strengthened the power and authority of the prince.
Centralization of the state meant the unification of lands around Moscow and the creation of a fundamentally new government. The unification took place in the northeastern and northwestern lands the former Kievan Rus in a short time due to the danger of a collision with the Golden Horde. Monasteries, fortresses and cities are colonized. A feudal society with serfdom and estates is being formed. However, the structure of the lightning-quickly formed state was too shaky.
In history, 3 stages of state centralization have been identified:
1. end XIII- beginning of the 14th century. Associated with the loss of old cities of their power (Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir). The new cities of Moscow and Tver are rising. The rise of Tver is associated with active political activity after the death of A. Nevsky. Attempts are being made to subjugate Lithuania and the Tatars. The rise of Moscow occurs from the moment of the appearance of Nevsky’s son, Daniil, who annexes Kolomna and Pereyaslavl. Moscow becomes a principality.
2. second half of the 14th - first half of the 15th centuries. Moscow is strengthening under the rule of Prince Dmitry Donskoy. On September 8, 1380, the Battle of Kulikovo took place. The Tatar army of Khan Mamai was defeated.
3. end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. The unification of Russian lands was completed under the great-grandson of Dmitry Donskoy, Ivan III (1462 - 1505) and Vasily III (1505 - 1533). Ivan III annexed the entire North-East of Rus' to Moscow: in 1463 - the Yaroslavl principality, in 1474 - the Rostov principality. Ivan III overthrew the Mongol-Tatar yoke (in 1480 on the Ugra River).
5 Russia in the 16th century
In the 16th century Russia's territorial expansion continues. The Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberian khanates and Bashkiria were annexed. The lands of the southern outskirts of the country (“wild field”) were actively developed. Attempts have been made to reach the Baltic Sea.
During this period of time, the country's population numbered about 7 million people. And after the annexation of the Volga and Siberian lands, the population of Russia became multinational. The only seaport was Arkhangelsk.
Throughout the century, a system of serfdom developed. The code of law of Ivan III (1497) fixed the period for the transfer of peasants - a week before November 26 and a week after. As a result of the mass exodus of peasants, the government issues the decree “Sacred Years” (1581).
However, despite having significant advantages, the country also had many problems. The unification of the state had not yet been completed, but Russia was on the path of “autocracy” and understood the urgency of the problem of centralized management of the annexed lands. The elected Rada carried out reforms, and the Zemsky Sobor regularly discussed pressing matters (the Livonian War, the election of Fyodor Ivanovich, Boris Godunov, etc.). The estates belonged to the king and his relatives, and the princes did not have the right to carry out independent policies, but still had rights to the throne.
A class system is emerging—legislative consolidation of the provisions of social strata and heredity of privileges.
The church remained a powerful and relatively independent structure. The Metropolitan gave his own orders, had boyars and secular people under his command. service people. The local nobility (princes of Rostov, Obolensky, etc. and their former boyars) retained their strength and independence.
Another problem was the growth of serfdom in the context of large-scale development of market relations.
A big breakthrough for the country was the creation of the Streltsy army, the adoption of the “Code of Service” - military reform. Now nobles could serve from the age of 15, and also transfer this right by inheritance.
The system of orders and localism are actively developing. The “feeding” system is being abolished (local government reform) and the positions of governor, elders, and policemen are introduced. A tax collection unit is established - a large plow (tax reform).
6 “Rebellious” century of Russian history.
The century was called “rebellious” because of the large number of wars and uprisings in the 17th century, which had multiple negative consequences.
The main reason for such a turbulent era was the reign of Boris Morozov, who had great influence on Alexei Mikhailovich. As a result of active intervention, namely the increase in tax payments, the introduction of emergency taxes, the emergence of the townspeople's tax population and the abuse of power, popular uprisings occurred.
During the “rebellious” century, several uprisings and revolts of the people took place. In 1648 began " Salt riot", due to a sharp increase in the salt tax. Simple people, as well as peasants and archers, destroyed the houses of the Moscow nobility and demanded Morozov, many boyars were executed. In 1650, the price of bread was raised due to its migration to Sweden (payment for defectors from areas that Russia had captured), which also led to riots.
And July 25, 1662 was marked by a “copper riot”, as a sign of the excessive production of copper coins. Coins began to be counterfeited, and copper money simply became worthless. Hunger began. Since 1663 copper money was no longer printed.
In 1661-1667 it began peasant revolt under the leadership of Stepan Razin against the boyars and the tsar's associates. This uprising is considered one of the bloodiest in the 17th century. Stepan Razin was executed.
The Streltsy revolt of 1682 ended the “rebellious” century. According to historians, its reasons were the abuse of power by the Streltsy military leaders. The result was the actual reign of Sofia Alekseevna.
We can conclude that the result of the century was futility. The population was not understood and heard. Taxation and abuse of power continued to flourish.
7 Russia in the 18th century: the birth of an empire.
In Russia in the 18th century. Radical socio-economic transformations are taking place, affecting all aspects of the country’s economic life, as well as the formation of the class system.
The reason that gave rise to such transformations was the decomposition of feudalism and capitalist relations.
Peter I consciously approached the country's problems and purposefully solved them one after another. For everything he did for the country, he was called the Tsar-Transformer.
Under the reign of Peter I (proclaimed emperor), absolutism established itself in Russia: the strengthening of the tsar's power led to his autocracy and unlimited possibilities.
Instead of the Boyar Duma, the Senate legislative body was created (reform state apparatus), which included nine dignitaries close to Peter I. The Senate was headed by the Prosecutor General. The orders were replaced by collegiums (12), each of which governed a specific area: foreign relations were managed by the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, the Admiralty fleet, revenue collection by the Chamber Collegium, noble land ownership by the Patrimony, etc. The cities were in charge of the Chief Magistrate.
The struggle between the supreme, secular authorities and the church continued. But in 1721 the Spiritual College (Synod) was established, subordinating the church to the state. The conduct of church affairs was given to the Chief Prosecutor of the Synod.
In 1708 a reorganization of local self-government took place, as a result of which the country was divided into 8 provinces (Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov and Siberian) led by governors and their troops. The provinces were divided into 50 provinces, which included counties. Thus, a unified administrative-bureaucratic management system was created in Russia - a sign of an absolutist state.
Since 1705, conscription was introduced with a unified principle of recruitment and armament. The norm for conscripting a soldier for lifelong service is one recruit from 20 peasant households. Officer schools were organized. It was under Peter I that the Russian army and navy became one of the strongest in Europe.
An important result and legislative consolidation of all Peter’s reform activities was the Table of Ranks (1722), which was a law on the procedure for public service. The report card put an end to the patriarchal tradition of management and localism, and also contributed to the unification and expansion of the nobility at the expense of all class strata.
8 Social and economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century.
The main feature of the socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. began the ever-increasing process of decomposition of the feudal-serf system.
Agriculture in Russia developed very slowly, and the growth of commodity-money relations led to the expansion of the landowner's arable land. Own expansion could be carried out in two ways: by plowing other lands, or by reducing the land plots of peasants. There were also frequent cases of landowners unlawfully depriving peasants of their land, transferring them to a “month.” The increase in quitrents led to the need to look for part-time work on the side, which also reduced the level of agricultural production. That is why the peasants were not interested in the results of their labor.
We can conclude that the serf economy of this period was characterized by its impoverishment and growing debt to the landowners. And in lean years, farms were on the verge of ruin.
The central phenomenon in industry was the beginning of the industrial revolution - the transition to factory production. During the revolution, new classes were founded - the industrial proletariat and the bourgeoisie.
Railways appeared in the country: Tsarskoye Selo (1837), Warsaw-Vienna (1839-1848), Petersburg-Moscow (1843-1851). However, the main cargo flow still passed through waterways. The formation of a single all-Russian market continued. Fairs became an important form of trade: Nizhny Novgorod, Irbit (in Siberia), Korennaya (near Kursk). Shop trade and peddling trade developed successfully.
Thus, the development of commodity-money relations was facilitated by the formation of new economic regions with different specializations. Thus, the largest commercial and industrial centers of the country were located in the Central Industrial Region.
One of the signs of the social crisis was a significant reduction in the number of serfs. A trend towards urbanization has emerged (the urban population has doubled).
9 Russian Empire in the first quarter of the 19th century.
Development of Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century. associated with the reforms of Alexander I (1801 - 1825) aimed at solving such problems as the elimination of serfdom, limiting autocracy, and introducing constitutional principles.
M. M. Speransky, on behalf of Alexander I, a program was developed political reforms(by 1809), which provided for the transformation of Russia into a constitutional monarchy. The program clearly demonstrated the principle of “separation of powers” and multi-level representative institutions. On January 1, 1810, the State Council was established in the form of the highest legislative body of the empire, and the functions of the highest administrative and judicial power were assigned to the Senate.
As a result of the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, the constitution of the Kingdom of Poland was approved - the Polish lands included in Russian Empire.
Merchants, burghers and state peasants were allowed to buy uninhabited lands and cultivate them with the help of hired force (1801). This phenomenon stopped the monopoly of the nobles on land. And the decree on “free cultivators” allowed the owners of serfs to release peasants with their families “to freedom” with the obligatory allotment of land to them for ransom or on the condition of fulfilling duties.
In Estland, Courland and Livonia, serfdom was abolished (1816-1819) on the condition that peasants received personal freedom and land was assigned to landowners.
With the advent of the 20s. Russia's innovation is entering the stage
"Arakcheevshchina." The central phenomenon of this period became a system of military settlements, with the prevailing military-feudal order. Religious mysticism spread in educational institutions.
Beginning of the 19th century marked “European”, since the solution of pan-European problems became impossible without the participation of the empire. The main objective of foreign policy was to maintain the European and Middle Eastern expansion of France as part of the program to achieve world domination. However, the result of Russia's participation in anti-Napoleonic coalitions were defeats in 1805 at Austerlitz, in 1807 at Friedland and the signing of the difficult Peace of Tilsit.
On the eve of the Patriotic War of 1812, the tsarist government strengthened its position through wars and peace treaties with Sweden (1808 - 1809) and Turkey (1806 - 1812). As a result of political altercations, most of Poland (the Kingdom of Poland) went to Russia.
The most significant phenomenon in public life after the war were the Decembrists - military men from the liberal strata of the nobility (1816 - 1826), in the form of an opposition movement against the authorities. The open demonstration of the Decembrists against the autocracy on December 14, 1825 on Senate Square in the capital was not successful.
10 Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.
December 14, 1825 Nicholas I, Alexander's younger brother, ascends the throne and begins his reign with the fight over the Decembrist uprisings. 5 participants were sentenced to death and more than 100 people were exiled to hard labor or to remote regions.
Nicholas’s reign passed under the slogan “no changes”; the main tasks were to maintain the existing order with the help of legislation, without the participation of society.
Nikolai complicated the centralized control mechanism. A large number of departments and offices were created, including the office of “His Majesty”. In 1830 comes out" full meeting laws of the Russian Empire” under the leadership of Speransky (who received the Order of A. the First-Called) from all charters, laws, decrees, starting with the Code of 1649 (in 45 volumes).
Nicholas signs a manifesto about the absence of changes in the lives of serfs, creates secret committees to consider the issue of their liberation. The result was the creation of a special department for state peasants - the Ministry of State Property, headed by Kiselev, who a short time raised the peasantry to its feet and increased their well-being. With the support of Kiselev, a number of laws were passed on the organization of serfs: the Law of “soul ownership” (1827); Law prohibiting the sale of peasants (1841); Prohibition on the purchase and sale of peasants without land (1843); The right for peasants of debtor estates to buy their freedom with the land (1847); The right to acquire land by peasants (1848). However, thanks to the bureaucratic apparatus, the laws disappeared from subsequent editions of the Code of Laws.
In the period 1839 - 1843. monetary reform is being carried out under the leadership of Kankrin. The main idea is to limit government spending, reduce leverage, and reduce protectionism. Introduced the silver ruble.
Educational institutions (1828) were divided by class into primary, parish, district and gymnasiums.
In the military life of the country, the main thing was the Crimean War (1853-1856) with Turkey, which became a disgrace for Russia. The country showed itself to be disorganized, ruined and backward in all respects. As a result, Nikolai cannot withstand such a blow to his pride and dies on a campaign across Russia.
11 Russia in the era of the “Great Reforms” (60-70s of the 19th century).
The era of the Great Reforms passed under the name of Alexander II, who set the goal of improving all spheres of state life.
The following prerequisites for the introduction of reforms into the life of society can be identified: the crisis of the serfdom system, hunger, debts. Dependent serf relations hampered the development of industry. All this exacerbated the economic and political crisis in the Russian Empire. According to the results Crimean War It was not difficult to understand that serfdom hampered the development of the country and needed to be eliminated.
The peasant reform (1857) began with the creation of the Secret Committee, which was later transformed into the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs. Editorial commissions and provincial committees were created, which included only nobles. On February 19, 1861, Alexander II signed the General Regulations on Peasants Emerging from Serfdom and other acts of peasant reform (17 acts), which resolved issues such as: personal peasant emancipation, land allotments and duties, redemption of allotments by peasants, organization of peasant governance . The laws abolished serfdom and established the right of peasants to land allotment.
Thus, after the announcement of the reform on the abolition of serfdom, the peasants received personal freedom.
The main legal act of the zemstvo reform was the “Regulation on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” of January 1, 1864, based on the principles of all-class zemstvo representation; property qualification; independence exclusively within the boundaries of economic activity.
According to the Regulations of 1864, the district zemstvo assembly elected a zemstvo council for three years, which consisted of two members and a chairman and was the executive body of zemstvo self-government.
The prerequisite for the Judicial Reform of 1864 was the discrepancy between justice and the requirements of society, cases were considered for an extremely long time, and corruption also occurred. The result of the reform was a court organized in accordance with the principles of transparency and competition, with a sworn attorney (lawyer).
The implementation of the Judicial Statutes of 1864 continued until 1884. However, jury trials on the outskirts of the Russian Empire never began to operate.
The reforms led to the need to reorganize the Russian army under the leadership of D.A. Milyutin. He introduced a system of military districts throughout the country, which made it possible to improve conscription and military training.
A three-level judicial-military system: regimental, military district, main military court. The main achievement military reform became the Judicial Charter of November 20, 1864 and the Military Judicial Charter of May 15, 1867, dividing the judicial sphere into higher and lower.
Summing up the results of the reformation, we can conclude that the road to capitalism was open, absolutism turned into a bourgeois monarchy. Large-scale in nature and consequences, the reforms led to significant changes in all aspects of the life of Russian society.
12 Russia during the period of stabilization of political and social relations (80s - 90s of the 19th century)
The period of stabilization took place under the banner of the development of capitalism. Serfdom and autocracy, which hampered the development of the country, have been eliminated. Alexander III (1881 - 1894) put an end to bourgeois reforms. On April 29, 1881, the manifesto “On the Inviolability of Autocracy” was adopted, proclaiming faith in “the strength and truth of autocratic power.”
The essence of Alexander's policy boiled down to carrying out counter-reforms (1881-1892) and moving away from democratic elements. The position of zemstvo chiefs is established, who supervise the communal self-government of peasants. The World Court was abolished.
University autonomy was eliminated, expressed in restricting access to gymnasiums for children of the lower strata of the population (ministry circular public education"About the cook's children").
Among the ministries, the Ministry of Internal Affairs enjoyed enormous influence and authority, supervising the activities of local authorities, zemstvos and city governments. The Ministry included the State Police Department with the gendarmerie corps and security departments.
The main branch of the economy was still agriculture. However, the nobility was in decline and suffered from land shortages, especially in the central part of Russia. This issue became more acute by 1861 with the parallel struggle between Prussian and American capitalism.
However, significant changes were observed in the industry. Old (textile, food) industries are developing, and new ones are also emerging - oil production, chemical, engineering.
In the 80s and 90s, the industrial revolution ended, and the machine industry nevertheless came to replace manufactories. Thanks to this, Russia took first place in terms of production volumes. However, the revolution did not affect agriculture; half of the peasants worked the land with plows.
Stabilization of financial policies was carried out by such famous figures as N.H. Bunge and S.Yu. Witte. They carried out a number of reforms to improve the tax system and industrialize the country. Witte's policy made it possible to attract foreign capital to many areas of activity.
In 1897, a monetary reform was carried out, proclaiming the replacement of paper money with the gold ruble.
External political situation was difficult for Russia, since the government focused all its efforts on restoring its influence after the Crimean War (in particular in the Balkans and Turkey).
On April 24, 1877, Russia declared war on Turkey (Military leaders I.R. Gurko and M.D. Skobelev). The final stage The war began with the offensive of Russian troops south of Shipka - the Turkish army was defeated.
On March 3, 1878, the San Stefano Peace Treaty was concluded, according to which Turkey had to accept the independence of Montenegro, Serbia and Romania, as well as pay part of the indemnity to the Russians. Russia received Kars, Batum, Ardahan and Bayazit (in Turkey).
Thanks to Alexander III, France joined the Russian allies. In 1881, the Austro-Russian-German treaty “Union of the Three Emperors” was extended for three years, and three years later it was extended again.
By 1895, all of Central Asia became part of the Russian Empire. This accession was of great economic importance and made it possible to reach the world level for the supply of cotton.
13 Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century (1901-1914)
Industrial rise of the late 19th century. was slowed down by what began in 1899. global monetary and financial economic crisis, which lasted until 1903. Due to the depression (1904-1908), the number of industrial enterprises decreased by 25%, and the process of ruin led to the concentration of production. Monopolies developed powerfully - cartels and syndicates that united enterprises for joint sales - Prodamet, Produgol, Prodparovoz, Gvozd and others.
In 1902, oil production was completely monopolized. In parallel with the monopolization of production, banking activities also expanded, leading to the formation of banking groups - the Russian-Asian Bank, the Azov-Don Bank and others.
The leading and most stable industry remained textile in Yaroslavl, Tver, Kostroma, and railway lines made it possible to transport goods to the central region.
The social stratification of society, as well as the economy, was unstable; it included landowners and peasants, the bourgeoisie and workers. The subjects of the Russian monarch were members of one of the main classes, which were divided into tax-paying (peasants, city dwellers) and non-tax-paying (nobility, clergy). The process of stratification also affected the peasants. Now they could be divided into groups: wealthy peasants(20%), middle peasants (30%), poor people (50%). The bourgeoisie occupied the leading place.
The highest state bodies were the State Council, whose decisions were advisory to the tsar, and the Senate, the highest court and interpreter of laws. Political power carried out by 11 ministries, coordinated by a committee of ministers. Unlimited supreme power on the ground, it was clearly manifested in the omnipotence of the administration, officials and police.
In 1902, on the basis of the old populist circles, the Socialist Revolutionary Party arose (L.M. Chernov, N.D. Avksentyev, B.V. Savinkov). Who considered the working people (peasantry, intelligentsia, proletariat and student youth) the basis of society. The Social Revolutionaries advocated a revolution and the establishment of a dictatorship, which was supposed to carry out the socialization of the land - the transfer of all land to peasant communities for further division according to the labor standard among those who cultivate it.
In addition, the liberal movement became officially recorded. In 1903, the “Union of Zemstvo Constitutionalists” (P.A. Heiden, S.N. Trubetskoy, D.N. Shipov) and the “Union of Liberation” (P.N. Milyukov, P.B. Struve, V.) arose. D. Nabokov).
In 1895, the Russian-Chinese Bank was organized and the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway was organized, which led to dissatisfaction with the Japanese side (with the support of England and the USA). The Russian army was significantly superior to the Japanese, but our country was not ready for war and was defeated. A peace treaty was signed in Portsmouth (USA, August 23, 1905). Russia recognized Korea as a Japanese sphere of influence and transferred to Japan the right to lease part of the Liaodong Peninsula with Port Arthur and the southern part of Sakhalin Island.
Political and economic contradictions, as well as the confrontation between the bourgeoisie and the workers, led to the revolution (1905 - 1907). On January 3, 1905, workers of the Putilov plant began a strike, demanding the reinstatement of their dismissed comrades. On January 8 the strike became general. On January 9, a procession of workers took place to Winter Palace. More than 1,200 people were killed, this day became known as “Bloody Sunday” and marked the beginning of the revolution. Outrage and protests swept across the country. By 1905 revolutionary unrest reached its climax. Workers' strikes combined with political demonstrations and reached the point of armed struggle. On October 15, the All-Russian political strike began, in which more than 2 million people took part. On October 17, 1905, Nicholas II signed the Manifesto “On Improving the State Order,” which promised to introduce civil liberties: conscience, speech, meetings and unions, and personal inviolability.
The culmination of the revolution was an armed uprising in Moscow. About 6 thousand workers took part in it. On December 19, the uprising was suppressed. In January 1906, a period of gradual decline of the revolution began, which lasted until the summer of 1907.
On June 3, 1907, Nicholas II was dissolved ahead of schedule The State Duma and the convening of the next Duma was scheduled for November 1. The Tsar's Manifesto announced fundamental changes to the election law. This act went down in history as a coup d'etat, since it violated the Manifesto of October 17, 1905 and Article 86 of the “Basic State Laws” of 1906, according to which any new law could not be adopted without the sanction of the Duma.
14 From the Russian Empire to the Soviet Republic: the era of wars and revolutionary upheavals (1914 - 1920)
The era of revolutionary upheavals began with the First World War (August 1, 1914), which was the result of the confrontation between the Entente blocs - Russia, France, England and Triple Alliance. The cause of the war was the desire of the powers to expand their zones of economic and political influence, and the murder of the heir to the Austrian throne only aggravated the situation. In the autumn of 1914 Türkiye joined the Triple Alliance, opening the Caucasus to Russia. Russia was not ready for war, but it was on our side that the entire burden of military command fell. We left Galicia, Poland, Lithuania and Belarus due to lack of weapons. However, already in 1916. under the command of A.M. Brusilov, the Austrian front was broken through, which forced the Germans to redeploy some of their troops.
In August 1915 Against the backdrop of heated political events, the Duma formed the Progressive Bloc of Opposition Parties. There was a huge turnover of ministers in the government, and due to the lack of stability, G.E. was able to achieve great influence. Rasputin initiated many strikes and peasant riots. In February 1917 strikes became a constant occurrence, further draining the country. On February 14, Petrograd went on strike against the war and autocracy. On February 17, the Putilov plant closed. On February 24, Petrograd already had more than 200 thousand people. strikers. The strike became widespread.
To suppress the uprising, Nicholas II sent General Ivanov’s corps to the capital, who was immediately disarmed without reaching his destination. Trying to save the monarchy, the Provisional Committee invited Nicholas II to abdicate the throne. However, the hatred for the Romanov dynasty was so great that Nicholas’s brother, Mikhail, did not dare accept the inheritance and also announced his abdication. The autocracy collapsed within a few days. On March 2, the Provisional Government was formed.
After the February Revolution, two unsuccessful attempts to attack on the German front were made. Russia emerged from the First World War after the October Revolution, as a result of the separate Brest Peace Treaty concluded by the Bolshevik government in March 1918.
In the military conflict, Russia was embraced by the spirit of patriotism with the support of right-wing parties. Even liberals abandoned opposition movements against tsarism during the war.
The Cadets supported the expansionist claims of the government, and the Mensheviks came up with the slogan of defense of the fatherland. The only ones who remained on the sidelines were the legal organizations of the Social Revolutionaries and the “Trudoviks” (A.F. Kerensky), who opposed military action.
Russia lost many people during the war (4 million people), the national economy fell into decline, and the number of cultivated areas was critically reduced. Given that provisions were sufficient, railway transport could not cope with the large number of deliveries throughout the country.
The starting point of the transition to Soviet society was the NEP policy - strengthening the alliance of the working class and the peasantry as the basis of the dictatorship of the proletariat.
The measures of the new economic policy were: replacing the surplus appropriation system with a tax in kind; introduction of free trade; denationalization of small and medium-sized industrial enterprises; carrying out monetary reform, etc. In 1924, the monetary reform was completed, which made it possible to eliminate the budget deficit. In agriculture, since 1923, sown areas began to gradually increase, and the gross grain harvest was almost 20% higher than the average annual harvest for previous years.
However, contradictions in the economic and political system, including the lack of funds for investment in new industry, led to the curtailment of the NEP. By the mid-20s, the NEP experienced two crises. Due to political bickering within the party (N.I. Bukharin, G.E. Zinoviev, L.D. Trotsky, L.B. Kamenev, I.V. Stalin) two directions arose further development countries:
a) transform the NEP into a market model of socialism (Bukharin)
b) move on to the construction of “socialism” in town and countryside (Stalin). In 1928-1930 The implementation of Stalin's plan for the economic development of the country began. Industrialization begins with heavy industry and is carried out extremely at a fast pace. Despite the fact that the established five-year plans had inflated indicators and were not fulfilled, the achievements in industry were significant: 6,000 new enterprises were built, new industries emerged, and new cities were founded. At the end of the 1930s, the Soviet Union became one of three or four countries capable of producing any type of product then available. In the summer of 1929, the goal was set - the collectivization of peasant farms and the creation of collective farms.
Increased volumes of procurement for export made it possible to purchase new equipment, but the gross grain harvest decreased and the general standard of living of the people fell, and mass famine broke out in a number of areas.
The political system of the new society was initially formed to wage revolutionary war against internal and external class enemies.
The Constitution of 1936 declared the victory of socialism and the construction of a state-planned economy. We can say that Soviet totalitarianism took place in several stages from the formation of basic premises (1923) to the collapse of the system (1953)
The social structure of the new Soviet society is an alliance of the working class, collective farm peasantry and working intelligentsia. A social group of leaders of the party and state apparatus began to form, which had the right to full state support. Workers and employees received the right to vacation, a seven-hour working day and pensions. In the summer of 1922, the unification of the Soviet republics began. On December 30, 1922, at the 1st All-Union Congress of Soviets, the Declaration and the Union Treaty were adopted. They proclaimed that the RSFSR, Ukrainian SSR, BSSR and ZSFSR were uniting into a single union state. The USSR was established as a federation of sovereign republics.
16 During the years of severe trials
The beginning of the Great Patriotic War began at dawn on June 22, 1941 with the bombing of large industrial USSR by fascist troops. All of Belarus was captured and German troops reached the approaches to Smolensk. On September 9, Leningrad was blocked, Moldova and Ukraine were occupied. The success of the capture was explained by Germany's advantage in all economic and strategic plans, and the Germans' use of the resources of already captured countries. The technical equipment of the Wehrmacht (tanks, aircraft, communications equipment, etc.) was significantly superior to the Soviet one in mobility and maneuverability.
The Russian Red Army was not rearmed and ready for war, as a result of which a significant part was destroyed in the first days of the war Soviet aviation. Large formations of the Red Army were captured or liquidated.
On June 23, the Headquarters of the Main (Supreme) Command was formed under the leadership of I.V. Stalin, V.M. Molotova, S.K. Timoshenko, S.M. Budyonny, K.E. Voroshila, B.M. Shaposhnikov and G.K. Zhukov, who set a large-scale task of national mobilization of all the country's resources. Tactics have been put forward to organize a strategic defense in such a way as to wear down and stop the advance of the fascist troops. Large defensive border battles unfolded (defense of the Brest Fortress, etc.). The defense of Kyiv was carried out until September 1941, and Odessa until October. The stubborn resistance of the Red Army in the summer and autumn of 1941 thwarted Hitler's plan for a lightning war.
At the end of September and beginning of October 1941, the German Operation Typhoon began, aimed at capturing Moscow, but the Red Army managed to stop the enemy.
The second stage of the Nazi offensive on Moscow began on November 15, 1941. The enemy was repulsed, and Kalinin, Maloyaroslavets, Kaluga, and other cities and towns were liberated.
Since September 1942 The defense of Stalingrad lasted until the end of 1942, and the enemy suffered enormous damage to its troops. The headquarters of the Supreme High Command began to develop a plan for a grandiose offensive operation, three new fronts were created: Southwestern (N.F. Vatutin), Don (K.K. Rokossovsky) and Stalingrad (A.I. Eremenko). By February 2, 1943, German troops were liquidated.
After successful actions, the so-called Kursk ledge was formed. Hitler's command, wanting to regain the strategic initiative, developed Operation Citadel, which became the largest military battle. The Battle of Kursk was commanded by G.K. Zhukov and A.M. Vasilevsky, N.F. Vatutin and K.K. Rokossovsky. After tank battles on July 12, the enemy was stopped. The counter-offensive of the Red Army began.
The result of the war was the achievement of military and political superiority over the enemy. The USSR increased its tactical level of planning and conducting combat operations. In 1944-1945. A number of other operations were undertaken to completely liberate the country and overthrow Hitler's power. The blockade of Leningrad, which lasted 900 days, was lifted. The northwestern part of the USSR territory was liberated.
The victory in World War II was of great importance not only for us, but also for Bulgaria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia in the fight against fascism. These countries were able to free themselves from the pro-German regime and move on to patriotism.
The mobilization of efforts from all spheres of the country's society was carried out under the slogan “Everything for the front, everything for victory!”, which has important practical significance. The attack on the USSR caused a powerful patriotic upsurge of the entire population. Without sparing themselves, Soviet citizens enlisted in the people's militia, donated their blood, participated in air defense, and donated money and jewelry to the defense fund. The Red Army received great assistance from millions of women sent to dig trenches, build anti-tank ditches and other defensive structures.
In general, two stages can be distinguished in the country’s economy:
Perestroika (22 June 1941 - end of 1942) to military tasks and missions, as well as stabilization due to the loss of the economically developed European part of the Soviet Union.
Growth (1943-1945) increasing military industrial production, achieving economic superiority over the Nazis and restoring the economy in the liberated territories.
The transition to modern Russia is associated with the period 1953-1964. Khrushchev's "thaw", which was characterized by political liberalization. The transformation took place in almost all areas, but many reforms did not find understanding of the party-state apparatus and were doomed to failure.
The composition of the CPSU and the Government was modified in 1953: the secretariat of the party Central Committee was headed by N.S. Khrushchev; Chairmanship of the Council of Ministers - G.M. Malenkov, foreign affairs - V.M. Molotov, defense - N.A. Bulganin. L.P. became the head of the new Ministry of Internal Affairs. Beria, and K.E. was approved as chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. Voroshilov.
The leaders publicly declared their desire for collective leadership, but from the very first days L.P.’s internal struggle began. Beria (arrested later in 1953), G.M. Malenkova and N.S. Khrushchev. The country's leadership has declared a course towards democratization of social life.
N.S. Khrushchev advocated the reorganization of the personnel of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and State Security, and organized work on the rehabilitation of those illegally repressed.
In the second half of the 50s, a reform of the justice system was carried out in order to strengthen law and order in the country. New criminal legislation and the Regulations on prosecutorial supervision were approved. At the end of the 50s, work was underway to restore the autonomy of many deported peoples(Chechens, Kalmyks, Ingush, etc.). However, Khrushchev’s policies caused increasing discontent among the party and state apparatus, which believed that the exposure of Stalin’s personality cult would lead to a decline in the authority of the USSR. The June (1957) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee expelled Molotov, Milenkov and Kaganovich from the highest party bodies, which was the beginning of renewal higher authorities authorities.
The new program proclaimed the country's entry into a period of "expanded communist construction" with such tasks as: achieving the highest per capita production in the world, the transition to communist self-government, and educating a new person.
In the second half of 1953, radical changes began in the country's economy. Their character and direction indicated some change in the economic course. The changes concerned primarily agricultural production, its accelerated rise in order to provide the population with food and light industry with raw materials. Improving the well-being of the people was declared one of the central tasks of the new leadership. To resolve it, the development of a new agricultural policy began, the foundations of which were approved at the September (1953) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee. Financing of agricultural sectors increased. Since 1954, the development of virgin and fallow lands began. In 1958, MTS was reorganized. Collective farms received the right to buy equipment from MTS. The entire set of economic measures made it possible to achieve certain successes in the development of agricultural production. In 1953-1958. the increase in agricultural products was 34% compared to the previous five years.
In the second half of the 50s, the country's industry rose to a qualitatively new level. There were about 300 industries and types of production. In 1957, a law was adopted to restructure the management of industry and construction. Basic organizational form management became the Councils of the National Economy, Economic Councils. The scale of housing construction has increased. New principles for the development of residential neighborhoods were developed, combining residential complexes with cultural and community institutions. In the second half of the 50s, almost a quarter of the population moved to new apartments.
18 Crisis and collapse of the USSR. Modern Russia
The crisis of Soviet society gained momentum in the late 80s. due to the emergence of powerful political parties in the union republics (Ukrainian “Rukh”, Lithuanian “Sąjūdis”, popular fronts in Latvia, Estonia, Moldova, Georgia, Azerbaijan, etc.) with the goal of creating independent national states.
In August 1987, mass protests began for the abolition of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact in the Baltic states. In February 1988, Armenian-Azerbaijani clashes took place in Nagorno-Karabakh. The year 1989 was marked by interethnic Central Asian conflicts that turned into pogroms with a large number of victims. Attempts by the allied authorities to suppress the separatist movement led to the opposite result.
Thus, the following reasons for the collapse of the USSR can be identified: forced inclusion into the USSR different nations, the impossibility of further development of the empire, the weakening of economic and political ties between the regions and the center during the period of “perestroika”, the fall of the CPSU, the elite’s desire for independence and its support for the separatist movement.
The crisis of the USSR led to the collapse Soviet state in four stages:
1. The withdrawal of a number of republics from the USSR (March-October 1990) began with the election of people's deputies in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Georgia, etc. The nationalists who headed for secession from the Soviet Union won. Lithuania was declared an independent state, and other neighboring countries began preparations for this event.
2. Acceleration of decay (October 1990 - April 1991). Russia and Ukraine B.N. supported the overthrow of the union center. Yeltsin entered into an open struggle with the authorities of the USSR (in connection with their rejection of the “500 days” program), and in Ukraine the Second Congress of Rukh announced the beginning of the struggle for “restoration of an independent and democratic republic.” The main danger for the USSR was the conclusion of a dual agreement between these two states on November 20, 1990. The process of the Baltic republics leaving the USSR accelerated. Latvia and Estonia were declared independent. Russian radicals came out in support of democratic forces in the Baltics. On January 20, 1991, a demonstration of solidarity by three hundred thousand people took place in Moscow, and Yeltsin demanded Gorbachev’s resignation as president and the dissolution of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.
3. Temporary equilibrium of centrifugal and centripetal forces (April-August 1991). As a result of the meeting on March 17, 1991, Gorbachev opened the “Novo-Ogarevsky process”, during which there was
the “9+1 Statement” was signed (9 union republics and the leadership of the USSR) on the preparation of a new Union Treaty. The project provided for the Russian language to be made interethnic, and the military-industrial complex was transferred to the joint management of the Union and the parties to the agreement.
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TICKET No. 1First question.
The emergence and development of the Old Russian state (IX - beginning of the 12th century).
The emergence of the Old Russian state is traditionally associated with the unification of the Ilmen region and the Dnieper region as a result of the campaign against Kiev by the Novgorod prince Oleg in 882. Having killed Askold and Dir, who reigned in Kyiv, Oleg began to rule on behalf of the young son of Prince Rurik, Igor.
The formation of the state was the result of long and complex processes that took place over vast areas of the East European Plain in the second half of the 1st millennium AD.
By the 7th century East Slavic tribal unions settled in its vastness, the names and location of which are known to historians from the ancient Russian chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” by the Monk Nestor (11th century). These are the glades (along the western bank of the Dnieper), the Drevlyans (to the northwest of them), the Ilmen Slovenes (along the banks of Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov River), the Krivichi (in the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Volga and Western Dvina), the Vyatichi (along the banks of the Oka), northerners (along the Desna), etc. The northern neighbors of the eastern Slavs were the Finns, the western - the Balts, the south-eastern - the Khazars. Of great importance in their early history had trade routes, one of which connected Scandinavia and Byzantium (the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” from the Gulf of Finland along the Neva, Lake Ladoga, Volkhov, Lake Ilmen to the Dnieper and the Black Sea), and the other connected the Volga regions with the Caspian Sea and Persia.
Nestor cites the famous story about the calling of the Varangian (Scandinavian) princes Rurik, Sineus and Truvor by the Ilmen Slovenes: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order in it: come reign and rule over us.” Rurik accepted the offer and in 862 he reigned in Novgorod (that is why the monument “Millennium of Russia” was erected in Novgorod in 1862). Many historians of the 18th-19th centuries. were inclined to understand these events as evidence that statehood was brought to Rus' from outside and the Eastern Slavs were unable to create their own state on their own ( Norman theory). Modern researchers recognize this theory as untenable. They pay attention to the following:
Nestor's story proves that the Eastern Slavs by the middle of the 9th century. there were bodies that were the prototype of state institutions (prince, squad, meeting of tribal representatives - the future veche);
The Varangian origin of Rurik, as well as Oleg, Igor, Olga, Askold, Dir is indisputable, but the invitation of a foreigner as a ruler is an important indicator of the maturity of the prerequisites for the formation of a state. The tribal union is aware of its common interests and tries to resolve contradictions between individual tribes with the calling of a prince standing above local differences. The Varangian princes, surrounded by a strong and combat-ready squad, led and completed the processes leading to the formation of the state;
Large tribal super-unions, which included several tribal unions, developed among the Eastern Slavs already in the 8th-9th centuries. - around Novgorod and around Kyiv; - in the formation of the Ancient T. state important role external factors played a role: threats coming from outside (Scandinavia, Khazar Kaganate) pushed for unity;
The Varangians, having given Rus' a ruling dynasty, quickly assimilated and merged with the local Slavic population;
As for the name “Rus”, its origin continues to cause controversy. Some historians associate it with Scandinavia, others find its roots in the East Slavic environment (from the Ros tribe, who lived along the Dnieper). Other opinions are also expressed on this matter.
At the end of the 9th - beginning of the 11th century. The Old Russian state was going through a period of formation. The formation of its territory and composition was actively underway. Oleg (882-912) subjugated the tribes of the Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichi to Kyiv, Igor (912-945) successfully fought with the streets, Svyatoslav (964-972) - with the Vyatichi. During the reign of Prince Vladimir (980-1015), the Volynians and Croats were subjugated, and power over the Radimichi and Vyatichi was confirmed. In addition to the East Slavic tribes, the Old Russian state included Finno-Ugric peoples (Chud, Merya, Muroma, etc.). The degree of independence of the tribes from the Kyiv princes was quite high.
For a long time, the only indicator of submission to the authorities of Kyiv was the payment of tribute. Until 945, it was carried out in the form of polyudya: the prince and his squad from November to April traveled around the territories under their control and collected tribute. The murder of Prince Igor in 945 by the Drevlyans, who tried for the second time to collect tribute that exceeded the traditional level, forced his wife Princess Olga to introduce lessons (the amount of tribute) and establish graveyards (places where tribute was to be taken). This was the first example known to historians of how the princely government approved new norms that were mandatory for ancient Russian society.
Important functions of the Old Russian state, which it began to perform from the moment of its inception, were also protecting the territory from military raids (in the 9th - early 11th centuries these were mainly raids by the Khazars and Pechenegs) and pursuing an active foreign policy (campaigns against Byzantium in 907, 911, 944, 970, Russian-Byzantine treaties 911 and 944, defeat of the Khazar Kaganate in 964-965. and etc.).
The period of formation of the Old Russian state ended with the reign of Prince Vladimir I the Holy, or Vladimir the Red Sun. Under him, Christianity was adopted from Byzantium (see ticket No. 3), a system of defensive fortresses was created on the southern borders of Rus', and the so-called ladder system of transfer of power was finally formed. The order of succession was determined by the principle of seniority in the princely family. Vladimir, having taken the throne of Kiev, placed his eldest sons in the largest Russian cities. The most important reign after Kyiv - Novgorod - was transferred to his eldest son. In the event of the death of the eldest son, his place was to be taken by the next in seniority, all other princes were moved to more important thrones. During the life of the Kyiv prince, this system worked flawlessly. After his death, as a rule, there was more or less a long period the struggle of his sons for the reign of Kiev.
The heyday of the Old Russian state occurred during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) and his sons. It includes the oldest part of the Russian Pravda - the first monument of written law that has come down to us (“Russian Law,” information about which dates back to Oleg’s reign, has not been preserved either in the original or in copies). Russian Truth regulated relations in the princely economy - the patrimony. Its analysis allows historians to talk about the existing system of government: the Kiev prince, like the local princes, is surrounded by a squad, the top of which are called boyars and with whom he consults on the most important issues (the Duma, the permanent council under the prince). From among the warriors, mayors are appointed to manage cities, governors, tributaries (collectors of land taxes), mytniki (collectors of trade duties), tiuns (administrators of princely estates), etc. Russian Pravda contains valuable information about ancient Russian society. It was based on free rural and urban population(People). There were slaves (servants, serfs), farmers dependent on the prince (zakup, ryadovichi, smerds - historians do not have a common opinion about the situation of the latter).
Yaroslav the Wise pursued an energetic dynastic policy, tying his sons and daughters by marriage with the ruling families of Hungary, Poland, France, Germany, etc.
Yaroslav died in 1054, before 1074. his sons managed to coordinate their actions. At the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century. the power of the Kyiv princes weakened, individual principalities acquired increasing independence, the rulers of which tried to agree with each other on cooperation in the fight against the new - Polovtsian - threat. Tendencies towards fragmentation single state intensified as its individual regions became richer and stronger (for more details, see ticket No. 2). The last Kyiv prince who managed to stop the collapse of the Old Russian state was Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125). After the death of the prince and the death of his son Mstislav the Great (1125-1132), the fragmentation of Rus' became a fait accompli.
^Second question
Economic and socio-political development of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
The entry of the Russian economy into the 20th century was marked by the beginning of a serious crisis in 1900-1903. Economic stagnation continued until 1909, when it gave way to a new rise. It is wrong to consider the crisis of the beginning of the century as proof of Russia’s economic backwardness or the intractability of the problems it faced. There have been achievements and successes in the economy, and considerable ones. However, there were also acute problems and difficulties. First about successes. Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. was a country with an average level of capitalist development. Abolition of serfdom in 1861, reforms of the 60-70s. did not pass without a trace: capitalist industry grew at a high rate (first place in the world), new industries emerged (oil production, chemical, mechanical engineering) and new industrial regions (primarily Donbass-Krivoy Rog). Important changes took place in transport: railways connected the Center with the outskirts and stimulated the economic development of the country (at the end of the 19th century the first stage of the Trans-Siberian Railway came into operation). During the crisis of 1900-1903. The process of creating large industrial monopolies - cartels and syndicates accelerated: “Prodamet” (1902), “Prodvagon” (1902), “Prod-ugol” (1904), etc. Production, especially in heavy industry, was concentrated in large and major enterprises. In terms of concentration, the Russian economy was ahead of the economies of other countries. There have also been significant developments in banking and finance. Large banks closely associated with industry arose - the St. Petersburg International Commercial Bank (1896), the Azov-Don Bank (1871), the Russian-Asian Bank (1910). The financial system after the reform carried out in 1897 by Minister of Finance S. Yu. Witte (the introduction of gold backing of the ruble and the free exchange of paper money for gold) was one of the most stable in the world.
Russia is among the five most developed industrial countries. It embarked on the path of economic modernization, that is, eliminating the remnants of serfdom, developing industry, creating the foundations of an industrial society in which industry predominates over agriculture, and the urban population predominates over the rural. Modernization in Russia had its own characteristics:
It was necessary to catch up with the industrial powers that had taken the lead;
Huge impact on the economic growth provided by the state. State subsidies, orders, high customs duties, maintenance of plants, factories, and railways at the expense of the treasury were designed to support and accelerate the development of modern industry at that time;
Foreign capital played a noticeable but not decisive role in financing industrial growth: German, French, etc.
The task of modernization was the challenge that time itself threw at Russia. Its solution was fraught with difficult, even grave, problems. Let's name some of them.
The Russian economy was multi-structured. Along with the dynamically developing private capitalist, monopoly and state-monopoly structures, there were structures that were not covered by modernization - patriarchal, semi-serfdom, small-scale commodity production.
High quantitative indicators (growth rates, level of concentration, production volumes) were combined with rather low qualitative ones. Labor productivity was low. In terms of the level of industrial production per capita and the technical equipment of enterprises, Russia lagged far behind the leading industrial countries.
Economic development was extremely uneven across sectors and regions of the country.
It became extremely acute at the beginning of the 20th century. agrarian question. Historians call agriculture the Achilles heel of Russia at that time. Large landownership was combined with peasant land ownership. The community, preserved by the reform of 1861, encouraged egalitarian sentiments, which were very strong among the peasantry, and condemned the successes of the “strong masters.” Most of the landowners' farms lived the old fashioned way: they rented out the land to peasants on a semi-bonded lease, and they cultivated it with their own primitive implements. The use of hired labor, advanced agricultural technology, and agricultural machinery at the beginning of the 20th century. was almost an exceptional phenomenon.
Economic modernization has begun to have some impact on social structure countries. The discrepancy between the traditional division of the population (126 million people) into classes (hereditary and personal nobility, honorary citizens, merchants I, II, III guilds, burghers, peasants, Cossacks, etc.) and division into classes (bourgeoisie, proletariat, etc.).
The nobility (1% of the population) remained a privileged, politically dominant class, but its economic position gradually worsened. The impoverishment of noble estates, described with sympathy by I. A. Bunin and A. P. Chekhov, was a remarkable phenomenon of the era. The nobility was slowly but steadily eroding; its representatives could be found among entrepreneurs, office workers, and the intelligentsia.
The bourgeoisie, which was acquiring serious economic importance, was not united: next to the old Moscow and provincial bourgeoisie (mainly formed from merchant families, in turn, going back to the pre-reform serf peasantry), a new St. Petersburg bourgeoisie grew up, closely associated with the state, banks and advanced industries industry.
The peasantry (more than 80% of the population) suffered from land shortages, remnants of serfdom, and remained committed to the communal values of collectivism and equality. The peasants dreamed of a “black redistribution”, the division of landowners’ land between community members. At the same time, there was no equality among the peasantry; the stratification of the village into the poor, middle peasants and kulaks went quite far.
The situation of the working class (less than 10% of the population) at the beginning of the 20th century. it was hard. Long working hours, poor living conditions, low wages, combined with a sophisticated system of fines, lack of rights - these were the reasons that caused dissatisfaction among the workers.
Special social groups were the bureaucrats, the clergy and the intelligentsia.
Social relations were characterized by high levels of conflict: all major social groups had grounds for discontent. Let's add here the problems associated with the multinationality and multiconfessionalism of Russia. Our country was not a “prison of nations,” but the relations between the peoples who inhabited it, who spoke different languages, professed different faiths (Orthodoxy as the state religion, Islam, Catholicism, Protestantism, etc. had many followers), required a thoughtful and balanced national policy.
By the beginning of the century, modernization practically did not affect the political sphere. In system central authorities There were no changes in power (State Council, Senate, Synod, Committee of Ministers and Council of Ministers, ministries, local governors). Russia remained an autocratic (absolute) monarchy. Nicholas II, who ascended the throne in 1894, was convinced that restricting the rights of the autocrat and introducing representative institutions and a constitution would lead Russia to collapse. “I will protect the beginnings of autocracy,” he promised at the beginning of his reign.
^ TICKET No. 2
First question.
Political fragmentation in Rus'. Appanage Rus' (XII-XIII centuries).
In 1097, princes from different lands of Kievan Rus came to the city of Lyubech and proclaimed new principle relationships among themselves: “Let everyone keep his homeland.” Its adoption meant that the princes abandoned the laddered system of inheritance of princely thrones (it went to the eldest in the entire grand-ducal family) and switched to inheriting the throne from father to eldest son within individual lands. By the middle of the 12th century. the political fragmentation of the Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv was already a fait accompli. It is believed that the implementation of the principle adopted in Lyube was a factor in the collapse of Kievan Rus. However, not the only one and not the most important one.
Political fragmentation was an inevitable phenomenon. What were its reasons? Throughout the 11th century. Russian lands developed along an ascending line: the population grew, the economy grew stronger, large princely and boyar land ownership strengthened, and the cities became richer. They became less and less dependent on Kyiv and were burdened by its tutelage. To maintain order within his “fatherland,” the prince had enough strength and power. Local boyars and cities supported their princes in their quest for independence: they were closer, more closely connected with them, and were better able to protect their interests. External reasons were added to internal reasons. The Polovtsian raids weakened the southern Russian lands, the population left the restless lands to the northeastern (Vladimir, Suzdal) and southwestern (Galich, Volyn) outskirts. The Kyiv princes weakened in a military and economic sense, their authority and influence in solving all-Russian affairs fell.
The negative consequences of the political fragmentation of Rus' are concentrated in the military-strategic area: the defense capability in the face of external threats has weakened, and inter-princely feuds have intensified. But fragmentation also had positive aspects. The separation of lands contributed to their economic and cultural development. The collapse of a single state did not mean a complete loss of the principles that united the Russian lands. The seniority of the Grand Duke of Kyiv was formally recognized; Church and linguistic unity was preserved; The legislation of the appanages was based on the norms of Russian Pravda. In the popular consciousness until the XIII-XIV centuries. there were ideas about the unity of the lands that were part of Kievan Rus.
At the end of the 12th century. 15 independent lands, essentially independent states, emerged. The largest were: in the southwest - the Galician-Volyn principality; in the northeast - the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality; in the north-west - the Novgorod Republic.
Galicia-Volyn Principality(formed in 1199 as a result of the subjugation of Galich to the Volyn princes) inherited the political system of Kievan Rus. The princes (the largest was Daniil Romanovich, mid-13th century) when resolving important issues had to take into account the opinion of the boyar-druzhina nobility and city assemblies (veche). This feature reflected the uniqueness of the socio-economic development of the Galicia-Volyn land: boyar estates and cities were traditionally strong here. From the middle of the 13th century. The principality weakened: internal unrest and constant wars with Hungary, Poland and Lithuania led to the fact that it was included in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland.
The Vladimir-Suzdal principality separated from Kyiv under Prince Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157). Its mass settlement took place in the 11th-12th centuries. Settlers from the southern regions of Rus' were attracted by the relative safety from raids (the region was covered with impenetrable forests), the fertile lands of the Russian opole, and navigable rivers along which dozens of cities grew (Pereslavl-Zalessky, Yuryev-Polsky, Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Kostroma, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod ). There were no ancient boyar estates and strong traditions of city government here. The Vladimir-Suzdal princes were much freer in their decisions and relied not so much on the boyars and cities, but on the princely servants personally devoted to them (almsmen, i.e. people dependent on the mercy of the prince).
Decisive in the process of the rise of princely power was the reign of Yuri Dolgoruky's son Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174). Under him, the capital of the principality was moved to Vladimir, and a new title for the ruler was established - “Tsar and Grand Duke”. Andrei Bogolyubsky pursued an active foreign policy, fought for influence in Kyiv and Novgorod, organizing all-Russian campaigns against them. In 1174 he was killed by conspiratorial boyars. Under his brother Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212), the principality reached its peak, cut short by civil strife that began after his death and the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in 1237-1238.
The Vladimir-Suzdal principality became the cradle of the formation of the Great Russian nation and in the near future the center for the unification of Russian lands into a single Russian state.
A different type of government structure developed in Novgorod. One of the oldest Russian cities was at the same time one of the richest and most influential. The basis of its prosperity was not agriculture (Novgorod depended on the supply of grain from the neighboring Vladimir-Suzdal principality), but trade and craft. The local merchants were full participants in trade operations in the north-west of Europe, traded with the German Hanse (representation of this powerful trade union German cities was in Novgorod), Sweden, Denmark, the countries of the East with cloth, salt, amber, weapons, jewelry, furs, wax. Power and influence were concentrated in the hands of the Novgorod veche. Historians argue about its composition. Some believe that the entire city population and even residents of nearby villages took part in it. Others claim that the full participants in the veche were the so-called “five hundred golden belts” - people from large boyar families. Be that as it may, the decisive role was played by influential boyar and merchant families, as well as the clergy. At the veche, officials were elected - posadnik (ruler of Novgorod), thousand (leaders of the militia), voivode (maintaining law and order), bishop (later archbishop, head of the Novgorod church), archimandrite (elder among the abbots of Novgorod monasteries). The veche decided on the issue of inviting the prince, who, under the supervision of the council of gentlemen and the mayor, performed the functions of a military leader. This order developed after 1136, when the Novgorodians expelled Prince Vsevolod from the city.
Novgorod, thus, was an aristocratic (boyar) republic, the keeper of the veche traditions of Ancient Rus'.
^ SECOND QUESTION.
Russian foreign policy at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. The Russo-Japanese War: causes, course of military operations, results and consequences.
The calm policy of Alexander III, as defined by Foreign Minister N.K. Girs, was continued in the first decade of the reign of Nicholas II (1894-1917). “Calmness” consisted of maintaining friendly relations with France, respectful but lacking trust with Germany, aimed at maintaining the current situation in Balkan affairs with Austria-Hungary, friendly and not too warm with Great Britain. The emphasized peacefulness of Russia's European policy is perfectly reflected by the foreign policy initiatives of Nicholas II. In 1898, he proposed convening an international conference to ensure peace and curb the rearmament programs carried out by all major powers. The first conference took place in the summer of 1899, the second in 1907, both in The Hague. Their decisions laid the foundations of modern humanitarian law, which determines the procedure for the peaceful resolution of international conflicts, the laws and customs of war on land and at sea, etc. Agreement on the main issue - arms limitation - was not reached. It should be borne in mind that issues traditional for Russian foreign policy (influence in the Balkans, control over the Black Sea straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles, maintaining a pan-European balance of power, etc.) remained on the agenda, and activity in resolving them could drag the country into a tangle of very painful contradictions.
Nicholas II’s “calm policy” in European affairs was determined by the need to provide favorable external conditions for the economic development of Russia, which was solving the painful tasks of modernization, on the one hand, and to strengthen Russian influence in the Far East - on the other. It was in the Far East that the most important foreign policy event took place Russian history beginning of the 20th century - Russian-Japanese war 1904-1905.
Causes of the Russo-Japanese War. The situation that arose in the Far East required active action from Russia. China, weakened by a protracted crisis, has attracted the selfish attention of all major participants in world politics: Great Britain, France, Germany, the USA, Japan, Russia. There was a fierce struggle for the division of spheres of influence in China. Japan in 1894 sent troops to Korea, entered into a war with China, and imposed humiliating peace terms on it (they were partially revised under pressure from Russia, France and Germany). Russia began construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway in 1891, considering it as the beginning of the vigorous development of its Siberian and Far Eastern outskirts. In 1896, China granted Russia a concession for the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER), and in 1898 it obtained the right to lease the southern part of the Liaodong Peninsula with the fortress-port of Port Arthur and the port of Dalniy. The Boxer Rebellion in China gave foreign powers an opportunity to openly interfere in Chinese internal affairs. Russia sent troops into Manchuria and, despite protests from Japan, which had secured the support of Germany and Great Britain, refused to withdraw them (although the Russian-Japanese treaty provided for the withdrawal of troops by the fall of 1904). Japan, in turn, imposed on Russia the terms of the agreement on Korea that were unacceptable to it. Things were heading towards an open clash.
Two groups have emerged in Russia's leadership circles. The first, led by Nicholas II’s Secretary of State A.M. Bezobrazov, advocated the annexation of Manchuria and Korea in favor of Russia. Minister of Internal Affairs V.K. Plehve also advocated the war, believing that a “small victorious war” would distract society from revolutionary sentiments. The second group, led by Finance Minister S. Yu. Witte, considered the war with Japan an adventure and put forward plans for peaceful economic penetration into the Far East. The “Bezobrazov clique” took over.
On the night of January 27, 1904, Japanese destroyers attacked Russian ships stationed in the outer roadstead of Port Arthur, as well as the cruiser Varyag and the gunboat Koreets. The war has begun.
Progress of military operations. On land, Russian troops (A.N. Kuropatkin, who was deprived of any significant military talents, was appointed commander-in-chief) were defeated in the battles of Laoyang (August 1904), the Shahe River (October 1904), and Mukden (February 1905). In all battles, the Russian armies had numerical superiority. The Japanese turned out to be stronger in military-technical terms, their generals were better at mastering the art of modern warfare. In December, Port Arthur fell, besieged in July - it was surrendered by the ignorant and cowardly general A. M. Stessel.
At sea, the military situation was just as tragic for Russia. On March 31, 1904, the flagship of the Russian fleet, Petropavlovsk, was blown up by a mine. The outstanding naval commander S. O. Makarov died. In the Battle of Tsushima (May 1905), the second Russian squadron sent from the Baltic Sea was killed. The Japanese fleet was superior to the Russian in the number of ships, weapons, speed, and maneuverability.
Reasons for Russia's defeat. Unpreparedness of top management for war; military-technical lag; incompetent command; extended communications, remoteness of the theater of military operations; foreign policy isolation (Russia was not supported by any major state, which feared its strengthening in the Far East).
Results and consequences of the war. The peace treaty was signed in Portsmouth, in the United States, which acted as mediators in the negotiations. Despite the extremely unsuccessful course of the war, S. Yu. Witte managed to conclude a profitable (taking into account the current situation) peace: Russia ceded South Sakhalin and Port Arthur to Japan, recognized Korea as a zone of Japanese interests, but avoided paying indemnities. Both countries pledged to withdraw troops from Manchuria.
The consequences of the military defeat for Russia were significant: the authority of the authorities in the eyes of society was catastrophically undermined; Opposition and revolutionary sentiments intensified. A war seen as a national disgrace that killed tens of thousands human lives, played a role in the development of the revolution of 1905-1907.
^ TICKET No. 3
First question.
Culture of Ancient Rus' (X-XIII centuries). The meaning of accepting Christianity.
The culture of Ancient Rus' is a unique phenomenon. According to the researcher, “Old Russian art is the fruit of the feat of the Russian people, who defended their independence, their faith and their ideals on the edge of the European world.” Scientists note the openness and synthetic nature (from the word “synthesis” - reduction into a single whole) of Old Russian culture. The interaction of the heritage of the Eastern Slavs with Byzantine and, consequently, ancient traditions created a unique spiritual world. The time of its formation and first flowering was the 10th - first half of the 13th century. (pre-Mongol period).
Let us first note the influence of the baptism of Rus' on the historical and cultural process. Christianity became the state religion of Kievan Rus in 988, during the reign of Vladimir I the Holy (980-1015). The princely power received reliable support - spiritual and political - in the new religion and the church that professed it. The state was strengthened, and with it inter-tribal differences were overcome. A single faith gave the subjects of the state a new sense of unity and community. Gradually, an all-Russian self-awareness took shape - an important element of the unity of the ancient Russian people.
Christianity, with its monotheism and recognition of God as the source of power and order in society, made a serious contribution to consolidating the feudal relations that were developing in Kievan Rus.
The baptism of Rus' turned it into an equal partner of medieval Christian states and thereby strengthened the foreign policy position in the world of that time.
Finally, about spiritual and cultural significance acceptance of Christianity. It's huge. Liturgical books in the Slavic language came to Rus' from Bulgaria and Byzantium, and the number of those who mastered Slavic writing and literacy increased. The immediate consequence of the baptism of Rus' was the development of painting, icon painting, stone and wooden architecture, church and secular education systems. Orthodoxy, having introduced Rus' to the ancient Greco-Roman and Christian traditions, at the same time became one of the factors that predetermined the features of the economic, social, political, religious, cultural, and spiritual history of our country.
Pagan antiquity was preserved primarily in oral folk art - folklore (riddles, conspiracies, spells, proverbs, fairy tales, songs). A special place in the historical memory of the people was occupied by epics - heroic tales about defenders of their native land from enemies. Folk storytellers glorify the exploits of Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich, Volga, Mikula Selyaninovich and other epic heroes (in total there are more than 50 main characters in the epics). They address their appeal to them: “You stand for the faith, for the fatherland, you stand for the glorious capital city of Kiev!” It is interesting that in epics the motive of defending the fatherland is supplemented with the motive of defending the Christian faith. The Baptism of Rus' was the most important event in the history of ancient Russian culture.
With the adoption of Christianity began fast development writing. Writing was known in Rus' in pre-Christian times (mention of “lines and cuts”, mid-1st millennium; information about treaties with Byzantium drawn up in Russian; the discovery of a clay vessel near Smolensk with an inscription in Cyrillic - the alphabet created by the Slavic enlighteners Cyril and Metho-diem at the turn of the X-XI centuries). Orthodoxy brought liturgical books, religious and secular translated literature to Rus'. The oldest handwritten books have reached us - “ Ostromir Gospel"(1057) and two "Izborniki" (collections of texts) of Prince Svyatoslav (1073 and 1076). They say that in the XI-XIII centuries. 130-140 thousand books of several hundred titles were in circulation: the level of literacy in Ancient Rus' was very high by the standards of the Middle Ages. There is other evidence: birch bark letters (archaeologists discovered them in the middle of the 20th century in Veliky Novgorod), inscriptions on the walls of cathedrals and handicrafts, the activities of monastery schools, the richest book collections of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra and St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, etc.
There was an opinion that ancient Russian culture was “dumb” - it was believed to have no original literature. This is wrong. Old Russian literature is represented by various genres (chronicles, lives of saints, journalism, teachings and travel notes, the wonderful “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” which does not belong to any known genre), it is distinguished by a wealth of images, styles and trends.
The oldest chronicle that has reached us is the Tale of Bygone Years, created around 1113. monk of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra Nestor. The famous questions with which “The Tale of Bygone Years” opens: “Where did the Russian land come from, who was the first prince in Kyiv and how did the Russian land begin to exist” - already speak about the scale of the personality of the creator of the chronicle, his literary abilities. After the collapse of Kievan Rus, independent chronicle schools arose in the isolated lands, but they all turned to the “Tale of Bygone Years” as a model.
Among the works of the oratorical and journalistic genre, the “Sermon on Law and Grace”, created by Hilarion, the first metropolitan of Russian origin, in the middle of the 11th century, stands out. These are reflections on power, on the place of Rus' in Europe. The “Teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh, written for his sons, is wonderful. The prince must be wise, merciful, fair, educated, lenient and firm in protecting the weak. Strength and valor, faithful service to the country, were demanded from the prince by Daniil Zatochnik, the author of the brilliant “Prayer” in language and literary form.
The unknown author of the greatest work also called for agreement and reconciliation among the princes. ancient Russian literature“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (late 12th century). A real event - the defeat of the Seversk prince Igor from the Polovtsians (1185-1187) - became only the reason for the creation of the “Word”, amazing with the richness of the language, the harmony of the composition, and the power of the figurative structure. The author sees the Russian land from a great height, covers vast spaces with his mind's eye, as if “flying with his mind under the clouds,” “scouring the fields to the mountains” (D. S. Likhachev). Danger threatens Rus', and the princes must forget the strife in order to save it from destruction.
The art of Ancient Rus' is primarily architecture and painting. The Byzantine traditions of stone architecture came with Christianity. The greatest buildings of the 11th-12th centuries. (Desiatinnaya Church, which died in 1240, cathedrals dedicated to Hagia Sophia in Kyiv, Novgorod, Chernigov, Polotsk) followed Byzantine traditions. A cylindrical drum rests on four massive pillars in the center of the building, connected by arches. The hemisphere of the dome rests firmly on it. Following the four branches of the cross, the remaining parts of the temple are adjacent to them, ending with vaults, sometimes with domes. In the altar part there are semicircular projections and apses. This is the cross-dome composition of the church building developed by the Byzantines. The internal and often external walls of the temple are painted with frescoes (painting on wet plaster) or covered with mosaics. A special place is occupied by icons - picturesque images of Christ, the Mother of God, and saints. The first icons came to Rus' from Byzantium, but Russian masters quickly mastered the strict laws of icon painting. Honoring traditions and diligently learning from Byzantine teachers, Russian architects and painters showed amazing creative freedom: ancient Russian architecture and icon painting were more open to the world, cheerful, and decorative than Byzantine ones. By the middle of the 12th century. The differences between the art schools of Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, and southern Russian lands also became obvious. Joyful, light, lavishly decorated Vladimir churches (the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, etc.) contrast with the squat, solid, massive churches of Novgorod (the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa on Torg, etc.). The Novgorod icons “Golden Hair Angel”, “The Sign” differ from the icons “Dmitry of Thessalonica” or “The Bogolyubskaya Mother of God” painted by Vladimir-Suzdal masters.
To the number greatest achievements Old Russian culture also includes artistic craft, or pattern making, as it was called in Rus'. Gold jewelry covered with enamel, silver items made using filigree, granulation or niello techniques, patterned decoration of weapons - all this testifies to the high skill and taste of ancient Russian artisans.
Domestic history of the 9th-19th centuries / Ed. A. A. Fedulina. - M.: KnoRus, 2013. - P. 103.
Polyakov A. N. Kievan Rus as a civilization. - Orenburg: IPK OSU, 2010. - P. 160.
1. Origin and settlement of the Slavs.
Initially, the settlement of the Great Slavs (ancestors of the Slavs). Settlement of the Proto-Slavs. The Sklavens lived in Central and Southern Poland. The Antes inhabited the area between the Dniester and Dnieper rivers. Wenedy - on the territory of the Polish Seaside, the Vistula River basin. The ancestors of the Eastern Slavs are the Antes. They were engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding, crafts, hunting, and gathering. The most public occupation is war. Political structure- military democracy. The transition from the primitive communal system to the early state. 4th – 7th centuries AD The Great Migration of Peoples. There are two concepts of the community of Slavs: 1) Slavic-Germanic; 2) Balto – Slavic. Settlement of the ancient Slavs in Eastern and Central Europe. Division into three great branches: eastern, western, southern. Design according to geographical principle. Tribes of the Eastern Slavs settled in the territory of the East. and center. Europe in the 6th – 8th centuries AD. This is known from chronicle sources(“Tales of Bygone Years”) and, thanks to archaeological finds. The Polyans, the most powerful warlike tribe, were located on the territory of the middle reaches of the Dnieper, Kyiv region. Drevlyans - the territory of Pripyat woodland (modern Belarus). Slovenians lived along the shores of Lake Ilmen, Novgorod region (western part). The Dregovichi lived between the Pripyat River and the Western Dvina. The northerners lived north of Polyany. Vyatichi - on the Oka River. Radimichi - basin of the Sozh River. Krivichi - west of Polyany. They were engaged in agriculture. Main crops: rye, barley, millet, wheat, buckwheat. Two types of land cultivation. 1) Arable land (in the south). The main tool is the plow. 2) Slashing - fire. In the north. The main weapon is a plow. Cattle breeding. Cattle, pig breeding. The working animal is a horse. Trades: hunting, fishing, gathering, beekeeping (honey from wild bees). Crafts (pottery, weaving, jewelry, leather). Social organization – tribal system. At the head is the prince (only a military leader, judicial functions of an arbiter). The squad is the prince's comrades-in-arms. The Council of Elders took part in the management of the tribe and organized the economy. The bulk were free community members who participated in the people's assembly - the veche. Neighbors of the Slavs: Byzantine Empire southwest); in the northeast - Finno-Ugric tribes (Chud, Ves, Izhora); in the northwest - Varangians (Normans) - Frisians, Sveii; in the southeast - the Turks, Volga Bulgaria (Tatars); in the east - the Khazar Kaganate. Trade was developed. The most important and main trade route is the “Road from the Varangians to the Greeks.” It passed along the Baltic Sea, through the Neva, Volkhov, Ilmen Lake, Lovat, to the Dnieper, and then to the Black Sea. Along this route it was possible to get to the east along the Great Volga Route, along the Volga to the Caspian Sea and to the Arab countries and Persia. They exported fur, wax, honey, slaves, and grain. They imported fabrics, jewelry, wine, and weapons. Belief – paganism. Gods of the Slavs. Genus - supreme god earth and sky. Perun is the god of thunder, lightning, and also the god of war. Veles (Veres) – god of cattle breeding, trade, and the underworld. Stribog is the god of the wind, the elements, and nature. May God be the god of light and warmth. Simargl is a winged sacred dog that protects crops and plants. Makosh is the goddess of family, childbirth, fertility, and blessings.
2. Kievan Rus in the 9th-10th centuries.
Political genesis is the process of the emergence of a state. Formation of tribes into unions and super-unions. The reason is defense against external enemies from the Khazars, Pechenegs (until 1306), and Varangians. That. at the beginning of the 9th - 10th centuries, thanks to an external threat, a super-union of tribes appeared, known as the Russian Land (cities - Kyiv, led by Polyany, Chernigov, Pereslavl). 862 – the calling to Rus' of the Varangians (Slovenes, Krivyachi, Chud), namely Rurik, who settled in Novgorod, Sineus, who settled on Beloozero, and Truvor, who settled in Izborsk.
Theories about the origin of the state in Rus'. Norman theory of the 30s - 40s of the 18th century. In 1749, Miller put forward a theory “about the origin of the name of the people and the state.” It was that the Russians were not capable of creating a state; they needed supporters (Miller, Bayer, Schlödzer). This theory was opposed by M.V. Lomonosov (anti-Norman theory). Now it is impossible to say for sure which theory is correct, so there is a compromise option. The state was formed in any case, since the tribes were ready to unite; the Varangians only accelerated this process.
Origin of the name "Rus". There are several opinions here too. Here are the most basic ones. 1) The Normanists believed that the name Rus' came from the word Ruotsi, which is how the Finns called the Swedes. 2) Lomonosov believed he was from the Roxalan tribe (but such a tribe did not exist). 3) B.D. Grekov (a Soviet scientist historian) believed that the name came from the Ros River, a tributary of the Dnieper.
The emergence of Kievan Rus, led by Prince of Kyiv. Initially, Askold and Dir ruled in Kyiv. Kyiv was founded back in the 6th century. After Rurik’s death in 879, his son Igor was supposed to rule, but since he was small, Oleg (Igor’s guardian) began to rule. The date of his reign is 879 - 912. In 882, he made a trip to Kyiv, killed Askold and Dir. Bottom line. Kyiv was proclaimed the main city of Kievan Rus. The capital. Oleg became the first Grand Duke of Kyiv. For the next 25 years, Oleg was busy expanding his power. He subjugated the Drevlyans (883), the Northerners (884), and the Radimichi (885) to Kyiv. The last two tribal unions were tributaries of the Khazars. According to legend, Oleg allegedly said: “ I am their enemy, but I have no enmity with you. Don't give to the Khazars, but pay me" Then Oleg annexed the lands of the southernmost of the East Slavic tribes - the Ulichs and Tivertsi.
Foreign policy. Campaigns against Byzantium. 907 unsuccessful campaign against Constantinople (first campaign). Second campaign (successful) in 911. The conclusion of a peace treaty, according to which Rus' was exempted from paying trade duties, Byzantium was obliged to support Russian merchants at the expense of the treasury, and the obligation to exchange prisoners. Oleg reigned as Grand Duke of Kyiv from 882 - 912.
After his death, Rurik’s son, Igor, became king. He reigned from 912 - 945. He also made a trip to Constantinople. 941,944 – unsuccessful trips. 944 - an agreement according to which the Russians must again pay duties, not fight against Byzantium, Rus' must fight against the Bulgars. In 945, the Drevlyans, when Igor tried to take double tribute, killed Igor. Iskorost is the capital of the Drevlyans.
Olga, Igor’s wife, after this incident, first brutally took revenge on the Drevlyans, then established a fixed amount of tribute - a lesson, determined a special place - graveyards and the time of tribute - late fall. From now on, tribute was collected not by the prince, but special people. She was the first to convert to Christianity. She ruled from 945 to 962, since at the time of Igor’s death, his son Svyatoslav was 3 years old, so Olga began to rule. Svyatoslav spent more time hiking. The first campaigns were against the Khazar Kaganate (965 - 967), took the capital Itil and crushed the Kaganate. He conquered the Vyatichi, according to the treaty of 944, helped Byzantium in the war with Bulgaria, during the campaigns from 967 to 971 all eastern Bulgaria was conquered, Pereslavl was founded on the Danube. But there was a conflict with Byzantium. 970-972 years. The Russians, led by Svyatoslav, took Adrianople and launched an attack on Byzantium, until they were defeated. In 971, a peace treaty was concluded with Byzantium, according to which Svyatoslav refused to fight against Byzantium, but, on the contrary, fought on its side. In 972, returning home from a campaign, he was killed by the Pechenegs.
The reign of Vladimir Krasno Solnyshko or the Baptist. After the death of Svyatoslav in 972, an internecine war occurred between his sons (Yaropolk, who received Kyiv in his will, Oleg, who ruled in the land of the Drevlyans, and Vladimir, who reigned in Novgorod). It all started with the confrontation between Yaropolk and Oleg, and Oleg was killed in the battle. In 980, Vladimir kills Yaropolk. And in 980 the reign of Vladimir began. Domestic and foreign policy of Vladimir. He conquered the remaining tribes of the Vyatichi and Radimichi. He actively fought against Poland, conquered Cherven and Przemysl. From 981 to 985 he fought against Volga Bulgaria. He also took measures to protect the southern borders from the Pechenegs.
Baptism of Rus'. The peasantry spread to Rus' long before the appearance of Vladimir; back in 944, Igor’s warriors were peasants, and Olga adopted the peasantry in 957. Kievan Rus was unstable in politically. Vladimir has been trying to get out of the crisis since 980. He is trying to reform the old faith, setting up idols of Slavic pagan gods led by Perun in Kyiv. But the attempt to unite the land under the leadership of Kyiv was unsuccessful. Therefore, Vladimir begins to search for new religions. 986 – test ver. According to legend, Vladimir chooses among existing faiths. Vladimir's choice stops at Orthodoxy. In 987, an uprising broke out in Byzantium. Vasily II asked Vladimir for help, promising to give his sister in marriage to Vladimir. Vladimir helped, but Vasily II was in no hurry to marry his sister to Vladimir, then Vladimir surrounded Byzantium and forced him to fulfill his promise, while he himself was baptized. Upon returning to Rus' in 988, the baptism of the Kievites took place in the waters of the Dnieper, as well as the construction of a stone church - the Cathedral of the Blessed Virgin Mary. So, from the end of the 10th – 11th centuries, the peasantry actively penetrated. There is a clash between peasants and paganism.
What is the significance of accepting the peasantry? Vladimir was an excellent politician. But the faith was accepted to unite the tribes through planting. There is no clear answer to this question. The downside was that the church depended on the authorities and the state and was cut off from the people. On the plus side, political unity was achieved, trade began to develop, political connections began to be established, culture and mentality began to change. But connections with Western Europe did not appear. Slavic writing appeared in Rus', and the Old Russian nationality (territory, language, writing, faith, ethnicity) was formed.
The role of the church. Sources of the existing church (tithes, judicial and trade duties, the church owned movable and immovable property). Administration of the Russian Orthodox Church. At its head was the metropolitan (a Greek who was sent from Constantinople). His residence was the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. There are bishops on the ground. The clergy was divided into black (lived in monasteries, monks) and white (served in rural and urban churches). The Church will play an important role in the perception of reality that will lead to the collapse of the Church in 1917, as freedom of thought and value is reduced to nothing.
3. Kievan Rus in the 11th – early 13th centuries. (political and socio-economic development).
From the 2nd half of the 10th to the middle of the 11th century, the decomposition of tribal relations and the collapse of the clan community took place. From the 10th to the end of the 12th century it was called the pre-feudal period, i.e. transitional stage from the tribal system to early feudal relations. This time was characterized by the predominance of free communal land ownership (the patrimony of princes and boyars). There was no division along class lines. These characteristics are the main ones before the Mongol invasion, then private land ownership will prevail due to the increase in power. At the end of the 10th and beginning of the 11th centuries, city-states appeared. The structure of the city-state: the main city and the suburbs, which were in close communal relations, the veche system, the weak power of the princes (it is important that all this was only before the Tatar-Mongol invasion).
Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. The main cities are Rostov and Suzdal. Dependent cities are Vladimir and Moscow. City government bodies:
1) City community, people's assembly (veche);
2) The prince, who currently performs only a military function + squad (senior warriors are boyars; junior warriors are youths).
3) Volost people's militia - a thousand led by a thousand.
The first legal and legislative code of laws is “Russian Truth”. This set of laws reflected changes in social relations. The blood feud was replaced by a monetary fine. Composition of “Russian Truth”: Part 1 – Brief Truth (operated in the 11th and early 12th centuries); Part 2 – Long truth (approximately valid in the second half of the 12th century at the beginning of the 13th). Categories of the dependent population were determined, therefore, a step was taken towards enslavement.
1) Free population - men. For his murder there was a fine of 40 hryvnia.
2) Semi-dependent population: purchases - debtors who had to repay the debt in %; outcasts - lost their family, home, everything; launchers - slaves released by the master at his request; strangled - slaves who received freedom according to the will of the master. For their murder they gave various amounts from 5 hryvnia, and for purchases they could give about 40.
3) Dependent population: servants - slaves-prisoners of war; serfs - slaves of local origin; smerds (external - conquered non-Slavic tribes who paid tribute, internal - captives from non-Slavic tribes who were resettled on Russian territory). For killing them, the fine is 5 hryvnia.
The legislative sphere of Rus' was in effect until the 40s of the 13th century.
Contradictions and conflicts (for power), internecine strife, dynastic wars, economic (monetary) and religious (the bloodiest). The 11th century is the era of the appearance of pagan Magi. In 1024, the uprising of the Magi takes place in Suzdal. 1071 in Rostov. The most major uprisings were brutally suppressed.
Division of Rus' into city-states. Collapse of Kievan Rus. In 1015 Vladimir dies. A bloody internecine war begins between his sons. Svyatopolk the Accursed seized the throne, Boris reigned in Rostov, Gleb ruled in Murom, Yaroslav ruled in Novgorod. There is a conflict between Svyatopolk, Boris and Gleb. Svyatopolk kills Boris and Gleb (they were canonized). Then Svyatopolk begins actions against Yaroslav. In 1019, Yaroslav inflicted a crushing defeat on Svyatopolk, and from 1019, Yaroslav’s independent reign in Kyiv began until 1054. In 1036, Yaroslav finally defeated the Pechenegs at the walls of Kyiv. Will make campaigns against Poland in 1041 - 1047. Under Yaroslav, Rus''s international position and dynastic ties with Sweden, France, etc. strengthened. in 1054, the death of Yaroslav and his will (the first political will) in it calls for living in brotherly love, not waging internecine wars and transfers Kiev to Izyaslav, Chernigov to Svyatoslav, and Pereslavl to Vsevolod. In 1068, the Yaroslavichs were defeated by the Polovtsians on the Alta River. In 1097, a congress of princes took place in Lyubich, at which the princes agreed to live in friendship, it was decided that each prince would rule alone. This gave rise to the beginning of the fragmentation of Rus'.
Political fragmentation of Rus'. Disintegration into city-states with veche system. After the reign of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich from 1093 to 1113 and his expulsion from Kyiv, Vladimir Monomakh was called to the throne, he ruled from 1113 to 1125. He finally conquered the Vyatichi and undertook campaigns against the Polovtsians. He adopted the Monomakh Charter - the “Charter on Purchases and Slaves”, according to which purchases received the right to leave the master to earn money and be freed from dependence, a ban on turning purchases into slaves, but only if the purchase ran away and did not want to pay the debt, the purchase turned into a slave. After his death, he left to his sons “Instructions of Vladimir Monomakh to his sons.” After his death, Mstislav began to rule until 1132, but after his death, Rus' finally collapsed into separate principalities (about 40). A new stage of rule began - the fragmentation of Rus'.
Feudal fragmentation in Rus' (second half of the 12th century - mid-13th century).
1) A confusing system of inheritance of power;
2) There is no single economic space;
3) The difficulty of managing a huge state;
4) New centers and large cities appear on the water frontiers.
In 1204, the Crusaders captured Constantinople, and now trade waterways have become unnecessary. Overland trade routes are developing. Former cities are falling into decay (Kyiv).
Pros: it is easier to manage a separate principality, now the prince was interested in equipping his principality, this is the time of flowering of culture, Russian culture, architecture, purely Russian art appears. The Romanesque style comes from Europe. Churches of stunning beauty are being built (Protection on Merli). The economy is developing in most principalities. High literacy among the population.
Perhaps the most important disadvantage is that the defense capability was weakened, namely, there was no unified army.
The selection of strong principalities, such as: Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn, which claimed to be the unifier of the Russian Lands.
Principality of Novgorod. It was located in the northwest. From the Kola Peninsula to the Urals. Novgorod is called the port of three seas (Ladoga, Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Caspian Sea). A very famous port, occupies a favorable economic position. Trade is developed (furs, handicrafts). He was famous for his merchants. Novgorod was part of the Tadzian Union. Was here high level jewelry art. But there was not enough grain. We were hungry. Grain was imported. Novgorod gained independence in 1136. The system of princely power changed. The prince was now chosen. The prince was vested only with military functions; he was not in Novgorod, only on business and only during the day. He had a residence outside the city. All matters were supervised by the veche by voting. The decision was made by voice, i.e. who will outshout whom. Very often there were disagreements. The meeting took place outside the walls of the Kremlin, and sometimes it ended in a fight. Posadniki - the head of administrative power, the role of governor, he had an assistant - a thousand, who performed a police function, in wartime he led the militia and was subordinate to the prince, he was also elected. Current affairs were in charge of the council of masters, which consisted of boyars who manipulated public consciousness. A typical boyar republic.
Vladimir-Suzdal land in the 11th and early 13th centuries. G.O. was located in the northeast, forest zone, there are hills and fertile areas of land beneficial for farming. The principality did not have clear boundaries, and the colonization of lands continued. There were fertile lands here. The oldest and main cities are Vladimir, Rostov and Suzdal. The proximity of the Great Volga Road, the independence of Rostov from Kyiv, helped this principality become one of the strongest, richest and most influential principalities in Rus'. The founder of the dynasty was the son of Vladimir Monomakh - Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157). In 1147, the first chronicle mention of Moscow (Yuri Dolgoruky). Yuri Dolgoruky began to build cities, promoted trade and agriculture (slash-and-burn farming). He captured Kyiv in 1155, since Kyiv was still the capital, but was no longer important and was falling into decay. After his death in 1157, Andrei Bogolyubsky began to rule. After the capture of Kyiv, he also became the Great Prince of Kyiv, but did not reign in Kyiv. He made campaigns against Volga Bulgaria from 1164 to 1172. He was killed as a result of a boyar conspiracy in 1174. After his death, Vsevolod Yuryevich the Big Nest ruled from 1176 to 1212. He was one of the Outstanding Princes. He further strengthened the principality. Vladimir became the capital after Suzdal. He made campaigns against Volga Bulgaria in 1183 and 1185. Unlike Novgorod, power was hereditary; the prince was not only a warrior, but also a senior administrative official. Vsevolod made his last attempt at personal power. But after his death, his sons divided the principality.
Galicia-Volyn principality. Fertile lands. Cities: Vladimir-Volynsky, Galich, Przemysl. A special feature is active trade with Byzantium, Poland, and Hungary. The emergence of boyar land ownership. Strong power of the boyars. In 1199, Roman annexed the Principality of Galicia to Volyn, but in 1205 he was killed, and during the internecine war, Daniil Romanovich won. He reigned until 1238.
4. Culture of Rus'.
The first chronicle work is “The Tale of Bygone Years,” written in 1113 by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor. Its origins date back to 862. Is one of the main sources. In 1117, Vladimir Monomakh’s teaching to children (a call for brotherly love has a social connotation (do not offend orphans, widows, do not kill, obey your elders)). After 1185, the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign” was created.
The population of Kievan Rus was quite literate; writing existed. They wrote on birch bark letters. Architecture: the 12-domed St. Sophia Cathedral was built in 1037 in Kyiv. Assumption Cathedral. The direction in architecture is classical ancient Russian architecture.
Topic 1. Ancient Rus' (9th - 13th centuries)
1) On what territory was the Old Russian state created?
On the territory of modern Ukraine.
2) Who created the Old Russian state?
Old Russian state in Eastern Europe, which arose in the last quarter of the 9th century. as a result of the unification under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty of the two main centers of the Eastern Slavs - Novgorod and Kyiv, as well as lands located along the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”.
3) Which city became the capital of the Old Russian state?
In 882, Prince Oleg captured Kyiv and made it the capital of the state.
4) When did Rus' accept Christianity?
Under Vladimir I Svyatoslavovich, also known as Vladimir the Holy, Vladimir the Great, in the history of the church - Vladimir the Baptist.
6) What is the religious symbol of Christianity?
7) What famous Orthodox churches were built in Ancient Rus'?
Church of the Tithes, the three-domed St. Sophia Cathedral, the churches of St. Irene and the Great Martyr George, the Transfiguration Cathedral in Chernigov.
8) Which state did Rus' become dependent on in the 13th century?
In the 13th century, Rus' became dependent on the Golden Horde.
Alexander Nevsky - Prince of Novgorod (1236–1240, 1241–1252 and 1257–1259), Grand Duke of Kiev (1249-1263), Grand Duke of Vladimir (1252-1263), famous Russian commander, defender of the holy Russian Orthodox Church and land. He led the Novgorod army in the battle with the Swedes on the Neva River in 1240 and in the Battle of the Ice with the Teutonic Knights in 1242. Holy noble prince, who has not lost a single battle.
Topic 2. Moscow state (XIV - XVII centuries)
1) When did it happen?
2) Who won the Battle of Kulikovo?
Rus', led by Dmitry Donskoy, won the Battle of Kulikovo.
3) Which city became the center of the unification of Russian lands?
Moscow became the center of unification of Russian lands.
4) When did the Russian lands unite around Moscow?
The middle of the 15th century began the unification of Russian lands around Moscow.
5) In what year did the liberation of Rus' from the Horde yoke (dependence) take place?
In 1480.
6) What name did Tsar Ivan IV receive in history?
V. M. Vasnetsov. Tsar Ivan the Terrible, 1897.
7) Conqueror of Siberia?
Ermak T. - “Unknown by birth, famous in soul.”
8) Which 15th century artist painted the famous Trinity icon?
Andrey Rublev.
Andrei Rublev is the most famous and revered master of the Moscow school of icon painting, book and monumental painting of the 15th century. Canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church as a venerable saint.
9) What is the name of the architectural monument-fortress in Moscow, which was built as a symbol of the formation of a unified Moscow state?
All Saints Bridge and the Kremlin at the end of the 17th century. Drawing by A. M. Vasnetsov
10) In what century was the period of Troubles in Russia?
The turn of the XVI-XVII centuries.
11) When was Moscow liberated from the Polish army by the people’s militia led by Minin and Pozharsky?
Moscow was liberated in October 1612.
12) Which dynasty began to rule in Russia in 1613?
Romanov dynasty.
Section II. Russian Empire (XVIII - early XX centuries)
Topic 3. Russia in the 18th century
1) Who carried out reforms in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century?
Posthumous romanticized portrait of Peter I.
Artist Paul Delaroche (1838).
2) What is the name of the city that became the capital of Russia in the era of Peter I?
Saint Petersburg.
3) In which city in the 18th century was the first university in Russia created?
In Moscow.
4) Which Russian scientist played a major role in the creation of the first university in Russia?
Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilievich.
5) When and at what Russian Empress became part of Russia Crimean peninsula?
On April 8, 1783, Catherine II signed a manifesto on the “Annexation of the Crimean Peninsula, Taman Island and the entire Kuban side under the Russian Empire.”
Catherine II Alekseevna - Empress and Autocrat of All Russia. She pursued a policy of enlightened absolutism.
6) Who was A.V. Suvorov?
Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov is a great Russian commander, military theorist, strategist, national hero of Russia.
7) Which monument is the symbol of the city of St. Petersburg?
8) In which city is the largest museum in Russia - the Hermitage?
Saint Petersburg.
Topic 4. Russia in the 19th century
1) When was the Patriotic War?
The Patriotic War took place in 1812.
2) What is the name of the largest battle of the Patriotic War?
3) Who won the Patriotic War?
Russia won. Napoleon's army was almost completely destroyed.
4) Who was the commander-in-chief of the Russian army during the war?
Mikhail Illarionovich Golenishchev-Kutuzov - Russian commander and diplomat, field marshal general from the Golenishchev-Kutuzov family, commander-in-chief of the Russian army during the Patriotic War of 1812. The first full holder of the Order of St. George.
Portrait of M.I. Kutuzov brushes R.M. Volkova
5) Who are the Decembrists?
Russian revolutionaries who rebelled against autocracy and serfdom in December 1825.
6) When was serfdom abolished in Russia?
The abolition of serfdom occurred in 1861.
7) Under which Russian emperor was serfdom abolished?
Under Alexander II.
Alexander II Nikolaevich - Emperor of All Russia. Conducted large-scale reforms. Abolished serfdom (manifesto of February 19, 1861). Under him, victory was won in the Russian-Turkish War (1877–1878). Died as a result of a terrorist attack organized by the secret organization "People's Will".
8) When did the annexation of Central Asia to Russia take place?
In 1880.
9) Who was A.S. Pushkin?
Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin is a great Russian poet, playwright and prose writer, literary critic, translator, publicist, historian.
10) Which Russian scientist discovered the periodic law of chemical elements in the second half of the 19th century?
Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev - Russian encyclopedist scientist: chemist, physical chemist, physicist, metrologist, economist, technologist, geologist, meteorologist, oil worker, teacher, aeronaut, instrument maker. Professor at St. Petersburg University. Among the most famous discoveries is the periodic law of chemical elements, one of the fundamental laws of the universe, integral to all natural science.
11) Who was L.N. Tolstoy?
Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy - count, great Russian writer, thinker, known throughout the world, educator, publicist, religious thinker. Participant in the defense of Sevastopol.
12) Who was P.I. Chaikovsky?
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky - great Russian composer, conductor, teacher, musical public figure, music journalist.
13) Who was F.M. Dostoevsky?
Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky is a great Russian writer, thinker, philosopher and publicist. Dostoevsky is a classic of Russian literature and one of the best novelists of world significance.
Topic 5. The Russian Empire at the beginning of the twentieth century
1) What main religions were represented in Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century?
The main religions represented in Russia are Christianity (Orthodoxy predominates), as well as Islam and Buddhism.
2) Representatives of which religion made up the majority of the population of the Russian Empire?
The majority of the population is Orthodox.
3) When did the First Russian Revolution take place?
In 1905.
4) What was the main result of the First Russian Revolution?
New government bodies emerged - the beginning of the development of parliamentarism; some limitation of autocracy; democratic freedoms were introduced, censorship was abolished, trade unions and legal political parties were allowed; the bourgeoisie received the opportunity to participate in the political life of the country; the situation of workers has improved, wages have increased, the working day has decreased to 9–10 hours; redemption payments to peasants have been cancelled, and their freedom of movement has been expanded; The power of zemstvo chiefs is limited.
5) Who was the leader of the Bolshevik party?
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin - Russian revolutionary, Soviet politician and statesman, founder of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (Bolsheviks), one of the main organizers and leaders of the October Revolution of 1917 in Russia, chairman of the Council of People's Commissars (government) of the RSFSR, creator of the first socialist state in world history.
6) When was the First World War?
7) Who was A.P. Chekhov?
Anton Pavlovich Chekhov is a famous Russian writer, playwright, classic of world literature.
8) What was the name of the Russian scientist-inventor radio?
Alexander Stepanovich Popov.
9) What is the name of the theater in Moscow, famous all over the world for its productions of opera and ballet?
Section III. History of the USSR
Topic 6. History of the USSR before the Great Patriotic War
1) What revolution took place in Russia in 1917?
Great October Socialist Revolution.
2) What was the name of the last Russian emperor?
Nicholas II - Emperor of All Russia, colonel. The reign of Nicholas II was marked economic development Russia and at the same time the growth of socio-political contradictions in it, the revolutionary movement, which resulted in the revolution of 1905–1907 and the February Revolution of 1917; the war with Japan, as well as Russia’s participation in the military blocs of European powers and the First World War.
Nicholas II abdicated the throne during the February Revolution of 1917 and was under house arrest with his family in the Tsarskoe Selo Palace. In the summer of 1917, by decision of the Provisional Government, he and his family were sent into exile in Tobolsk, and in the spring of 1918, the Bolsheviks moved him to Yekaterinburg, where in July 1918 he was shot along with his family and associates. Canonized (along with his wife and children) by the Russian Orthodox Church.
3) Which party came to power in Russia in the fall of 1917?
The Bolshevik Party led by V.I. Lenin.
4) What was the name of the state that was created in 1922 on the territory of the former Russian Empire?
USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics).
5) Under which leader of Russia was the church separated from the state, and the school from the church?
Under Vladimir Ilyich Lenin.
6) What was the name of the policy to create large-scale industry in the USSR?
Industrialization.
7) What was the name of the policy for creating collective farms in the countryside in the USSR?
Collectivization.
8) What was the most important achievement of the USSR in the field of education in the first half of the twentieth century?
Elimination of illiteracy.
Topic 7. USSR during the Great Patriotic War (1941 - 1945)
1) When was the Great Patriotic War?
2) Which countries were allies of the USSR in the fight against Nazi Germany?
The allies of the USSR were the USA, Great Britain, the Mongolian People's Republic, the Tuvan People's Republic (countries of the anti-Hitler coalition).
3) What was the name of the most important (turning point) battle of the Great Patriotic War?
4) Who were G.K. Zhukov and K.K. Rokossovsky?
Georgy Konstantinovich Zhukov is a four-time Hero of the Soviet Union, a holder of two Orders of Victory, and many other Soviet and foreign orders and medals. During the Great Patriotic War, he successively held the positions of Chief of the General Staff, Front Commander, Member of the Headquarters of the Supreme High Command, Deputy Supreme Commander-in-Chief. In the post-war period, he served as Commander-in-Chief of the Ground Forces, commanding the Odessa and then the Ural military districts. After the death of I.V. Stalin, he became the first deputy minister of defense of the USSR.
Konstantin Konstantinovich Rokossovsky - Soviet and Polish military leader, twice Hero of the Soviet Union (1944, 1945). Marshal of the Soviet Union (1944), Marshal of Poland (1949). The only marshal of two countries in the history of the USSR. He commanded the Victory Parade on June 24, 1945 on Red Square in Moscow. One of the greatest commanders of the Second World War.
5) Who won the Great Patriotic War?
6) In which city did Soviet soldiers M. Egorov and M. Kantaria raise the Victory Banner in May 1945?
In Berlin, Germany.
7) How much Soviet people died during the Great Patriotic War?
27 million people.
Victory Day.
Topic 8. USSR in the post-war period (1945 - 1991)
1) In what year and on the initiative of which Soviet leader was Crimea transferred from the RSFSR to the Ukrainian SSR?
2) Who was the Chief Designer of the first Soviet spacecraft of the USSR?
Sergei Pavlovich Korolev - Soviet scientist, designer and main organizer of the production of rocket and space technology and missile weapons of the USSR, the founder of practical cosmonautics. One of the largest figures of the 20th century in the field of space rocketry and shipbuilding. On his initiative and under his leadership, the first artificial satellite Earth and the first cosmonaut of the planet Yuri Gagarin.
3) What was the name of the world's first astronaut?
Gagarin Yuri Alekseevich - Soviet pilot-cosmonaut, Hero of the Soviet Union, holder of the highest insignia of a number of states, honorary citizen of many Russian and foreign cities. On April 12, 1961, Yuri Gagarin became the first person in world history to fly into outer space.
4) In what year did Yu.A. Gagarin made the world's first flight into space?
5) What is the name of the world's first female astronaut?
Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova - Soviet cosmonaut, the world's first female cosmonaut, major general (1995). Candidate technical sciences, Professor. The only woman in the world to fly solo in space. The first woman in Russia with the rank of major general.
6) What important international sporting event took place in Moscow in 1980?
Olympics.
7) What was the name of M.S.’s reform policy? Gorbachev?
Perestroika.
8) Who was the president of the USSR?
Gorbachev Mikhail Sergeevich - Soviet and Russian statesman, political and public figure. The last General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. The last Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, then the first Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. The only President of the USSR. He has a number of awards and honorary titles, the most famous of which is the 1990 Nobel Peace Prize. Included in the list of the 100 most studied personalities in history.
9) How many Soviet republics were part of the USSR in the 1960-1980s?
15 republics.
10) When did the collapse of the USSR occur?
11) What organization was created after the collapse of the USSR by some former Soviet republics?
CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States).
12) Who was A.I. Solzhenitsyn?
Solzhenitsyn Alexander Isaevich is a Russian writer, playwright, publicist, poet, public and political figure. Laureate Nobel Prize in literature (1970). A dissident who for several decades (1960–1980s) actively opposed communist ideas, the political system of the USSR and the policies of its authorities.
Section IV. Modern Russia
Topic 9. Reforms in the Russian Federation in 1991-1999.
1) When was the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Russia adopted?
2) Who was the first president of Russia?
3) What reforms did B.N. begin to carry out in Russia? Yeltsin?
Liberalization of foreign trade, reorganization of the tax system and other transformations that radically changed the economic situation in the country. The result of the reforms marked Russia's transition to a market economy.
4) When was the Constitution of the Russian Federation adopted?
5) What kind of state is the Russian Federation in terms of its national composition?
Multinational.
6) What language is state language in Russia?
Russian language.
7) Which city is the capital of Russia?
8) What is the name of the main square of the Russian capital?
Topic 10. Russia in the 21st century
1) In what years were V.V. presidents of the Russian Federation? Putin and D.A. Medvedev?
V.V. Putin - from May 2, 2000 to May 7, 2008,
May 7, 2012 to present;
YES. Medvedev - from May 7, 2008 to May 7, 2012.
2) Who is currently the President of Russia?
3) Which new republic became part of Russia in 2014?
4) Who is the Head of the Russian Orthodox Church?
Patriarch Kirill (Vladimir Mikhailovich Gundyaev).
5) What is the name of one of the main organizations of Muslims in Russia?
Central Spiritual Administration of Muslims of Russia (TSDUM of Russia).
6) In what Russian city did the XXII Winter Olympic Games take place in 2014?
Sochi, Russia.
Block of cultural issues (Modern holidays of Russia)
1) When is New Year celebrated in Russia?
Nativity.
Defender of the Fatherland Day.
International Women's Day.
Russia Day.
National Unity Day.
Constitution Day of the Russian Federation.