Ancient Eastern civilizations. India under Aryan rule

Story. General history. Grade 10. Basic and advanced levels Volobuev Oleg Vladimirovich

§ 2. Civilizations of the Ancient East

Mesopotamia: peoples, states, civilization. The very first civilizations in the history of mankind - the civilizations of the Ancient East - arose in the valleys of high-water rivers, the most favorable for the progressive development of society. Such a region was Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia), located in the valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. Here, with the advent of the Sumerian city-states, one of the early civilizations was formed. The formation of cities was associated with the need to carry out irrigation work, which united and coordinated the efforts of many people. An increase in the area of cultivated land in swampy or arid areas became possible through the organization of collective labor, which required management and control. The emergence of organizing centers of public life was associated with the complication of the social structure - the emergence of priests, warriors, artisans, as well as the need to defend the interests of settlements in conflicts with neighbors and the strengthening of the power of military leaders. With the emergence of a layer of managers and priests, state power began to take shape, based on the will of the gods, the authority of the ruler and military power.

The state included a religious and administrative center - the city and rural communities dependent on it. In each city there was a temple, which owned lands outside the city, on which temple farming was carried out, and the palace of the ruler - the military leader. In the struggle for power between the high priests and the military leaders, over time, the leaders became victorious and became kings.

In the vast temple farms, which gradually turned into royal-temple farms, the labor of peasants, who received plots for personal farming, and slaves were used. Wars were fought between the city-states, which ultimately led to the formation of a single state under the rule of the kings of Akka?da. The power of the king was inherited.

Priests and scribes were carriers of culture. Historians consider the most important achievement of Sumerian civilization to be the invention of writing - cuneiform, which was later used by other peoples of Western Asia.

In the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. Most of Mesopotamia came under the rule of King Hammurpi (reigned 1792 - 1750 BC). The capital of his state, Babylonia, became one of the largest trade and cultural centers of the Ancient World.

It was a huge city of Babylon, inhabited by representatives of many nations. Buildings in the capital were built from mud brick, and the main architectural structures were faced with glazed colored tiles covered with images of animals. A stepped temple with a high tower (90 m) rose above the city, the construction of which is associated with a biblical legend: after the Flood, people decided to build a tower to heaven; For this insolence, the Lord punished the builders: He endowed them with different languages, and they, ceasing to understand each other, scattered throughout the entire earth.

Gudea was the ruler of the Sumerian city-state of Lagash. XXII century BC.

In the Neo-Babylonian kingdom, as in previous times, the centers of economic, cultural and political life were large cities, which were governed by a council of elders, consisting mainly of priests. The Council of Elders performed administrative and judicial duties. The basis of the wealth of the states of Mesopotamia was the labor of peasants, artisans and slaves. The latter worked mainly in temple farms and construction. Trade, both internal and external, has developed greatly. The measure of value was silver bars. Relations in society were regulated by laws.

The first detailed set of laws in history was compiled by King Hammurabi.

King Hammurabi receives laws from the Sun God Sha?mash. Relief. XVIII century BC e.

In the XII – XI centuries. BC e. the rise of another power occurs - Assyria, located north of Babylonia. As a result of the brutal campaigns of conquest of the Assyrian kings, almost all of Western Asia came under their rule. In 689 BC. e. The Assyrians captured and destroyed Babylon, but were never able to establish lasting power over the conquered countries. In 605 BC. e. The Assyrian power was destroyed by the combined forces of the Medes, who lived northeast of Mesopotamia, and the revived Babylon.

Wounded lion. Assyrian relief. VII century BC e.

Ancient Egypt. In the middle of the 4th millennium BC. e., when the Sumerian city-states already existed, the Egyptian state emerged, occupying the valley of the Nile River from the first threshold to its confluence with the Mediterranean Sea. Unlike Mesopotamia, an ethnically homogeneous population lived here and there was a unified ecological and economic system tied to the Nile floods.

The Egyptian state was a classical eastern despotism, i.e., a super-centralized state in which all power belonged to the hereditary monarch. The word of the pharaoh (king) was law: he appointed officials to the highest positions, distributed assignments among them, and gave orders. The establishment of laws, state building, irrigation work, mining, foreign policy - everything was determined by the ruler. At his disposal were state resources - human, land, food, clothing. In governing the country, the pharaoh relied on the court nobility and the rulers of the nobles (from gr. "region, district") - administrative-territorial units into which Egypt was divided.

The Egyptians considered the pharaoh the son of the Sun God and revered him as a symbol of the country's well-being and prosperity.

One of the ruler’s main personal concerns was the creation of his own tomb during his lifetime. According to the religious beliefs of the Egyptians, after death a person continued to live in the afterlife. But since the soul cannot exist without the body, it had to be preserved.

In connection with these beliefs, Egypt developed a technique for embalming bodies, which made it possible for long-term or, as the Egyptians assumed, eternal preservation of mummies. The tomb and its contents - everything that the deceased needed in the afterlife - had to correspond to the person’s position in earthly society.

Ramses II. Relief. XIII century BC e.

One of the duties of the pharaohs was also the construction of temples, decorated with statues of gods. Each city had its own patron god. The sun god Ra was considered the supreme god in Egypt. When the city of Thebes became the capital of the state, its patron god Amon began to be identified with Ra - Amon-Ra. Literacy, knowledge, education - the entire spiritual life of society was concentrated in the hands of the priests. The priests of the main temples had a great influence on the domestic and foreign policies of the pharaohs.

Ancient India. In the 2nd millennium BC. e. The Aryans, tribes of Indo-European origin, invaded the Hindustan Peninsula. This conquest marked the beginning of the formation of a new civilization. A characteristic feature of Indian society was its division into four varnas ( Skt.. "quality, color") - estates, differing in their position in society. Three of them were considered the highest: brahmanas (priests), kshatriyas (warriors) and vaishyas (farmers, artisans, traders). Their representatives were called “twice-born”, as they underwent an initiation rite - a second birth. The lower varna included the shudras, called upon to serve the “twice-born.” A person was assigned to varna by birth; transition from one varna to another was impossible. The class-caste system of society also included untouchables - those who did not belong to any varna - tribes engaged in hunting and gathering, as well as representatives of “dirty” professions. In India, as in other ancient civilizations, slavery was widespread.

The agricultural population lived in communities, which were collective owners of land and irrigation structures. Communities supported artisans to serve their needs. In India, the community was not only economically important, it was also largely autonomous politically. The state imposed duties on the community, but did not interfere in its internal life, although the royal power in the Indian states bore the character of an oriental despotism with unlimited power of the monarch and complete lack of rights for the subjects. At the same time, there were no strictly centralized powers in India. When, for example, the term is used in relation to them "empire", then it should be remembered that this was a union of a number of states and tribes, the rulers of which were in varying degrees of dependence on the central government and on each other.

Dancing god Shiva. India

Brahmins were the only literate people and bearers of knowledge. They performed religious rituals and interpreted sacred texts. Writing in the ancient Indian language - Sanskrit - was syllabic in nature. Mythology set out in Rigvada - the first known monument of Indian literature, containing more than 1000 religious hymns, and in the epic poems "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana".

The highest place in the pantheon of gods was occupied by Brahma - the creator of the Universe, Vishnu - the preserver and Shiva - the destroyer. The ancient religion of Brahmanism changed over time. As a result of its development, Hinduism emerged, which is currently widespread in India and is considered one of the world religions.

In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. A new religion appears in India - Buddhism. Its founder was Buddha ( Skt.. “enlightened one”), the crown prince from the Gautama clan (another name is Shakyamuni - a hermit from the Shakya tribe). Having embarked on the path of ascetic life, Gautama came to the conclusion that since life is suffering, the way out of the circle of suffering is to renounce desires. He became “enlightened” after he reached a special state - nirvana ( Skt.. “bliss”), absolute detachment from the outside world. After the death of Gautama, his students compiled a biography and a set of sayings of the Teacher. Statues of Buddha and bodhisas (beings striving for enlightenment), installed in temples, are designed to save all living things from suffering.

In the religious, philosophical and ethical views of Hindus and Buddhists, the most important place is occupied by the concept of “karma” ( Skt.. "deed, action"). The sum of good or evil deeds in previous existences determines in what form a person will be reincarnated after death - reincarnation ( lat. "reincarnation") Unlike Hinduism, Buddhism does not recognize caste division and the presence of gods - the creators of the world who control human lives. Over time, Hinduism in India replaced Buddhism, which became widespread in the countries of Southeast Asia.

Ancient China. The cradle of ancient Chinese civilization was the lands along the middle reaches of the Yellow River. In the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The first state arose here. In subsequent centuries, the territory of China constantly expanded, it became a huge country in size.

In the 5th century BC e. China broke up into a number of states - the so-called period of the Warring States began. The emergence of Confucianism, an ethical and political doctrine that later became the basis of the state ideology and way of life of the Chinese, dates back to this time. In the conditions of the collapse of the foundations of family and clan life, the disasters and suffering of the common people, the founder of the teachings of Confucius (c. 551 - 479 BC) turned to the ancient traditions public life. In them, the scientist found the foundations that ensure state stability. Confucian teachings center on social ideals and norms of behavior. According to Confucius, a role model was a noble person with ideal qualities, the main ones being humanity and duty. Humanity, as interpreted by the philosopher, included justice, self-esteem, selflessness, love for people, etc.; duty was understood as moral obligations, which included the pursuit of knowledge.

Confucius taught that every person, including the ruler, should know his rights and responsibilities and strictly follow the norms of behavior. A place in public life is determined not by nobility and wealth, but only by knowledge and virtues. The most important principle of behavior is submission to elders. The Confucian cult of ancestors - both dead and living - and filial piety ensured the strength of the family, and the family hierarchy was projected onto the socio-political hierarchy.

Camel rider. China

At the end of the 3rd century. BC e. in China there is a unified centralized state, founded by Emperor Qin Shi Huang? (259 – 210 BC). During the next Han dynasty (ruled 206 BC - 220 AD), Confucianism established itself in China as a state ideology (“Han” became the self-name of the Chinese). Under his influence, a special privileged class of officials appeared - shenshi? ( whale. “learned men”), which included persons who passed a tough examination for an academic degree and then received the right to hold public office. With the strengthening of the position of the Shenshi in China, a centralized bureaucratic empire emerged, ideologically based on Confucian foundations and Buddhism.

Cultural heritage of the Ancient East. Ancient Eastern civilizations made a significant contribution to the development of world culture. The cultural heritage of the Ancient East includes the invention of writing and numerical symbols (digital symbols), the calendar, the beginnings of scientific knowledge, architectural monuments, works of fiction, the first laws regulating public life, etc.

Thanks to writing, the sustainable transfer of accumulated knowledge from generation to generation became possible, and an education system emerged. The spread of writing and its active use in office work and in concluding trade transactions led to a transition from its complex forms (hieroglyphic and cuneiform) to a simpler and more accessible one (letter). The first phonetic alphabet, which arose in Phenicia, formed the basis of modern alphabets - Greek, Latin, Cyrillic, etc.

The first literary works also appeared in the East. This includes the heroic Sumerian epic about Gilgamesh, and works of various genres created by the Egyptians. Around 900's BC e. In Palestine, the compilation of the texts of the Pentateuch (Torah), which tells about the history of the Jewish people, began. At the turn of the 2nd – 1st centuries. BC e. The “Historical Notes” of Sima Qianya were created, which described the past of China.

There were also significant advances in medicine. By mummifying the dead, the Egyptians became familiar with the structure of the human body, compiled descriptions of diseases and pharmacological prescriptions. The papyrus, which was a textbook on anatomy and surgery, has survived to this day. The acupuncture technique, which originated in China, is successfully used in medicine to this day.

Astronomical observations, which allowed the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Chinese to predict river floods and determine the time of solar and lunar eclipses, stimulated the development of mathematical knowledge. In Mesopotamia, the sexagesimal number system was used, and the year was divided, as it was in the ancient Egyptian calendar, into 12 months. In the countries of the Ancient East, monumental architectural structures were created on the basis of mathematical calculations and using technical skills, and fine art - painting, bas-reliefs, sculpture - developed.

Monuments of ancient Eastern civilizations - pyramids, temples, statues, paintings, jewelry - amaze the imagination: some with their grandeur, others with their vivid artistic depiction.

The Ancient East became the cradle of civilizations that arose in Egypt, Western, Southern and Eastern Asia. European civilization, through Antiquity, adopted the cultural achievements of the peoples of Mesopotamia and Egypt. The cultural achievements of Indian and Chinese civilizations became known to the European world much later, already in the modern period.

Questions and tasks

1. Where and when did the most ancient civilizations originate?

2. Compare what the civilizations of the Ancient East have in common and identify their main differences from each other.

3. Describe despotism and its main features. Give examples.

4. Using additional sources of information, including Internet resources, prepare a project about one of the religious and philosophical teachings of the Ancient East.

5. Discuss in class what contribution ancient Eastern civilizations made to world culture.

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The history of primitive society is divided into 2 stages.

General patterns of the emergence of state and law.

The history of mankind consists of 2 main periods: primitive society (lasted more than 2 million years) and civilization.

First stage– primitive communism (appropriating economy) – gathering, hunting, fishing, beekeeping. People live in herds. There is a principle of equivalent exchange. Stone weapons of labor.

Second phase– producing economy (7-5 thousand BC) - Neolithic revolution. Transition to iron tools. The main occupations are agriculture and cattle breeding. A tribal community appears. The concept of exogamy is introduced. Inequality appears (due to surplus) => classes appear => state. Governing bodies emerge - the leader, the council of elders, and people's assemblies.

The Ancient East- a large geographical region stretching from modern Tunisia in the West to modern China and Japan in the east; from the modern Caucasus in the north to modern Ethiopia in the south.

Ancient Eastern states:

Ancient Egypt;
Ancient India;
Ancient China;
Mesopotamia;
Ancient Japan;
Persia (modern Iran);
Ancient Israel;
Phenicia (modern Lebanon);
Urartu (modern Armenia);
Hittite Empire (modern Türkiye).

The main features of the Ancient Eastern state:

1. Irrigation agriculture.

2. Long-term preservation of the neighborhood community.

3. A special form of state is ancient Eastern despotism.

4. There was a huge bureaucratic apparatus.

5. Forms of ownership: state (royal), temple, communal, private.

6. The special position of the head of state - the monarch.

7. Monarch – all three branches of government.

8. Rulers – pharaoh, king, emperor, rajah.

9. Three main classes - slaves, slave owners, communal peasants.

10. Slow pace of historical development.

11. Patriarchal slavery.

Main features of Ancient Eastern law:

Class inequality was openly reinforced.
The class inequality of the free was consolidated.
The connection between legal norms and religious and moral norms (in Ancient India, a legal norm was equal to a religious norm, in Ancient China – a moral norm).
Sources of law: customs, judicial practice, legislation of the monarch.
The casuistry of Ancient Eastern law comes from the Latin word “casus” - case. The rule of law was recorded not in abstract form, but in the form of a specific case.
The rules of law contained primitive communal remnants (for example: collective responsibility of the community or relatives for a crime).
Traditionalism (for example: the subordinate position of women in family and marriage relationships).
The system of ancient Eastern law was not divided into branches.
There are no clear differences between a crime and a misdemeanor.

Concepts:

1. Socio-economic formation (SEF) is a society at a certain stage of historical development.

Production forces (basis) - labor, natural resources, tools.

Industrial relations (superstructure).

SUPERSTRUCTURE BASE

Formations:

Primitive communal - there were no classes and no states.
Slaveholding.
Feudal.
Capitalist (bourgeois).
Socialist.

2. Classes- economic concept - large groups of people, differing in their place in a historically determined system of social production, in their relationship (mostly enshrined in laws) to the means of production, in their role in the social organization of labor, and, therefore, on ways to obtain their share of social wealth.

In the primitive communal formation there are no classes.
In slaveholding - slaves, peasants, slave owners, formations.
In feudalism - peasants, feudal lords, artisans.
In capitalism - the bourgeoisie, the proletariat, the peasants.

3. Estates– legal concept is social groups in pre-capitalist formations (slave and feudal), which have certain rights and responsibilities that are inherited. There are different classes in different countries. Different classes have different rights and responsibilities. The estate was passed on by inheritance.

Make a summary of Engels’ article “The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State.” Chapters “Prehistoric stages of culture” and “Barbarism and civilization” (change in the social division of labor).

The textbook was developed on the basis of an approximate program of the academic discipline History (author V.V. Artemov) FGAU "FIRO" Ministry of Education and Science of Russia, 2015 intended for the implementation of the basic professional educational program of secondary vocational education on the basis of basic general education with the simultaneous receipt of secondary general education. The program was developed taking into account the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard for secondary general education (order of the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia dated May 17, 2012 No. 413), as well as the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard for the third generation of secondary vocational education, approved by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation in 2014.

The textbook presents materials for conducting practical classes in the discipline History for the 1st semester. The material for each lesson is presented in the following sequence: the purpose of the lesson is briefly formulated, the specific task and the order of its implementation are determined. For each topic, test questions have been developed that will help students prepare well for practical work, more fully master the textbook material and better navigate the historical events of the past and present.

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Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory

state budgetary professional educational institution

Krasnodar region

"KRASNODAR TECHNICAL COLLEGE"

Goncharenko Irina Vladimirovna

Tutorial.

Collection of practical lessons in the discipline OUD.04 “History”.

Krasnodar

2015

I APPROVED

Deputy Director for MMR

"_____" ____________ 2015

I.R. Mutyeva

The textbook was developed on the basis of an approximate program for the academic discipline History (author V.V. Artemov) Federal State Autonomous Institution “FIRO” Ministry of Education and Science of Russia, 2015intended for the implementation of the basic professional educational program of secondary vocational education on the basis of basic general education with the simultaneous receipt of secondary general education. The program was developed taking into account the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard for secondary general education (order of the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia dated May 17, 2012 No. 413), as well as the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard for the third generation of secondary vocational education, approved by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation in 2014.

The textbook presents materials for conducting practical classes in the discipline History for the 1st semester. The material for each lesson is presented in the following sequence: the purpose of the lesson is briefly formulated, the specific task and the order of its implementation are determined. For each topic, test questions have been developed that will help students prepare well for practical work,to more fully master the textbook material and better navigate the historical events of the past and present.

Developer:

Reviewers:

1 _________________________________________,

(full name, position)

2 _________________________________________,

(full name, position)

Diploma qualification: ___________________

Introduction

This collection of practical works on history (from ancient times to the end of the 18th century) is a textbook for the textbook “History” by V.V. Artemov and Yu.N. Lubchenkova (Academy Publishing Center, Moscow, 2014) for students in educational institutions of primary and secondary vocational education.

All tasks in the collection are aimed at assimilation, repetition and consolidation of the knowledge gained from studying the material in the textbook “History” by V.V. Artemov and Yu.N. Lubchenkov. Carrying out practical work contributes to mastering the skills and abilities of searching, systematizing and comprehensive analysis of historical information, drawing up diagrams and tables, forming historical thinking - the ability to consider events and phenomena from the point of view of their historical conditionality, critically analyze sources, establish cause-and-effect relationships, and draw conclusions , present the results of studying historical material in the form of tables and diagrams. Completing some tasks requires additional knowledge, which indicates the students’ horizons.

The material for each lesson is presented in the following sequence: the purpose of the lesson is briefly formulated, the specific task and the order of its implementation are determined. Test questions have been developed for each topic to help students prepare well for practical work.

Practical classes include various types of tasks.

Reproductive tasks.In answers to such tasks, students should list the causes, consequences, and meanings of events. Define the concepts. The evaluation criterion is the correctness and completeness of the answer.

Tasks for filling out tables.The tables are filled in completely. The evaluation criterion is the correctness and completeness of filling out the table columns.

Tasks for drawing up diagrams.The diagrams are drawn up based on the text of the textbook. Schemes can be vertical and horizontal. The evaluation of the diagram depends on the completeness and correctness of the relationship between its elements.

Tasks on working with sources and documents.After carefully reading the source, you need to complete the formulated task. In this case, the correctness and completeness of the answer is assessed.

Practical work provides for a differentiated approach to students. They are told in advance how many correctly completed assignments they can receive satisfactory, good, and excellent grades.

Assignments are completed individually in specially prepared notebooks for practical classes. Students hand them over to the teacher with a survey on test questions and homework.

The whole range of tasks will allow students to more fully master the textbook material and better navigate the historical events of the past and present.

List of practical classes in the discipline OUD.04 History

1 semester

Practical lesson No. 1

Practical lesson No. 2

Practical lesson No. 3

Practical lesson No. 4

Topic: “Fragmentation in Rus'.”

Practical lesson No. 5

Practical lesson No. 6

Practical lesson No. 7

Practical lesson No. 8

Practical lesson No. 9

practical lesson No. 1

Topic: “The origin of man. People of the Paleolithic era. Neolithic revolution and its consequences."

Purpose: To become familiar with the concepts of clan community, anthropogenesis, Paleolithic, Neolithic revolution, appropriating and producing economy, neighboring community, social division of labor, customary law, tribal union; learn to make a detailed plan; train the ability to highlight the main thing in the text (main semantic units).

Task No. 1 .When studying the species of primitive man, it is advisable to systematize the material of the paragraph using the table. 1.

Table 1. Species of the most ancient man and their characteristics (Species of the most ancient man. Characteristics of the species. Place of discovery of the remains of the species. Who discovered the species.

Task No. 2. Answer questions and complete the task: 1. What natural conditions complicated anthropogenesis? 2. Based on Artemov’s textbook p. compose a short story using the concepts: “tribal community”, “leaderism”, “primitive communism”, “common property”, “promiscuity”, “exogamy”, “dual-clan group marriage”, “tribe”, “pair marriage” , “the inconsistency of the version about the periods of patriarchy and matriarchy.”

Task No. 3 . Formulate your own understandingthe concepts of “Neolithic revolution”, “appropriating and producing economy”, “agriculture”, “cattle breeding”.

Task No. 4 . (3 at students' choice):

1. When approximately did the oldest man make the first cultural plantings?

2. Which animals were domesticated first, and which - much later?

3. Describe what the tools of the Neolithic Revolution were.

4. What is the meaning and significance of the Neolithic revolution for the history of mankind?

5. What pushed ancient man to the productive type of management?

6. Explain why Russia can be called the land of the first cattle breeders.

7. Tell us about the lifestyle of an ancient herder

Task No. 5

“What do the finds of “Paleolithic Venus” on the territory of modern Russia indicate?”

Control questions: 1.Explain the connection between the social division of labor and the development of crafts.

2. The reasons for the collapse of the tribal community and its replacement by the neighboring community.

Final instructions and homework assignments: 1) clean the workplace; 2) be able to explain your arguments and conclusions, decisions made; know the time when the Neolithic Revolution occurred and its consequences; 3) Read and analyze the paragraph.

Instructional and technological map for implementation

practical lesson No. 2

Topic: “Features of civilizations of the Ancient World – ancient Eastern and ancient.”

Goal: to bring the student’s cognitive activity closer to research methods, practical work with educational literature (textbook, historical sources). The main methods of educational research are critical selection of material and historical analysis.

Time limit: 2 hours. Venue: room 233.

Material and technical equipment of the workplace: instruction cards, notebooks. Literature: 1. Artemov V.V., Lubchenkov Yu.N. History: textbook. – M.: Academy Publishing House, 2015. 2 Samygin P.S. Story. Rostov n/d: “Phoenix”, 2013.

Introductory briefing and safety rules 1. Perform the work strictly according to the issued sample. 2. Clean the workplace after completing the work.

Task No. 1-2. Fill out the table.

Table 1. The structure of society in the Ancient World.

The Ancient East

Ancient Greece

Central government

Society

Central government

Table 2.

Task No. 3. WORKING WITH THE MAP “ANCIENT EAST”

Determine the country by its outline (working with fragments of a contour map) (India, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Phenicia, China). Why did you come to this conclusion? What rivers were there in these countries?

Tasks 1-3+ Test questions are graded “satisfactorily”.

Task No. 4.

Using this table and materials from the textbook ed. P.S. Samygina “History of SPO.” District D. - 2013 - pp. 28-29, answer the questions:

1. Define traditional society. List its signs.

2. How is it different from the agrarian society that developed in Europe on the basis of the ancient Greek community.

Traditional society. Character traits.

Table: Features of the community in the Ancient World.

Eastern community

Ancient Greek community

1. place in the structure of society

2.Composition of the community

3. relations with the state

4. position of community members in relation to the state

5.ownership of land

6. management

7. value system

Main production cell (rural community)

Rural population (patriarchal family)

Had responsibilities and paid taxes, did not participate in government

Dependency (hierarchy)

Communal (collective), the main owner is the king

Self-government - community meetings

A person is part of a team, traditional customs, economic isolation

Basic unit of society (civil community)

Rural and urban population (free citizens)

Formed the state, civil laws, conducted foreign policy activities, had an army

Autarky

Private property of individual citizens, the main owner is the policy.

Election of power (tyranny, oligarchy, democracy), national assembly

Free development of personality (cult), development of democracy and civil law, competition, commodity-money relations

Tasks 1-4+ Test questions are rated “good”.

Task No. 5

Document. From the laws of King Hammurabi.

117. If a person has a debt and pays for silver or gives his wife, his son or his daughter into debt bondage, (then) he must serve in the house of their buyer or lender for three years; in the fourth year they should be released.

118. If he gives a slave or slave into debt bondage, (then) the usurer can transfer (him or her) further, can give (him or her) for silver; (he or she) cannot be demanded (or demanded back) by the court okay...

Questions for the document:

How did laws limit debt slavery? Why, in your opinion, was this done?
Based on the document, create a diagram showing the composition of Babylonian society.

Control questions:

1. Compare the ancient Eastern states known to you. Indicate the main features and characteristics of each of them.

2.What was the special path of development of ancient Greek civilization?

Tasks 1-5+ Test questions are rated “excellent”.

Final instructions and homework assignments: 1) clean the workplace; 2) be able to explain your arguments and conclusions, decisions made; know the basic historical concepts, places of Ancient Greek colonization on the territory of the Krasnodar Territory;

Teacher: _______________Goncharenko I.V.

Instructional and technological map for implementation

practical lesson No. 3

Topic: “The main features of Western European feudalism.”

Goal: To get acquainted with the concepts of feudalism and its features; learn to make a table; train the ability to highlight the main thing in the text (main semantic units)

Time limit: 2 hours. Venue: room 233.

Introductory briefing and safety rules: 1. Perform the work strictly according to the issued sample. 2. Clean the workplace after completing the work.

Task No. 1 . Based on the text of the summary and the textbook, give a definition of feudalism and list its characteristics.

Task No. 2 .When studying the class society of the Middle Ages, it is advisable to systematize the material of the paragraph using the table. 1.

Table 1.

Task No. 3. Build a “Feudal Ladder” diagram.

Control questions.

What is feudalism? What were the reasons for its creation?
What classes did feudal society consist of? What were the functions of these classes?
Why do you think the medieval peasant is called a universal worker?

Final instructions and homework assignments: 1) clean the workplace; 2) be able to explain your arguments and conclusions, decisions made; know the concepts of feudalism; 3) read and analyze the paragraph.

Teacher: _______________Goncharenko I.V.

Instructional and technological map for implementation

practical lesson No. 4

Subject: " Fragmentation in Rus'."

Target: To deepen the knowledge acquired in basic school about the causes and consequences of the collapse of Ancient Rus', their differences from the causes and consequences of a similar process in other countries; form ideas about three possible political models of development of Rus' during the period of fragmentation.

Time limit: 2 hours. Venue: room 233.

Introductory briefing and safety rules: 1. Perform the work strictly according to the issued sample. 2. Clean the workplace after completing the work.

Task No. 1. Compare the maps: “Old Russian state in the 9th-11th centuries.” and “Russian principalities in the XII-XIII centuries.”

Questions: 1. What changes have occurred?

2. What events of the previous era foreshadowed the inevitable collapse of Rus'?

3. Time from the beginning of the 12th century. until the end of the fifteenth century. called a periodfeudal fragmentation or appanage period. Define feudal fragmentation.

Task No. 2.

Working with the text of the textbook, name the reasons for feudal fragmentation: 1- economic; 2- political; 3- social; 4 – foreign policy.

Task No. 3

The largest political centers of Rus'

Table 1

Questions for comparison	Kyiv principality	Galitsko - Volynskoe principality	Vladimir-Suzdalskoe principality	Novgorodskaya Earth
Features of the geographical location
Natural conditions
Control system
Features of management

Tasks 1-3+ Test questions are graded “satisfactorily”.

Task No. 4

All major Western European states experienced a period of feudal fragmentation. Feudal fragmentation was a natural result of the previous economic and socio-political development and had both positive features and negative consequences for all Russian lands.

Positive and negative consequences of the fragmentation of Rus'

table 2

Tasks 1-4+ Test questions are rated “good”.

Task No. 5. Read the text. “From the half of the 12th century. signs of desolation of Kievan Rus become noticeable. The river strip along the middle Dniester with its tributaries, which has long been so well populated, has been empty since that time, its population disappears somewhere.<...>Among the seven desolate cities of the Chernigov land we meet one of the oldest and richest cities in the Dnieper region - Lyubech. Simultaneously with the signs of an ebb of population from Kievan Rus, we also notice traces of the decline of its economic well-being: Rus', becoming empty, at the same time became poorer.<...>The outflow of population from the Dnieper region went in two directions, in two opposite streams. One stream was directed to the west, to the Western Bug, to the region of the upper Dniester and upper Vistula, deep into Galicia and Poland. Thus, the southern Russian population from the Dnieper region returned to long-forgotten places abandoned by their ancestors. Another stream of colonization from the Dnieper region is directed to the opposite corner of the Russian land, to the northeast, beyond the Ugra River, between the Oka and Upper Volga rivers.<...>It is the source of all the main phenomena that have emerged in the life of Upper Volga Rus' since the half of the 12th century; The entire political and social life of this Rus' was formed from the consequences of this colonization.”

Answer the questions: a) What phenomena characteristic of this period does the document indicate? Name at least two phenomena. Using the text of the document and knowledge of history, indicate the reasons for these phenomena; b) How does a historian assess the consequences of the phenomena noted in the document? Name at least two consequences of the strengthening of Upper Volga Rus' in subsequent Russian history.

Tasks 1-5+ Test questions are rated “excellent”.

Control questions:

1. Indicate the political and economic features of the development of Russian lands that contributed to decentralization. What order of succession to the throne developed in the Old Russian state? Did he help strengthen the power of the Kyiv prince?

2. Match:
A) fiefdom 1) head of local government
b) veche 2) territory allocated for the possession of a younger member of the princely family
c) destiny 3) struggle for power in one principality
G) viceroy 4) national assembly
5) land ownership, which was passed from father to son.

Final instructions and homework assignments: 1) clean the workplace; 2) be able to explain your arguments and conclusions, decisions made; know the definition of feudal fragmentation; the causes and consequences of feudal fragmentation for Rus'; 3) read and analyze the paragraph.

Instructional and technological map for implementation

practical lesson No. 5

Topic: “Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century.”

Target: to systematize knowledge on the history of Russia at the beginning of the 17th century, to form in students a holistic understanding of the events of the Time of Troubles in Russia. Continue work on applying historical knowledge in practice by performing creative tasks. Mastering techniques for working with historical texts and analyzing historical sources.

Time limit: 2 hours. Venue: room 233.

Task No. 1 . Working with a historical map (Artemov’s “History” application)

1.Write the names of the period in the history of Russia during which the events indicated on the map took place.

2. Write the name of the city that became the center of the formation of the Second People's Militia.

Task No. 2.

Presnyakov A.E. Time of Troubles//People of the Time of Troubles. St. Petersburg, 1905

“The causes of the Troubles were rooted in the very structure of the Moscow state of the 16th century. They were based on the contradiction between the goals that the government was supposed to pursue and the means it had at its disposal. In a country that was economically underdeveloped and sparsely populated, creating a sufficient strength of state self-defense in the face of complex international relations was possible only with great difficulty, and at the same time concentrating at the disposal of the government all the means and forces of the people. It fights in the 16th century. for the establishment of unconditional power, crushing all private and local authorities, which the descendants of appanage princes, boyar-princes, partly remained in their estates. The privileges enjoyed by this aristocracy, which claimed the first role in government and in the Tsar's Duma, to subordinate the population of their estates in the matter of justice, reprisals and military service, were broken by the storm of the oprichnina of Grozny.

Destroying the old and familiar instrument of its power in the boyars, the Moscow government simultaneously creates in its place a new administration and a new army, an administration of orders and an army of service people, children of boyars and nobles. In this class, the pinnacle of which was the new court nobility, strong not by birth, but by high official position and royal favor, the royal power seeks support. She seeks to provide this class with estates and serf peasant labor, gradually nullifying peasant freedom. But the interests of the landowners often contradicted the interests of the treasury: dividing co serving people with income from peasant labor, she risked losing the source of her financial system when the peasants were ruined and turned into serfs who did not pay taxes. TO That But the need to colonize the Volga region and the southern regions forced the government to patronize the resettlement of farmers to new lands, contrary to the benefits of the service landowners. The resettlement movement caused a strong outflow of population from the central regions, which led them to a severe agricultural crisis.

The complex historical process caused deep ferment in the consciousness of Russian society. The clash of opposing interests, intensified by the bloody and cruel actions of Ivan the Terrible, led to two main consequences: the fall of government authority..., and to the awareness of each social class of its own special interests. The coincidence of the general socio-political crisis with the end of the dynasty was the final impetus for the Troubles.”

Questions and tasks for the text.

1. What are the causes of the Troubles according to A.E. Presnyakov? What was the reason for the beginning of the Time of Troubles?

2. Do you agree with the proposed position? If necessary, offer your own version of the explanation of the events that occurred.

Task No. 3. Compose a short chronograph of the Time of Troubles.

1598- Suppression of the Rurik dynasty. The beginning of the reign of Boris Godunov.
1601-1603 - Crop failures and mass famine in Russia. Growing social tension.
1605 -
1606 - 1610 -
1606 - 1607 -

1607 -
1609 -
1610 - 1613 -
1611-1612

1613 -

Consequences of the Troubles (at least 6).

Tasks 1-3+ Test questions are graded “satisfactorily”.

Task No. 4. Working with the text of the documents, answer the questions provided.

Document No. 1. From the district (sent out everywhere) letter of Prince D.M. Pozharsky to Putivl. 12 June 1612

For our sins, God brought wrath upon our land: Zhigimont (Sigismunt III), the Polish king, stood against the Moscow state, breaking the kiss of the cross and the peaceful decree... he himself came to Smolensk with much force and a malicious attack, sent Hetman Zholkiewski to Moscow with Polish and Lithuanian people , but with them was the traitor to the Christian faith Mikhailo Saltykov and Fedka Andronov with their evil advisers... And they entered inside the reigning city of Moscow... and they burned out the Moscow state and cursed the churches and shed countless amounts of Christian blood... and sent the entire royal treasury to the king... And in Nizhny Novgorod Novgorod guests and townspeople and the elected person K. Minin, jealous of the benefits, not sparing their estate, began to reward the military people with a monetary desire and sent them to me. Prince Dmitry, many times for me to go to Nizhny for the Zemstvo Council. And I came to Nizhny, and boyars and governors and nobles and boyar children (petty nobles) began to come to me. And I began to consult with them and with the elected man K. Minin and with the townspeople, so that we could all stand with one mind against the enemies and destroyers of the Christian faith of the Polish and Lithuanian people for the Moscow state... And hearing our advice, the Kazan state, all sorts of people became of one mind with them , and the Trans-Volga, and Pomeranian, and Zamoskov cities became with us in one firm council. And many nobles and boyar children came to us from many Ukrainian cities...

And you, gentlemen, would remember God and your souls, the Orthodox Christian faith, and your Fatherland... be with all the earth. And you, gentlemen, would join us... And the Moscow state should be cleared of Polish and Lithuanian people... and the sovereign for the Moscow state should be elected by a general council... And the advice would be that you, gentlemen, should write to us soon.

 Find words and statements in the message that reveal the goals of the militias.

 Why does D. Pozharsky emphasize the need for council throughout the land when resolving all important issues? Who do you think he meant by “the whole earth”?

Document No. 2.

Second militia. "From the New Chronicler."

About the arrival from the cities to the military people and the treasury from the cities.

In Nizhny, the treasury is becoming scarce. He began to write to the cities in Pomerania and all Ponizovye, so that they would help them go to the cleansing of the Moscow state. In the cities, I heard a meeting in Nizhny, for the sake of it, and I sent him for advice and sent a lot of treasury to him and brought a lot of treasury to him from the cities. ... came to them from all the cities. First came the Kolomnichi, then the Ryazan people, then from the Ukrainian cities many people, both Cossacks and Streltsy, who sat in Moscow under Vasily. They gave them a salary...

About coming to Yaroslavl.

Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich and Kuzma... went to Yaroslavl. The people of Kostroma saw them off with great joy and gave them help, a lot of treasury. They went to Yaroslavl, and many people met them with joy... The Yaroslavl people received them with great honor and brought many gifts. They, without taking anything from them, were in Yaroslavl and began to think about how they could go under the Moscow state for cleansing. Many military men and townspeople began to come to them from the cities to bring the treasury to help...

About the capture of the city of China.

The Lithuanian people in the city were very crowded: I couldn’t let them out anywhere. There was a great famine among them, and they drove all sorts of people out of the city. By the grace of the All-Bountiful God... I took China by storm and killed many Lithuanian people...

About the withdrawal of the boyars and the surrender of the Kremlin to the city.

The Lithuanian people, seeing the inexhaustibility and the great famine, and the city of the Kremlin began to persuade and persuaded them not to be beaten, and the colonels and nobles and gentry to go to Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich in the Pozharsky regiment... Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich received them with honor and gave them great honor . In the morning, Struspolkovnie and his comrades, the Kremlin city is here...

 Based on the documents, how can you characterize the reasons for the victory of the Second Militia?

Tasks 1-4+ Test questions are rated “good”.

Task No. 5. Choose two judgments out of the five proposed that are correct. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated: 1) this period is characterized as a time of severe upheavals and trials for the Russian people, civil war and foreign intervention; 2) one of the main events of this time, recorded on the map, was the popular uprising against Tsar V. Shuisky under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin; 3) the intervention on the territory of Russia was carried out by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Prussia; 4) after a 16-month siege, the Tushins and Poles were able to capture the Trinity-Sergius Monastery; 5) as a result of the events indicated in the diagram, Russia lost the Smolensk lands; 6) as a result of the events indicated in the diagram, the Russian people were able to defend national independence and establish a new dynasty on the throne.

Tasks 1-5+ Test questions are rated “excellent”.

Control questions:

1What were the causes of the Time of Troubles? What sectors of society took part in it?

2. Why did militias begin to be created? What goals did the militia set for itself? How was Moscow liberated?

3. Name the main factor, in your opinion, that allowed Russia to survive as an independent state during the Time of Troubles. Give reasons for your choice.

Final instructions and homework assignments: 1) clean the workplace; 2) be able to explain your arguments and conclusions, decisions made;know basic historical concepts, names of historical figures, historical events of the early 17th century; 3)read and analyze the paragraph.

Teacher: _______________ Goncharenko I.V.

Instructional and technological map for implementation

practical lesson No. 6

Topic: “Renaissance and humanism in Western Europe. Reformation and Counter-Reformation. The formation of absolutism in European countries. England in the 17th-18th centuries."

Goal: To become familiar with the concepts: Renaissance, humanism, reformation, counter-reformation, absolutism; train the ability to highlight the main thing in the text (main semantic units).

Time limit: 2 hours. Venue: room 233.

Introductory briefing and safety rules: 1. Perform the work strictly according to the issued sample. 2. Clean the workplace after completing the work.

Task No. 1 . Based on the text of the textbook and the encyclopedic dictionary of history, define the Reformation and Counter-Reformation.

Task No. 2. Give a definition of the concept - absolutism. List the signs of enlightened absolutism.

Task No. 3 multiple choice exercises.

1. One of the main features of absolutism was the desire:

1) strengthen feudal fragmentation;

2) transfer power to local elected bodies;

3) annex outlying territories;

2. The creation of a standing army in England occurred when:

1) Henry VII Tudor; 2) Henry VIII Tudor; 3) Elizabeth Tudor; 4) James I Stuart.

3. What were the names of the highest judicial bodies in the provinces of France?

1) Star Chamber 2) Parliament 3) Privy Council 4) Cortes.

4. What form of political power is expressed in the following judgment of one of the kings of England?

“It is the will of God that everyone born as subjects should obey without reasoning.”
1) republic; 2) class monarchy; 3) unlimited monarchy; 4) constitutional monarchy.

5. Which of the following provisions constituted the main content of the economic policy of mercantilism?

A) the main form of wealth is valuable materials;
B) purchase and import goods into the country from abroad;
C) export more goods from the country than import;
D) its prosperity depends on the abundance of valuable metals in the state;
D) get rid of gold and silver coins, introduce paper money;
E) do not develop domestic industry.

6. In what century did absolutism reach its full flowering in Europe?
1) XV century; 2) XVI century; 3) XVII century; 4) XVIII century.

7. Which of the European monarchs, whose reign occurred during the period of the 17th - 18th centuries, was called the Sun King?

1) Henry VIII Tudor 2) James I Stuart 3) Louis XIII Bourbon 4) Louis XIV Bourbon.

Short answer questions.

Write the name of the king of England who made the following statement about parliament: “I do not understand how my ancestors could allow such an institution. I have to put up with what I can’t get rid of.”

Tasks 1-3+ Test questions are graded “satisfactorily”.

Task 4-5 Bourgeois revolution in England 1640

Write in your notebook:

Causes of the English bourgeois revolution;

Reason, main stages;

Results of the English bourgeois revolution.

Tasks 1-5+ Test questions are graded “Good and Excellent”

Control questions

1.What political and economic consequences did the establishment of absolutism have in European countries? 2. Express your opinion whether absolutism differed from despotic power, if it differed, then in what way. 3.Main consequences of revolutionsXVII-XVIII centuries in Europe.

Final instructions and homework assignments: 1) clean the workplace; 2) be able to explain your arguments and conclusions, decisions made; know the concepts of reformation, counter-reformation, absolutism; 3) read and analyze paragraphs 36, 42.

Teacher: _______________Goncharenko I.V.

Instructional and technological map for implementation

Practical lesson No. 7

Topic: “The War of Independence and the Education of the United States.”

Target: consider the concepts of constitution, federation, the principle of popular sovereignty, Declaration of Independence; understand the causes, objectives and driving forces of the War of Independence; study the features of this national liberation struggle; continue to work on developing the ability to make generalizations, conclusions, and give a general description of a phenomenon or event; develop logical thinking, memory, and the ability to extract the main points from a read text.

Time limit: 2 hours. Venue: room 233.

Introductory briefing and safety rules: 1. Carry out the work strictly according to the issued sample; 2. Clean the workplace after completing the work.

Task No. 1. Formulate the claims of representatives of various social strata of the population of the North American English colonies (farmers, merchants, planters, factory owners - in the economy, in politics, in the judicial sphere) to the authorities of the metropolis (according to the "Declaration of Independence of the United States").

Task No. 2

Complete the sentence:

1. The US political system established after the War of Independence was:

Constitutional monarchy;
Democratic Republic;
Absolute monarchy;
Bourgeois-democratic republic.

2.Note the names of the North American Revolutionary War figures in XVIII century

1.N. Bonaparte

2.J.P.Marat

3.D. Washington

4.B. Franklin

5.J. Danton

3. Name the dates of the following events:

Adoption of the US Constitution

5.Which of the above documents have retained legal force to this day:

2. US Constitution 1787;

6. Use serial numbers to indicate the chronological sequence of events (based on the starting date):

1. Adoption of the US Constitution;

2. Jacobin dictatorship;

3. execution of King Charles 1 Steward;

4.War of the British colonies in North America for independence;

Tasks 1-3+ Test questions are graded “satisfactorily”.

Task No. 4

Why did the United States change from a confederation to a federation? Draw a diagram of the US government.

Tasks 1-4+ Test questions are rated “good”.

Task No. 5

Work based on document page 247 of Artemov’s textbook. Questions for the document page 247 (1-2).

Tasks 1-5+ Test questions are rated “excellent”.

Control questions:

1. The nature, characteristics and historical significance of the first American Revolution.

Final instructions and homework assignments: 1) clean the workplace; 2) be able to explain your arguments and conclusions, decisions made; 3) Read and analyze paragraph 41; 2. Know 15 concepts and definitions for them.

Teacher: _______________ Goncharenko I.V.

Instructional and technological map for implementation

practical lesson No. 8 (seminar lesson)

Topic: “Russia in the era of Peter’s reforms.”

Goals: consider the transformations of Peter the Great in various spheres of society, assess his activities.

Time limit: 2 hours. Venue: room 233.

Introductory briefing and safety rules: 1. Carry out the work strictly according to the issued sample; 2. Clean the workplace after completing the work.

Task No. 1 (seminar lesson)

Prepare detailed answers to the questions.

1. Prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I.

2. Situation in agriculture. Expansion of feudal land ownership. Population census and poll tax.

3. Affirmation of absolutism. Acceptance of the imperial title in
1721 Creation of the Senate; replacement of orders by collegiums. Provincial
reform.

4. Expansion of noble privileges. "Decree on Single Inheritance" 1714
and “Table of Ranks” 1722

5. Policy in the field of manufacturing production, in domestic and foreign trade. The policy of mercantilism.

6. Military reforms.

7. Church reform.

8. Culture in the first quarter of the 18th century.

9. Foreign policy of Peter I

10. Azov campaigns of Peter I.

11. Northern War (1700 - 1721), its causes, stages, results.

12. The significance of the reforms of Peter I.

Task No. 2

Fill out the table based on the knowledge gained during the seminar.

Pera Reforms 1. Significance.

Year	Reform	Meaning

Final instructions and homework assignments: 1) clean the workplace; 2) be able to explain your arguments and conclusions, decisions made; know the essence of reforms, definitions - absolutism, mercantilism, manufacturing; 3) read and analyze the paragraph.

Teacher: _______________ Goncharenko I.V.

Instructional and technological map for implementation

practical lesson No. 9

Topic: “Russian culture of the 18th century.”

Target: consolidate the definition of the concept of culture, consider various genres of ancient Russian culture, trace changes in Russian cultures throughout the 17th – 18th centuries.

Time limit: 2 hours. Venue: room 233.

Introductory briefing and safety rules: 1. Carry out the work strictly according to the issued sample; 2. Clean the workplace after completing the work.

Task No. 1. List the changes that occurred in Russian culture in the 18th century century.

Task No. 2. Name Russian scientists XVIII centuries and scientific fields of their activity.

Task No. 3 : Working with the textbook text, fill out the table.

Table

Spheres of culture	Achievements
Folklore
Literary genres
Architecture
Music
Painting
Chronicle

Final instructions and homework assignments: 1) clean the workplace; 2) be able to explain your arguments and conclusions, decisions made; know the cultural features of Russia in the 18th century; cultural figures of that time and their achievements; 3) read and analyze paragraph 46

Teacher: _______________ Goncharenko I.V.

LITERATURE

1. Artemov V.V., Lubchenkov Yu.N. History for professions and specialties in technical, natural science, socio-economic profiles: 2 hours: textbook for student institutions of vocational education. – M., 2015.

2. Alieva S.K. “General history in tables and diagrams.” - M.: List 1997.

3. Atlas “History of Russia from ancient times to the beginning of the 21st century.” - M.: AST-PRESS SCHOOL, 2004.

4. Artemov V.V., Lubchenkov Yu.N. History for professions and specialties of technical, natural science, socio-economic profiles. Didactic materials: textbook for student institutions of vocational education. - M., 2013.

5. Vyazemsky E.E., Strelova O.Yu. Lessons of history: we think, argue, reflect. - M., 2012. 6. Gadzhiev K.S., Zakaurtseva T.A., Rodriguez A.M., Ponomarev M.V. Recent history of Europe and America. XX century: in 3 parts. Part 2.1945-2000.-M., 2010.

7. Gorelov A.A. History of world culture. - M., 2011.

8. Vyazemsky E.E., Strelova O.Yu. Pedagogical approaches to the implementation of the concept of a unified history textbook. - M., 2015.

9. History of Russia. 1900-1946: book for teachers/edited by A.V. Filippov, A.A. Danilov.-M., 2010.

10.History of Kuban: Krasnodar region. Republic of Adygea. - M.: Bustard; Dick, 1997

11. Nagaeva G. “All the personalities of the history of Russia. Mini-directory." - M.: "Phoenix", 2015.

12. Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Georgievna N.G. “History of Russia from ancient times to the present day.” - M.: Prospekt, 2015.

INTERNET RESOURCES:

http://ismo.ioso.ru/ Institute of General Secondary Education of the Russian Academy of Education (IOSO RAO). Websites of research laboratories, thematic video conferences. http://www.rubricon.com/bie_1.asp

The first centers of human civilization appeared in the Middle East, the very first in Palestine around the 10th millennium BC. e. Here, much earlier than other countries, ancient times arose and political societies , uniting people through a system of power, legal and administrative relations. In the IV - I millennium BC. e. first in the Middle East, then in Northern India, China, and Southeast Asia, the first in world history arosestates. These states arose and developed along approximately the same similar path. The prevailing situation in them was also similar.state organization– first known to history ancient eastern type. Both in the socio-economic and political systems of Ancient Egypt, ancient India, ancient China and Babylon there are many similarities.

Ancient Eastern statehood was not immediately formed in its final form. The state-political development of antiquity began with the stage new states – administrative and economic associations of communities that were just beginning to lose their tribal and primitive character. The true formation of institutions of power occurred at the stage state centralization (very relative in the conditions of ancient society). Then not only states became larger in space and time (became more “tenacious”). In them, full-fledged and independent systems of administration, court, and finance appeared, subordinated to common state needs, and a stable tradition of monarchy developed as the first common type of government known to history. Finally, at the stage empire states power and control in society have finally lost their historical connections with the clan system and clan governance, and have improved and disappeared, obeying their own laws, according to the whims of the military and political history of civilizations.

Ancient Eastern society and the largest civilizations of antiquity (Sumer, Elam, Egypt, Babylon, India, China, etc.) arose and strengthened, largely relying on the basins of the largest rivers, convenient for primitive life and agriculture: the Tigris and Euphrates, the Nile, the Indus and the Ganges, Yellow River. These were truly “great river civilizations.” The possibility of developing relatively narrow territories along rivers predetermined the high population density of the ancient Eastern states. These were urban and temple civilizations with all the features introduced by the urban way of life. Social connections spread faster here, and the “energy of power” was more firmly established.

Attachment to the great rivers and their water regimes made the organizational and economic function of the state especially important in the life of the ancient Eastern peoples, including the regular organization of massive irrigation public works, the history of which spanned decades and even centuries. As a result of such historical predominance, the social relations of the ancient Eastern states were formed around mainlystate propertyto the ground. The bulk of the population was placed in a dependent position in relation to the state, which, for its own purposes, sought to preserve and strengthen the communal way of life. This, in turn, predetermined the extremely slow formation in law of the principles of individual legal freedom, which would consolidate the economic and life independence of people. Law arose, among other things, as a result of the social struggle for the “ideal past” of tribal times, the era of equality and justice. Leveling out social contradictions among the people, smoothing out the confrontation between wealth and poverty, humiliation and nobility initially became one of the most important political motives for strengthening national power. This was also one of the most important prerequisites for the deliberate significance of ancient Eastern statehood, the almost unlimited powers of the ancient rulers, for whose power in society they did not even try to create any barriers. This was reinforced by the strongest interweaving of state and religious subordination, recognition sacred character the power of rulers. Not only actual slaves, who became a noticeable element in the ancient Eastern economy from the 2nd millennium BC. e., but literally the entire rest of the population was in a position slaves of the state . In such social, partly even socio-psychological conditions, an important property of ancient Eastern statehood was its excessive conservatism . Doubting the rulers, not a single ancient Eastern society doubted order of power , established at this very first stage of the world history of state and law.

1A. Both in the socio-economic and state system of Ancient Egypt,

ancient India, ancient China and Babylon have many similarities. Special conditions

climate and soil variations, constant and intense struggle with the water elements determined

the need for collective efforts of farmers to create complex irrigation systems

systems, led to the long-term preservation of the rural community, hampered the development of

private ownership of land, predetermined the presence of a significant layer of free

peasantry.

The ruling elite of ancient Eastern society was represented by the ruler-

king, hereditary aristocracy, bureaucracy. A very influential group is

the priesthood was formed.

At the opposite pole of society were the entire mass of slaves. The slave was like this

the property of their owners, like any other property. But there were also specific

Chinese features that distinguish ancient Eastern slavery from ancient slavery. So, in Egypt, Babylon,

In India and China, a slave could have a family. In Ancient Babylon, a slave could even marry his

bovine girl, children from such marriages were considered free. In India, for a slave directly

the right to own property was recognized: acquired, inherited, etc. Slave

could gain freedom by paying a ransom to the owner.

In all ancient eastern states there was a very significant layer

free communal peasants and artisans. Their work was hard and exhausting.

The systematic robbery of one's own people was the basis of domestic policy

ancient eastern states.

A specific feature of all ancient Eastern states was the caste system -

division of the free into groups differing in their legal status.

Priests and warriors became separate groups in Ancient Egypt. Similar

caste groups existed in Babylon, where the law openly proclaimed

for example, damages the eye of an avilum, then “it must damage his eye” if he knocks out a tooth equally-

to himself, then “I must knock out his tooth.” But if Avilum caused such self-mutilation -

muskenum, the punishment was limited to a fine. Not only did the

not only Avilum himself, but also members of his family.

The caste division was most clearly manifested in India, where among the free formal

There were four closed groups, varnas: brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas and sudras. Division

the varnas were declared by the priests to exist from eternity. A legend was created that

that the god Brahma created Brahmins from his mouth, Kshatriyas from his hands, Vaishyas from his thighs, and

sudra - from the feet. For each varna a way of life was defined.

The first varna was made up of Brahmin priests. They were credited with divine pro-

origin, they were assigned special benefits and advantages. Privileged

Varna were also kshatriyas - warriors. They concentrated large wealth in their hands and

political power. Kings, as a rule, came from the Kshatriya varna. Varna Vaishyas

was already an unprivileged class. This included communal peasants and merchants. Their occupation is trade, cattle breeding and agriculture. The only duty prescribed for the Sudra varna was to serve the three highest varnas without complaint. There were also free people who found themselves outside the four varnas - chandalas and others. They were looked at as “unclean”, they did the dirtiest work.

Belonging to one or another varna was determined by birth. The transition from one varna to another was impossible, marriages between members of different varnas were, as a rule, prohibited. The division into varnas permeated the entire life of the ancient Indian. Varna determined

a person’s occupation, his profession, the severity of the punishment, the size of the inheritance received, the interest on the loan agreement, etc. depended on the varna. A person’s name, clothing, order of eating - everything was determined by varna.

Above this economic basis rose the corresponding political

superstructure The most common in the Ancient East was the monarchical form

rule in the form of eastern despotism. It was characterized by unlimited volume

the power of the deified ruler, the existence of a palace system of government,

the presence of three main management departments, the combination of the strictest centralization with

preservation of community self-government bodies as a lower level.

The emergence of such a form of organization of state power was due to

but a natural-climatic factor. In ancient times, the need for joint efforts

to prevent the devastating consequences of floods, and later for economical

go and sharing of water required the intervention of the central government. AND

already from the moment of its emergence, the ancient Eastern state, in addition to the implementation

the functions of suppression had to take into their own hands the maintenance and correct use

use of the irrigation system. This kind of control over social production

he strengthened the position of state power and strengthened the monarchy.

But the very need to concentrate the efforts of the entire society to ensure pro-

production in the conditions of the long existence of a rural community with its conservatism

and isolation leads to the fact that the ruler acts here as a unifying unit

new beginning, rising above small isolated communities, which were a strong

the basis of Eastern despotism.

The main features of this form of government were as follows. At the head of the state is a ruler - the king. In Egypt he was called pharaoh, in India - raja, in China - van, in Babylon - patesi-lugal. All power is concentrated in the hands of the ruler. He heads the state apparatus, is the supreme military leader, chief judge, etc. “The state is the king: this is the essence in a nutshell

all elements of the state,” stated the ancient Indian monument. Personality of the ruler

La was deified. In Egypt, the pharaoh was called the “big god”, and then to the name of the ruler-

The title of the sun god, Ra, began to be added to the title. In China, all rulers - Vans were considered

sons of the “heavenly lord”. Hence the name of the wang - tianzi (“son of heaven”).

The ancient Indian Raja was depicted as a “great deity in the form of a man,” and was considered

the embodiment of eight deities - guardians of the world - Moon, Fire, Sun, etc. Exactly

in the introduction to the Babylonian Laws of King Hammurabi it is stated that Hammurabi,

“the mighty king, the sun of Babylon,” was called by the great gods, who gave him a people (“blackheads”).

General and specific in the development of ancient Eastern statehood

The concept of the East is used in science as geographical, historical, cultural and civilizational. The debate about the peculiarities of development and the “lag” of the East in comparison with Western civilization is always particularly acute. Since studying the subject of this dispute is not our task at the moment, we will focus on a brief description of the East.

From a geographical point of view, we call ancient Eastern states states that appeared in Ancient Egypt, Ancient Mesopotamia, Ancient China, Ancient India.

Currently, the most common is the civilizational approach to characterizing the level of development of states. From the standpoint of this approach, awareness of the national, racial and cultural specifics of the countries and peoples of the East is brought to the fore.

Thanks to the testimonies of Christian missionaries, in the 16th – 17th centuries, who were the first to draw attention to the significant differences between regions in the political structure and value orientations of people, two directions appeared in the assessment of the East: panegyric and critical. As part of the first, the East, and, above all, China - a country of general prosperity, learning and enlightenment - was held up as an example to European monarchs as a model of wisdom in governance. The second focused on the spirit of stagnation and slavery that reigned in Eastern despotism.

The peculiarities of the formation of despotic ancient Eastern states were determined, first of all, by geographical factors. Economic work on the creation of irrigation structures played a major role in the formation of statehood. The main task of the nascent state apparatus was to organize public works to build canals to combat drought.

In Ancient Egypt, where nomadic tribes initially lived on the banks of the Nile, people gradually switched to a settled life. They acquired labor skills, learned to cope with annual floods, and distribute the waters of the Nile over vast territories using canals and water-lifting devices. Irrigation work, due to its complexity and labor intensity, required skillful organization. It began to be carried out by specially assigned people who were capable of not only organizing the implementation of the necessary work, but also monitoring the entire progress of irrigation construction.

A similar climate existed in Western Asia, where the Babylonian kingdom arose. The plain along two large rivers - the Tigris and Euphrates - only gets moistened towards the end of spring. And here, enormous efforts were required to turn the swamps formed by floods and the steppes drying out after floods into lands suitable for agriculture. In addition, irrigation structures had to be constantly maintained.

The earliest state forms (proto-states) began to take shape in ancient Eastern civilizations - in Ancient Egypt, Ancient Mesopotamia, Ancient China, Ancient India back in the 4th-3rd millennia BC. during the disintegration of the communal clan organization. They arose as the division of labor deepened, management functions became more complex, and at the same time, the people performing these functions turned into a class that did not take part in the production process, standing above ordinary community members. The strengthening of the position of the rural community was facilitated by the collective efforts of its members to create irrigation structures. The community had a huge influence not only on slowing down the process of class formation, but also on the forms of land ownership and methods of exploitation in the states of the Ancient East. The owner of the land was the community itself. Its rights to land were expressed in the fact that there were communal lands themselves, as well as in the right of control on the part of the community over how the owner disposes of his land. The state also acted as the owner of the land, its power and property rights were expressed and implemented in the form of receiving a tax - land rent from the community members.

In the process of the emergence of management structures, royal-temple farms began to take shape. They were created in different ways: first of all, through the appropriation of communal lands. Here the labor of slaves and other categories of forced persons began to be used early. Only people who performed one or another work for the state or were in public service could own plots of royal-temple lands.

Due to the multi-structured economic life, a rather variegated social composition of the ancient Eastern states was formed, which was represented mainly by three social-class formations:

1. The lowest layer - various categories of people who do not have the means of production, dependent forced laborers, as well as slaves.

2. Community peasants and artisans are free small producers who live by their own labor.

3. The dominant social stratum, which included the court and service aristocracy, army command staff, and the wealthy elite of agricultural communities.

There were categories of the dependent population occupying intermediate positions between free and slaves, as well as people occupying a transitional position from the middle layer to the dominant one. There were no clear boundaries in the social class structure at this stage.

Thus, the despotic states that emerged in the East were characterized by the absence of private property and economic classes. In these societies, the dominance of the administrative apparatus and the principle of centralized redistribution (tribute, taxes, duties) was combined with the autonomy of communities and other social corporations in solving all internal problems. The arbitrariness of power in contact with an individual gave rise to the “servile complex” syndrome, i.e. slavish servility. A society with such a social genotype had strength, which manifested itself, among other things, in the ineradicable potential for regeneration: on the basis of a state that collapsed for one reason or another, a new one easily, almost automatically, arose, with the same parameters, even if this state appeared with a new ethnic group .

As this society evolved, commodity relations and private property appeared. But from the moment of their emergence, they automatically came under the control of the authorities and found themselves completely dependent on it.

Many eastern states had developed trade and a thriving economy. But all these attributes of a privately owned market economy were deprived of what could ensure their self-development: all market participants were hostages of the authorities and could be ruined at any time at the will of officials; sometimes the displeasure of the authorities led to death and confiscation of property in favor of the treasury.

In Asian societies, the principle of “power – property” prevailed, in which power gave birth to property. In the states of the East, only people involved in power had social significance, while wealth and property meant little. People who lost power became powerless.

The persistent diversity, historical continuity of social, political, legal forms and institutions, and the dominant religious ideology give grounds to define their traditionalism as the main distinguishing feature of ancient Eastern societies. This confirms the fact that the foundations of social culture, illuminated by the unshakable ideological and religious attitudes of such states as Ancient India and Ancient China (Assyria, Sumer and Babylon), have survived centuries.

In the ancient Eastern states, in the religious mass consciousness there was a mystical attitude towards the supreme ruler. Recognition of his divine authority led to the recognition of unlimited despotic powers. This was a fundamental element of Eastern culture, religious ideology, determining various aspects of the life of Eastern states. Taking these circumstances into account, the concept of “oriental despotism” should be distinguished in cultural-civilizational, socio-historical and formal-legal senses.

In this regard, we can identify functions common to all ancient Eastern states:

1. The ancient Eastern state, with the weak development of market relations, was called upon to perform control and regulatory functions, which ensured the special status of the governing class.

2. The state was also engaged in activities to maintain the religious and cultural unity of ancient Eastern societies, ensuring the preservation of their original, fundamental values. The importance of religious ideology in the ancient Eastern states was also determined by the weakness of economic ties and market relations, and the dominance of subsistence farming. Under these conditions, religion was a unifying factor, a unified worldview was formed, and the ruler was assigned a connecting role.

3. In the mass consciousness, rulers were endowed with omnipotent, despotic powers not only because of the divine nature of their power, but also because they were assigned the most important function of maintaining security, justice, and fairness in society. These ideas about the role of the ruler were supported by social activities to protect the poor (limitation of debt slavery, restrictions on interest, etc.). The strengthening of the despotic features of eastern states was usually associated with the fight against the nobility, and not with the people.

At the same time, with the general patterns of ancient Eastern multi-structured societies, there were specific features of each of the ancient Eastern states, which were formed depending on the time of their existence, the dominant position of one or another structure with various forms of their interaction, with the characteristics of their social and political institutions, with the specifics of their religious and cultural traits.

The assertion that all eastern states are characterized by one, despotic form of state, firmly held throughout the VVIII - XX centuries, until recently. For the concept of “eastern despotism,” scientists have derived a number of characteristics. Despotism is a monarchical form of government with unlimited power of a hereditary, deified monarch, who acts as the sole legislator and supreme judge; a centralized state with a strict totalitarian regime, with comprehensive supervision over powerless subjects.

Modern scientists attribute this concept of “oriental despotism”, first of all, to the centralized empires of Ancient China and Ancient Egypt. Indeed, in China the emperor was considered the “son of heaven”; there was a special cult of the emperor. One of the most important signs of his unlimited powers was the supreme legislative power. There was a centralized multi-level administrative apparatus, headed by the emperor. All officials were strictly controlled by the central government.

At the same time, in other ancient Eastern states there was no such strict system of dependence on imperial power. In particular, the power of the rulers was limited to a council consisting of the nobility or a popular assembly, or urban communities.

In ancient India, rulers did not have unlimited legislative powers. Here, collegial authorities were of great importance, such as the advisory body under the king - rajasabha and the council of dignitaries - mantriparishad. For example, one of the features of the Mauryan Empire was the inclusion of semi-autonomous state entities - the Gana and the Sang.

Unlike China, in India fragmentation was the rule and a centralized state the exception. As for the heredity of power, it was not clearly visible everywhere. For example, in Mesopotamia, supreme power was transferred to one of the sons, but the final word belonged to the oracle priests. In this state, the king did not have the highest supreme power. Community self-government has been preserved here. Bodies of public self-government took care of the welfare of the community, the organization of public works, and the timely payment of land rent to the treasury.

Thus, not all ancient Eastern states can be characterized as despotic. Despite the presence of common features, in many of them the supreme power was limited by the power of the priests and the activities of the community.

With the emergence of the state, law arises. The peculiarities of the law of the Ancient East were that it was inextricably linked with religion. Almost all legal norms coincided with religious norms. The main source of law was customs; all monuments of ancient Eastern law contain references to ancient sages.

When written codes of law appeared, customs became legal norms, acquiring a more modern character. It is with the norms of customs that a rather complex legal practice is associated, the casuistic nature of legal norms that did not have clear formulations, but were based on precedent. Common to all ancient Eastern states was the degraded position of women, which was reflected in the norms of family and inheritance law. There is also no clear idea of the branches of law. The fact is that the presentation of legal norms has its own logic. It is determined by the severity of crimes from a religious point of view. And legal norms are arranged not by industry, but by the severity of the crime.

Despite the common features, the legal norms of the ancient Eastern states have their own characteristics. For example, in Ancient Egypt there was not even the slightest idea about the legal status of an individual.

In China, both religion and law initially rejected the idea of equality of people, so there were no prerequisites not only for the development of civil society, private property, rights and freedoms, but also private law as such. Chinese law is, first of all, criminal law, which includes norms of both civil and family law, the violation of which entails criminal penalties.

Indian law has a pronounced religious character. All aspects of life in ancient Indian society were regulated by the strictest ethical and caste norms, traditional rules of behavior, different for different social groups. Fulfillment of these rules brought religious merit, and their violation led to social and religious degradation. In this regard, in Indian society, a large role was assigned to learned brahmins, who raised people in the spirit of following the rules of behavior prescribed by religion. Therefore, in ancient Indian law, a significant place is allocated to Brahmanical instructive works.

Thus, the ancient Eastern states have many common features, both in the formation of statehood and in the basic socio-economic and religious functions performed by the states. The legal norms of these states also have similar features, characterized, first of all, by the religious and traditional content of legal norms. At the same time, the differences in these states also gave rise to the distinctive features of individual states of the Ancient East.

Bibliography

1. History of the state and law of foreign countries. Part 1. Textbook for universities. Under. Ed. Prof. Krasheninnikova N.A. and prof. Zhidkova O.A. – M.: Publishing group INFRA M – NORM, 1997. – 480 p.

3. Philosophy: Textbook for higher educational institutions. – Rostov-n/D.: “Phoenix”, 1996 – 576 p.