Who carried out the first major reform of the Russian language. Olga Karpova History with spelling

Myth No. 5. The spelling reform of 1917–18 was conceived and prepared by the Bolsheviks.

The reform of 1917–18, as a result of which the letters “yat”, “fita”, “I” were excluded from Russian writing, the spelling of Ъ at the end of words and parts of complex words was canceled, and some spelling rules were changed, is inextricably linked in our minds with October Revolution. The first edition of the decree introducing a new spelling was published in the Izvestia newspaper less than two months after the Bolsheviks came to power - December 23, 1917 (January 5, 1918, new style). Even before the decree on Russia's transition to Gregorian calendar! And myself pre-reform spelling usually called pre-revolutionary and associated with old Russia.

Similar associations developed back in the Soviet era. The spelling reform of 1917–1918, largely thanks to which (this fact cannot be denied) illiteracy was eliminated in the shortest possible time in a huge country, was presented as a achievement of the revolution, as a merit exclusively of Soviet power. In well-known popular science books about the Russian language, beloved by several generations of readers, stories about old spelling accompanied by appropriate ideological comments. This is how L. V. Uspensky describes the “struggle with a hard sign” in his famous book"A Word about Words":

It is not surprising, therefore, that when last years XX century in the assessment of many events associated with October 1917, the “plus” sign changed to “minus” (and vice versa), this also affected the spelling reform of 1917–18: after the collapse of the Soviet system, it was given opposite assessments, among them quite harsh : “the atrocity of the Bolsheviks,” “forcible simplification of Russian spelling.” Professor V.V. Lopatin recalls that at one of the conferences held in the mid-1990s and dedicated to the problems of Russian spelling, the question of returning to the old spelling was even raised, while “the current spelling was most often called “Bolshevik”, and those who accepted participation in the conference of clergy is “satanic.” The letters “er” and “yat” (especially the first), removed during the reform, in the early 1990s again became one of the symbols of both the “old”, pre-revolutionary Russia and the opposition to Soviet power. One of the most striking examples of this is Kommersant in the name of the newspaper Kommersant, which performs both of these functions: “When Kommersant began publishing in 1990, they were still alive Soviet authority, Communist Party, KGB, and Gorbachev was still called General Secretary, not President. The proud “er” of “Kommersant” looked at the time like a frank challenge to this system of life, a desire to restore the “connection of times” that had disintegrated over seventy-odd years. “The “resurrection” of the “era” also meant, in addition, a claim to the “inheritance”: we are not building from scratch, we are the legitimate successors...” (A. Ageev. The Resurgent “Kommersant” // Znamya. 1995. No. 4 ).

So, the assessments have changed, but the judgment about the reform as conceived and prepared by the Bolsheviks remains. And today this is one of the most common myths associated with the history of the Russian language. But what was it really like?

Let us once again pay attention to the publication date of the first edition of the decree - December 23, 1917 (old style). Did the Bolsheviks really manage to prepare a plan for reforming Russian writing in the two months that passed after seizing power? And in general, before drawing up new spelling rules, was he in a country engulfed in unrest?

Of course not. The revolutionary soldiers and sailors did not create any spelling rules. The reform was prepared long before October 1917; prepared not by revolutionaries, but by linguists. Of course, not all of them were alien to politics, but here is an indicative fact: among the developers new spelling there were people with extreme right-wing (one might say counter-revolutionary) views, for example academician A.I. Sobolevsky, known for his active participation in the activities of various kinds of nationalist and monarchist organizations. Preparations for the reform began at the end of the 19th century: after the publication of the works of Yakov Karlovich Grot, who for the first time brought together all the spelling rules, the need to streamline and simplify Russian spelling became clear.

It should be noted that thoughts about the unjustified complexity of Russian writing occurred to some scientists back in the 18th century. Thus, the Academy of Sciences first tried to exclude the letter “Izhitsa” from the Russian alphabet back in 1735, and in 1781, on the initiative of the director of the Academy of Sciences Sergei Gerasimovich Domashnev, one section of “Academic News” was printed without the letter Ъ at the end of words (in other words, separate examples of “Bolshevik” spelling could be found more than a hundred years before the revolution!).

In the first years of the 20th century, the Moscow and Kazan Pedagogical Societies proposed their projects for the reform of Russian writing. And in 1904, at the Department of Russian Language and Literature of the Academy of Sciences, an Orthographic Commission was created, which was tasked with simplifying Russian writing (primarily in the interests of the school). The commission was headed by the outstanding Russian linguist Philip Fedorovich Fortunatov, and its members included the greatest scientists of that time - A. A. Shakhmatov (who headed the commission in 1914, after the death of F. F. Fortunatov), I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, P. N. Sakulin and others.

The commission considered several proposals, including quite radical ones. At first it was proposed to abandon the letter b altogether, and use b as a dividing sign, while canceling the writing of a soft sign at the end of words after hissing words and writing mouse, night, love. It was immediately decided to remove the letters “yat” and “fita” from the Russian alphabet. A draft of a new spelling was presented by scientists in 1912, but was not approved, although it continued to be widely discussed.

Thus, the reform of Russian writing should have taken place without the Aurora’s salvo. True, it was assumed that the transition to the new spelling would be gradual. “The Bolsheviks,” writes V.V. Lopatin, “as soon as they seized power, they very skillfully and promptly took advantage of the finished project, applying their own revolutionary methods.”

One of these revolutionary methods was the removal from printing houses of all letters with the letter Ъ. Despite the fact that the new spelling did not abolish Kommersant altogether (this proposal, considered in 1904, was subsequently abandoned by the Spelling Commission), but only its spelling at the end of words (the use of Kommersant as a dividing mark was retained), the letters were selected everywhere. “This is how a surgeon cuts out a malignant tumor to the last cell” - these are the words L. V. Uspensky describes these events. Typesetters had to use an apostrophe to indicate a separator, which is how spellings like going up, going down.

The new spelling was introduced by two decrees: after the first decree, signed by the People's Commissar of Education A.V. Lunacharsky and published on December 23, 1917 (January 5, 1918), followed by the second decree of October 10, 1918, signed by the Deputy People's Commissar M.N. Pokrovsky and Managing Director of the Council of People's Commissars V.D. Bonch-Bruevich. Already in October 1918, the official bodies of the Bolsheviks, the newspapers Izvestia and Pravda, switched to the new spelling. At this time, the Civil War was already raging in the country, and the old spelling, abolished by the Bolshevik decrees, became one of the symbols of resistance new government; She played the same role for the Russian emigration. Behind political disputes and ideological guidelines, on fire Civil War, during the decades of fierce hostility between the two systems, the purely linguistic meaning of the reform - the desire of linguists to simply rid the Russian letter of extra letters that denoted sounds that had long disappeared or coincided with others - was almost completely forgotten...

But today, in beginning of XXI century, we have the opportunity objective assessment events of the past. Therefore, let us remember the elementary truth No. 5: modern spelling is not a consequence of “Bolshevik tyranny”, “forced simplification of the language,” but the result of many years of work by the best Russian linguists aimed at improving spelling rules. According to V.V. Lopatin, “the new spelling, whatever the history of its adoption, after many years, which removed the political urgency of the issue, has become familiar to native speakers of the Russian language and quite successfully serves the cultural needs of modern society.”

Literature:

Lopatin V.V. The multifaceted Russian word: Selected articles on the Russian language. M., 2007.

Russian language: Encyclopedia / ed. Yu. N. Karaulova. M., 2003.

Uspensky L.V. A word about words. You and your name. L., 1962.

Shaposhnikov V.N. Russian speech of the 1990s: Modern Russia in linguistic reflection. – 3rd ed. M., 2010.

Encyclopedia for children. Volume 10. Linguistics. Russian language. – 3rd ed., revised. and additional M., 2004.

V. M. Pakhomov,
Candidate of Philology,
editor-in-chief of the portal "Gramota.ru"

Russian language reforms

the year was marked by two revolutions - the February (March) and October (November) revolutions. They occurred due to the abdication of Emperor Nicholas II from the throne. He denied himself and his heir Alexei in favor of his brother Mikhail, who never accepted the crown. The monarchy fell and a republic was established. It presupposes a different principle of power structure; before this, Russia had an unlimited monarchy - autocracy. The king could not act cruelly with his people, there were moral prohibitions, he had to reckon with the society he ruled. The king limits himself to certain social ideals. Under Peter I there were no prohibitions or restrictions.

The establishment of any policy, including language policy, depends on the structure of power. Peter Ichanged the graphics of the Russian language. Most of Linguists claim that graphics is not an audio language, therefore it is impossible to change it by decrees. And graphics are an addition to human language, it was invented by people and can be modified at will. This is a linguistic misconception, because people who often and a lot use the graphical system of the language become so accustomed to the printed word that it displaces from the first positions sound word. No one intelligent person doesn't know the rules, but he follows them automatically. The automaticity of language skills is what constitutes linguistic language. You can retrain a person until he has acquired this automatism. Children can be retrained, but adults cannot.

But automatism can be resisted by people who have some kind of power or who deal with writing. This layer resists any spelling reforms. Most linguists are wrong; they do not take into account the automatism of the written reform. Peter I was able to carry out the reform because he did not replace one system with another, but simply added another one to the old system. Before Peter I, Russian society (in particular the clergy) wrote spiritual books of Christian content in church script (Cyrillic). Peter introduced a civil font (“citizen”) and replaced the church letter with letters that were similar to Western European fonts. But this new graphics did not affect spelling; it began to be used only in new areas of civil public life. Those who were accustomed to church writing retained their habits, because church writing did not change or be replaced. Peter I simply added one more letter, and a division of the letter into two branches arose. In this form, writing reached 1928.

Reform 1917-18., as a result of which the letters “yat”, “fita”, “I” were excluded from Russian writing, the spelling of Ъ at the end of words and parts of complex words was canceled, and some spelling rules were changed, is inextricably linked with the October Revolution. The first edition of the decree introducing a new spelling was published in the Izvestia newspaper less than two months after the Bolsheviks came to power - December 23, 1917 (January 5, 1918, new style). And the pre-reform spelling itself is usually called pre-revolutionary and is associated with old Russia. The reform of the “citizenship” of Peter I is changing, and the new reform is aimed at saving students’ efforts.

In fact, the language reform was prepared long before October 1917, and not by revolutionaries, but by linguists. Of course, not all of them were alien to politics, but here is an indicative fact: among the developers of the new spelling there were people with extreme right-wing (one might say counter-revolutionary) views, for example academician A.I. Sobolevsky, known for his active participation in the activities of various kinds of nationalist and monarchist organizations. Preparations for the reform began at the end of the 19th century: after the publication of the works of Yakov Karlovich Grot, who for the first time brought together all the spelling rules, the need to streamline and simplify Russian spelling became clear. Add about Grotto.

In 1904, an Orthographic Commission was created at the Department of Russian Language and Literature of the Academy of Sciences, which was tasked with simplifying Russian writing (primarily in the interests of the school). The commission was headed by the outstanding Russian linguist Philip Fedorovich Fortunatov (in 1902 he was elected director Imperial Academy Sciences, moves to St. Petersburg and receives an academic salary; in the 70s of the 19th century he founded the department of comparative historical linguistics at Moscow State University). The spelling commission also included the greatest scientists of that time - A.A. Shakhmatov (who headed the commission in 1914, after the death of F.F. Fortunatov), I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, P.N. Sakulin and others.

The results of further work of linguists were already assessed by the Provisional Government. On May 11 (May 24, new style), 1917, a meeting was held with the participation of members of the Spelling Commission of the Academy of Sciences, linguists, and school teachers, at which it was decided to soften some provisions of the 1912 project (thus, the commission members agreed with A.A. Shakhmatov’s proposal to preserve soft sign at the end of words after hissing words). The reform was possible because it concerned only the written language. The result of the discussion was the “Resolution of the meeting on the issue of simplifying Russian spelling,” which was approved by the Academy of Sciences. The reform was needed because most of the population was illiterate or semi-literate. Linguists believed that if you give a simplified Russian language, then there will be no lagging behind in schools. But it turned out that the lagging behind remained the same (Shcherba). Expectations were not met, since learning depends on the availability of abilities; not everyone can be taught something, and this is the norm. But they didn’t know about it then.

The new spelling was introduced by two decrees. In the first, signed by the People's Commissar of Education A.V. Lunacharsky and published on December 23, 1917 (January 5, 1918), “all government and state publications” were ordered from January 1 (Old Art.), 1918, “to be printed according to the new spelling.” Since the new year (according to Art. Art.), the first issue of the official press organ of the newspaper "Newspaper of the Provisional Workers' and Peasants' Government" was published (as well as subsequent ones) in a reformed spelling, in strict accordance with the changes provided for in the Decree (in particular, with using the letter "ъ" in separation function). However, other periodicals in the territory controlled by the Bolsheviks continued to be published, mainly in pre-reform versions; in particular, the official organ of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, Izvestia, limited itself to only not using “ъ”, including in the dividing function; The party organ, the newspaper Pravda, was also published.

This was followed by a second decree dated October 10, 1918, signed by Deputy People's Commissar M.N. Pokrovsky and the manager of the Council of People's Commissars V.D. Bonch-Bruevich. Already in October 1918, the official bodies of the Bolsheviks - the newspapers Izvestia and Pravda - switched to the new spelling.

In practice, the state authorities quickly established a monopoly on printed materials and very strictly monitored the implementation of the decree. A frequent practice was to remove from printing desks not only the letters I, fita and yatya, but also b. Because of this, the writing of an apostrophe as a dividing mark in place of b ( underoh hellUtahn), which began to be perceived as part of the reform (although in fact, from the point of view of the letter of the decree of the Council of People's Commissars, such writings were erroneous). However, some scientific publications(related to the publication of old works and documents; publications, the typesetting of which began even before the revolution) were published according to the old spelling (except for the title page and, often, prefaces) until 1929.

Pros of reform.

The reform reduced the number of spelling rules that had no support in pronunciation, for example, the difference between genders plural or the need to memorize a long list of words spelled with “yat” (and there were disputes among linguists regarding the composition of this list, and various spelling guides sometimes contradicted each other). Here we need to see what this nonsense is all about.

The reform led to some savings in writing and typography, eliminating Ъ at the end of words (according to L.V. Uspensky, the text in the new orthography becomes approximately 1/30 shorter - cost savings).

The reform eliminated pairs of completely homophonic graphemes (yat and E, fita and F, I and I) from the Russian alphabet, bringing the alphabet closer to the real phonological system of the Russian language.

Criticism of the reform.

While the reform was being discussed, various objections were raised regarding it:

· no one has the right to forcibly make changes in the system of established spelling... only such changes are permissible that occur unnoticed, under the influence of the living example of exemplary writers;

· there is no urgent need for reform: mastering spelling is hampered not so much by the spelling itself, but by poor teaching methods...;

o It is necessary that simultaneously with the implementation of the spelling reform in school, all school textbooks should be reprinted in a new way...

o Next, you need to reprint all the classical authors, Karamzin, Ostrovsky, Turgenev, etc.;

o and tens and even hundreds of thousands of home libraries... often compiled with the last pennies as an inheritance to children? After all, Pushkin and Goncharov would be to these children what pre-Petrine presses are to today’s readers;

o it is necessary that all teaching staff, immediately, with full readiness and with full conviction of the rightness of the matter, unanimously accept the new spelling and adhere to it...;

o it is necessary... that bonnies, governesses, mothers, fathers and all persons who provide children with initial education begin to study the new spelling and teach it with readiness and conviction...;

o Finally, it is necessary that the entire educated society greet the spelling reform with complete sympathy. Otherwise, discord between society and school will completely discredit the authority of the latter, and school spelling will seem to the students themselves as a distortion of writing...

From this the conclusion was drawn:

All this leads us to assume that the planned simplification of spelling entirely, with the exclusion of four letters from the alphabet, will not come into practice in the near future.

Despite the fact that the reform was developed without any political goals, due to the fact that it was the Bolsheviks who introduced it, it received a sharply negative assessment from opponents of Bolshevism. Since the Soviet government was illegitimate in their eyes, they refused to recognize the change in spelling.

Ivan Bunin, who was not only a famous poet and writer, but also honorary academician St. Petersburg Academy science, said this:

I will never accept Bolshevik spelling. If only for one reason: the human hand has never written anything similar to what is now written according to this spelling.

1956 vault

The appearance of an officially adopted set of rules for spelling and punctuation and a spelling dictionary was preceded by seven projects. In 1951, the commission prepared the latest edition of the code, and in Academic Institute linguistics, under the leadership of Sergei Obnorsky, a large spelling dictionary was compiled. This project was widely discussed in periodicals. As a result, two main documents appeared: published in 1955 and approved in 1956 by the Academy of Sciences, the Ministry of Education of the RSFSR and the Ministry higher education“Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation” - the first officially adopted set of rules, mandatory for everyone writing in Russian, and “Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language with the Application of Spelling Rules” of 1956 for 100 thousand words, edited by Sergei Ozhegov and Abram Shapiro. The 1956 code did not reformspelling, since he did not touch upon its fundamentals, but established the norms of Russian spelling and punctuation. This is the first set of clearly formulated and scientifically based rules in the history of Russian spelling. Despite all its importance, this code did not exhaust all the possibilities for improving Russian spelling. The Code was not a reform.

By the way, no one has seen these “Rules...” for a long time. They haven't been reprinted for a very long time. Instead, well-known manuals on Russian spelling were published by Dietmar Elyashevich Rosenthal and his co-authors, who somehow developed the provisions of these “Rules...” and interpreted them.

1964 project

After the streamlining of 1956, it became more noticeable what improvements could still be made to Russian spelling. Actually, the project was dedicated to using to the fullest extent possiblethe principle that underlies all changes in Russian spelling in the twentieth century and is present in most spellings. In May 1963, by decision of the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences, a new spelling commission was organized to eliminate “contradictions, unjustified exceptions, difficult to explain rules” of spelling, the chairman of which was the director of the Institute of Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Viktor Vinogradov, and the deputies were the actual author of the reform, Mikhail Panov. and Ivan Protchenko, a kind of representative of party bodies in linguistics. What was unusual was that the commission, in addition to scientists, teachers and university professors, included writers: Korney Chukovsky, later Konstantin Fedin, Leonid Leonov, Alexander Tvardovsky and Mikhail Isakovsky.

The project, prepared over two years, included many of the previously developed but not accepted proposals, in particular:

Leave one separator character: blizzard, adjutant, volume.

After ts always write and: circus, gypsy, cucumbers.

After zh, ch, sh, shch, ts write under the stress o, without stress - e: yellow, turn yellow.

Cancel double consonants in foreign words: tennis, corrosion.

Simplify the writing n - nn in participles.

Combinations with gender should always be written with a hyphen.

Remove exceptions and write from now on: jury, brochure, parachute; little darling, little babe, little babe; worthy, hare, hare; wooden, tin, glass.

In general, the proposals were quite linguistically justified. Of course, for their time they seemed quite radical. The main mistake of this attempt at reform was this: as soon as these proposals were put forward, they were widely published in 1964 in full detail, primarily in the magazines “Russian Language at School”, “Questions of Speech Culture” and in the “Teacher's Newspaper” , but also in the public newspaper Izvestia. In other words, they brought it up for public discussion. For six months, if not more, Izvestia published reviews - almost all negative. That is, the public did not accept these proposals. This coincided with the departure of N.S. Khrushchev, with a sharp change in the political situation in the country. So they soon tried to forget about this failed reform. And it still turned out that the proposals were not linguistically justified, people were not prepared for such changes.

Project 2000

In 1988, by order of the Department of Literature and Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the spelling commission was recreated with a new composition. Since the end of 2000, Professor Vladimir Lopatin became its chairman. The main task of the commission was to prepare a new set of rules for Russian spelling, which was supposed to replace the “Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation” of 1956. Back in 1991, under the leadership of Lopatin, the 29th, corrected and expanded, edition of the “Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language” appeared, which had not been supplemented for 15 years and was published only in stereotypical editions (the last supplemented was the 13th edition of 1974) . But from the very beginning of the 1990s, the task of preparing fundamentally new- both in volume and in the nature of the input material - a large spelling dictionary. It was published in 1999 under the title “Russian Spelling Dictionary” and included 160 thousand vocabulary units, exceeding the previous volume by more than one and a half times. A year later, the “Project “Code of Russian Spelling Rules” was released. Spelling. Punctuation"".

The new code was intended to regulate the spelling of linguistic material that arose in the language of the second half of the twentieth century, eliminate the shortcomings that were revealed in the 1956 code, and bring spelling into line with the modern level of linguistics, offering not only rules, as was in the 1956 code, but also their scientific justification. What was also new was that variability in some spellings was allowed. Here are a few innovations:

Write common nouns with the component EP without the letter Y before E: conveyor, stayer.

Write brochureAnd parachute, But julienne, jury, monteju, embouchure, pshut, fichu, schutte, schutzkor.

Expand the use of the separative Ъ before the letters E, Ё, Yu, I: art fair; military lawyer, state language, children's school, foreign language.

The rule about НН and Н in the full forms of passive past participles: for formations from imperfective verbs, spellings with one N are accepted. For formations from perfective verbs, single spellings with two N are retained.

Fearing a repeat of history with the 1964 project, members of the spelling commission did not report the details until the time came, but did not take into account the fact that the public in the mid-1960s had already been partially prepared by the recent code of 1956 and the discussion in pedagogical periodicals. Discussion in the general press began in 2000, and since it was initiated by non-specialists, members of the commission and working group I had to take an explanatory and defensive position. This discussion, unfavorable for the new project, continued until approximately the spring of 2002. In this situation, the directorate of the Institute of the Russian Language had already decided not to submit the compiled code and dictionary for approval, and therefore the commission abandoned the most striking proposals, leaving mainly those that regulated the writing of new words.

Finally, in 2006, the reference book “Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation” was published, edited by Vladimir Lopatin, which was offered to specialists for discussion, without “radical” changes. Thus, the issue of changes in modern spelling is not yet closed. In 2005, a new, corrected and expanded edition of the “Russian Spelling Dictionary” was published with a volume of about 180 thousand words. This normative dictionary is approved by the Academy of Sciences, in contrast to the “Rules,” which must be approved by the Russian government, and is already mandatory.

It turns out that the reform failed again for reasons language policy. Linguists proceeded from a model of language policy that considers written language to be completely controllable on the basis of certain postulates. But it is language that must govern linguistics. Science must be controlled, not its object.

Later reforms. Under V.V. Putin’s reform ideas also failed, but they found their way into dictionaries: confirm or refute. The reform is carried out secretly by preparing dictionaries where you can say “black coffee”. And these dictionaries are included in the recommended list of dictionaries. The regulation of language is closely related to the regulation of public opinion.

Minister of Education A.A. Fursenko, following the Unified State Exam and the self-supporting basis of schools, dealt another blow to Russian education - he put into effect on September 1 Order No. 195 of June 8, 2009 “On approval of the list of grammars, dictionaries and reference books.”

According to this order, when deciding various controversial issues regarding the use of the Russian language as the state language of the Russian Federation, it is necessary to use an approved list of grammars, dictionaries and reference books.

Currently, this list includes only four books published by the same publisher:

Spelling dictionary of the Russian language. Bukchina B.Z., Sazonova I.K., Cheltsova L.K.

Dictionary of accents of the Russian language. Reznichenko I.L.

Large phraseological dictionary of the Russian language. Meaning. Use. Cultural commentary. Telia V.N.

At the same time, this list does not include such famous and popular dictionaries edited by Lopatin, Dahl, Ozhegov.

Innovations. Thus, the word “coffee” can now be used in both the masculine and neuter gender. In the word "Dogov" ABOUTr", the emphasis can now be placed on the first syllable - "d" ABOUTtalk." The word "b" Arust" can be replaced with the word "barge" A", "th ABOUTedge" is now equal to "yoga Umouth" and other horrors. Here are some examples:

P Eaphid - loop I- dictionary of accents by I. Reznichenko

To Uhonic - spelling dictionary by B. Bookchin, I. Sazonov, L. Cheltsov

scorers At - spelling dictionary by B. Bookchin, I. Sazonov, L. Cheltsov

AVgustovsky - August ABOUTVskiy - dictionary of accents of the Russian language I. Reznichenko

apart Acops - apartam Enty - dictionary of accents of the Russian language I. Reznichenko

asymmetry AND

bejeweled Eriya - jewelry ANDI am a dictionary of accents of the Russian language I. Reznichenko

As before, the reforms of A.A. Fursenko is met with hostility by the majority of the Russian intelligentsia.

Conclusion.Under Peter there was an expansionary reform, it easily came into practice. There were no protests. Russian graphics have been enriched; they have received a civilian version. Academicians under the leadership of F.F. Fortunatov conceived a reform that corresponded to the linguistic laws of that time (neogrammatical). They deified spontaneous changes in language and said that oral language is spontaneous. And the written language is an addition, only a reflection of the oral language in the written language. Writing was limited; only a small part of society used writing. This was the educated part, the intellectual society. This reform was reactionary in nature, it was directed against intellectuals. It would never have passed if the matter had not been left to chance. After the war, an uneducated or poorly educated minority came to power. It took war and revolution to carry out the reform. Only in this form can reforms be carried out. All this confirms the primacy of language over the science of language and over the linguist. A linguist does not have the right to change a language (although Boudin de Courtenay believed otherwise). But it must be said that a person has the right only to preserve the language, to accept the changes that occur spontaneously in it.

Russian language reform spelling

First, I plan to understand the history of the Russian language and its reform.

Do we think about what a wonderful inheritance - the Russian language - we have inherited from past centuries? After all, language is the basis of the foundations of spiritual culture, that magical instrument through which the connection of times, the connection of generations is realized.

Scatterings of wise proverbs, riddles, sayings, fairy tales, wonderful epics are studied by folklorists to this day and, like sparkling inclusions, decorate our speech today. They were once built in chicken huts, by the light of a torch, in the wilderness of the forest. Folklore reflected both the mind of the people and their historical memory, and his dreams. Russian written literature was not walled off from folklore, although it developed quite independently. The language of Russian artistic prose and poetry has absorbed two elements - the element of vernacular, everyday Russian speech, and the element of ecclesiastical Slavic language

Words have always been treated with reverence in Russia, from solemn royal decrees to modern sayings and ditties. If we look into history, we will see that the language had its own peculiarity not only depending on the region of Russia, but also on the person’s profession. For example, in old Moscow there were the languages of barbers and cab drivers, tailors and shoemakers, tavern floor workers and bathhouse attendants, restaurant waiters and merchants. Now most of these professions are a thing of the past, but the Russian language has retained elements of the past prowess and ingenuity that Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol admired to this day.

The creator of language is the people, and therefore our world-famous writers enlivened their works with funny, florid, or apt Russian words.

The Russian language is considered one of the most complex and rich languages in the world. It has a long history of development.

The history of the Russian language goes back thousands of years Proto-Slavic language, the date of formation of which no one can accurately indicate. Our language came to Rus' from Bulgaria after the adoption of Christianity, along with church and secular books. From the Church Slavonic language came a solemn, majestic, ornate note in literature; thanks to it, an abundance of synonyms arose, an abundance of shades, and many words with an abstract meaning were born. This is how one of the richest languages in the world emerged in terms of vocabulary - free and flexible in syntax, with an abundance of vowels, giving it a special smoothness and melodiousness, with a rare beauty of the dictionary.

According to many famous historians, until the 9th century AD. Rus' was united and had a high cultural level, this is also evidenced by the indisputable existence of the great, unified Old Russian language, which has a more developed phonetics and grammatical structure than the modern Russian language.

The Old Slavic Initial Letter had 49 initial letters. In 863 AD. To translate the Bible into Russian, Cyril and Methodius created the “Cyrillic alphabet” - the Church Slavonic language. According to one version, having remade the ancient Slavic initial letter, they removed 5 letters and changed the meaning of several more.

Over the entire period of the existence of the Russian language, a colossal number of reforms have occurred.

Peter I personally changed and approved the new alphabet and civil font, supposedly to simplify the Russian language, removing five letters and changing the style of several more. He considered five letters redundant: “psi”, “xi”, “omega”, “yus small”, “yus big”. He also changed the styles of the letters “fert”, “earth”, “izhe”, and the styles of the letters were rounded and simplified; the reformed font was called “Civil Font”. It establishes uppercase (capital) and lowercase (small) letters for the first time.

Has the ABC lost its letters? (yat), ? (fita), I (and decimal), instead of them “E”, “F”, “I” were introduced, respectively.

After the release of Decree No. 804, printed publications stopped using the letter V (Izhitsa), thereby eliminating it from the Russian language.

Lunacharsky also removed the semantic basis of our language - images, leaving only phonemes.

After this reform, the Russian alphabet turned into a phonetic alphabet consisting of 33 letters and phonemes. Modern Russian-speaking people no longer understand the difference between the alphabet and the alphabet. And this difference is huge. In the alphabet, letters are just meaningless icons that don't mean anything in themselves. In the alphabet, letters are entities that represent semantic units: Az (I), beeches (letters, Gods), vedi (to know), verb (to speak), good, is, life, etc.

Rice. 1 Russian alphabet

Rice. 2 Russian alphabet

After the revolution, December 23, 1917 A.V. Lunacharsky carried out a reform of the Russian language, according to which our language lost three letters and recognized the new letter “Ё”, unofficially introduced back in 1797 by N.M. Karamzin.

Adopted on October 25, 1991 by the Supreme Council of the RSFSR No. 1808/1-I, the “Declaration on the Languages of the Peoples of Russia” recognized “the linguistic sovereignty of every people and individual”, proclaimed “the right of every person to freely choose the language of instruction, education and intellectual creativity, the right of every person for the free choice of language of communication", etc.

Thus, having considered issues related to the origin, development and changes of language, we can conclude that the Old Russian language had a developed syntactic system, which changed over many centuries to ultimately become the syntactic system of the modern Russian language. The main driver of language change was change in society. Society changes, and the language it speaks also changes.

The Ministry of Education and Science ordered (precisely ordered) that a list of four dictionaries from the AST-Press publishing house be considered the norms of the Russian language. The concerned public immediately had a lot of questions.
In new dictionaries, for example, it is proposed to pronounce the word “agreement” with the emphasis on the first syllable, as was often done, but was not considered the norm. In the word “yogurt” (previously, the accent “y” was considered correct in dictionaries), the most commonly used emphasis on “yo” was legalized. Also, the reason for discussion was the proposal to change the word “getting married” to “getting married.” These are the most striking examples.

This kind of “exercises in literature” is caused, according to the Ministry of Education, by the fact that it is necessary to bring the Russian language into line with the modern conversational style. No doubt, no change language norms language cannot exist. And he also cannot change for the worse. For language is still a tool used for communication by people. And it is they who in their Everyday life determine what this language should be. The question is different.

Who determined which words should change stress and which should not? The procedure for accepting amendments to dictionaries and words is as follows: technical specifications are announced, then new norms are approved by the scientific councils of the institutes of the Academy of Sciences and in the process are necessarily published. Representatives of publishing houses that already publish dictionaries should be involved in the work on changes. According to Vladimir Zavadsky, general director of the Onyx publishing house, which produces such reference reference books as the Rosenthal and Ozhegov dictionaries, in the current case the issue was resolved “secretly”: “The competition was not widely announced, the leading publishing houses of the country did not know about it.”

By the way, the same dictionaries of Rosenthal and Ozhegov were not included in the list of the Ministry of Education. Obviously, it was decided to “throw them off the steamship of modernity.”

According to Yulia Safonova, a representative of the portal gramota.ru, the main problem lies elsewhere. While agreeing that “language is a living structure” that needs to be brought into line with spoken reality, she emphasized the discrepancies between the recommended dictionaries themselves: “The recommendations of the spelling and spelling dictionaries do not coincide. Imagine you wrote a dictation based on one dictionary, and the teacher gives you a grade based on the norms of another dictionary. And this is just the most obvious example.”

Yes, and an introduction to standards in addition to spelling and spelling dictionaries The expert also considers grammatical and phraseological reference books to be unreasonable: “If you want to find out the norm, then nothing is written about the norm in the grammatical and phraseological dictionaries, or they are extremely difficult to understand. These are academic, scientific publications.”

Safonova believes that the dictionary compilers are not to blame: “It’s all about those who compiled these dictionaries into a single recommended list. And the dictionaries were compiled by professionals who worked based on different tasks.”

A representative of the portal gramota.ru also warned those who believe that the new norms are a simple legitimation of, as O. Bender used to say, “low style”: “Many simply do not know that in the same colloquial speech the use of the word “coffee” in the neuter gender has long been permitted by the academic “Grammar-80”. On the other hand, the elitist norm of language, of course, requires the word “coffee” to be masculine.”

“Reform in the Russian language is an unprecedented phenomenon; spelling is immutable and changes only over time. As for the change in the pronunciation of some words, this phenomenon has already been recorded in the language, explains Tatyana Avenirova, teacher of Russian language and literature of the 45th school in Arkhangelsk. “There has already been variability in the use of certain expressions in dictionaries, but, in my opinion, we cannot move towards simplifying the language.”

According to the head of the Russian language department of PSU named after. M.V. Lomonosov Natalia Petrova, “changes in the Russian language cannot be stopped, the norm will always change, but you should not get ahead of the norm. Dictionaries always give two meanings: one - as the main, literary one, and the second - as a spare one, gradually replacing the main one in society. A person should always have a choice of how to pronounce this or that word - how correctly or how it is more convenient for him.”

Philologists believe that there is no point in making a fuss. This is not a revolution in language, but a process of its development. Acceptable norms have appeared, but no one has canceled the old ones, which are considered preferable. The use of the latter in speech indicates the level of a person’s education, says Larisa Belova, associate professor of the department of general linguistics at PSPU.

P.S. The epilogue to all of the above can be the story that speech technique teachers tell their students.

Back in the forties of the 20th century, it was customary to say not “salute”, but “salute”. But on the day festive fireworks in honor of the victory in Nazi Germany, Yuri Levitan himself, professional top class, apparently out of excitement, made a mistake when he said in a message from the Sovinformburo: “On this day Moscow salutes its heroes.” As the legend goes, it was after this that changes were made to the dictionaries to allow this pronunciation.

True, when telling this story, teachers usually end it with phrases in the style of “But it was Levitan.”

From now on you can say:

Not only "agreement", but also "agreement"

Not only “on Wednesdays”, but also “on Wednesdays”

Not only "yogurt", but also "yogurt"

Kvartal (kvartal - incorrect).

Beetroot (beets - incorrect).

Means (means' - incorrect).

Providing and about providing (providing and about providing is incorrect).

Cottage cheese and cottage cheese (both options are correct).

Getting married (getting married - wrong)

And write...

Karate (karate is wrong).

Internet (always capitalized).

Coffee in our country can now be not only masculine, but also neuter: “Hot coffee” and not “Hot coffee”...

L.P. Yakubinsky

REFORM OF LITERARY LANGUAGE UNDER PETER I

(Yakubinsky L.P. Selected works. Language and its functioning. - M., 1986. - P. 159-162)

1. The reform of the literary language, which was brewing already in the 17th century, became completely inevitable in the context of all the transformative activities of Peter I. The spread of European enlightenment, the development of science and technology created the need for translation and compilation of books whose content could not be expressed by means of Church Slavonic language with its vocabulary and semantics, generated by the church-religious worldview, with its grammatical system, divorced from the living language. The new, secular ideology required, accordingly, a new, secular, literary language. On the other hand, the wide range educational activities Peter demanded a literary language accessible to wide sections of society, but the Church Slavonic language did not have this accessibility. 2. In search of a basis for a new literary language, Peter and his employees turned to the Moscow business language. The Moscow business language was distinguished by the necessary qualities: firstly, it was the Russian language, i.e. accessible and understandable to wide sections of society; secondly, it was a secular language, free from the symbolism of a church-religious worldview. It was very important that the Moscow business language had already acquired national significance back in the 17th century. underwent literary processing. Perhaps the meaning and direction of the literary language reform under Peter I was best expressed by one of his collaborators, Musin-Pushkin, who told the translator of Geography: “Work with all your diligence, and high words there is no need for Slavic ones, but the ambassadorial order should use words." Under Peter I, the literary language received a Russian national basis. The dominance of the Church Slavonic language ended. 3. However, it would be completely wrong to think that the literary language, which received a Russian national basis, completely excluded the use of Church Slavonic words and rpm Church Slavonic words and phrases were used in the literary language of the Petrine era in significant quantities, partly according to tradition, partly to denote abstract concepts, partly to express a fundamentally lofty literary language, and were used as elements of this language. The limits of use and function of Church Slavonic elements in the literary language of the Petrine era were not sufficiently defined. Determining the place of Church Slavonic elements in the system of the Russian literary language belongs to the later stage of its development. 4. Turning to the Moscow business language as the basis of a new literary language has not yet solved all the problems facing the new literary language. Moscow business language was, so to speak, the language of " special purpose". It grew up in the practice of Moscow offices, in the legislative activity of the Moscow government and was adapted to serve only certain, specific aspects of public life - all kinds of business relations. Significant poverty and one-sidedness of its vocabulary, as well as the monotony and low expressiveness of its syntax. Meanwhile, the new literary language was intended to express a wide variety of content - scientific, philosophical, and artistic and literary. The new literary language had to be fertilized, enriched with a variety of words, phrases, and syntactic structures in order to become a truly flexible and multifaceted means of expressing thought. A long and difficult path of development lay ahead, and in the Petrine era only the first steps along this path were taken. In the Peter the Great era, the developed national languages of Western Europe received enormous importance for the formation and enrichment of the literary language, which is quite consistent with the general spirit of the reforms of Peter, who cut a “window to Europe” from the closed and musty Muscovite kingdom. 5. In the 17th century. Russia's relations with Western European countries have intensified significantly. In the 17th century A number of foreign words (military and craft terms, names of some household items, etc.) penetrate into the Russian language. By the end of the century, on the eve of Peter's reform, Western European influences had grown significantly. However, foreign words remained outside the literary language and were used mainly in colloquial speech. Foreign influences did not play a constructive, organizing role in the development of the literary language. Knowledge of foreign languages was very limited. Grigory Kotoshikhin was not far from the truth when he stated: “And other languages, Latin, Greek, German, and some besides Russian, are taught in Russian state does not happen." Those who knew foreign languages were numbered in very few. Foreign language classes were viewed with suspicion, fearing that along with them the Catholic or Lutheran "heresy" would penetrate into the minds of Muscovites. 6. This sharp change in views on foreign languages was perfectly expressed by one of the most prominent figures Peter's era - Feofan Prokopovich. With proud pathos, he pointed out that “although before this, except for the Russian language, books of reading and writing, none of them Russian people didn’t know how, and, moreover, it’s a shame rather than being revered for art, but now we see His Majesty himself German language speaking, and several thousand subjects of his Russian people, male and female, skilled in various European languages, such as Latin, Greek, French, German, Italian, English and Dutch, and such treatment that they can shamelessly compare with all other European peoples... And instead of the fact that besides church books, almost no other books have been printed in Russia, now many are not only in foreign languages, but also in Slavic Russian, with the care and command of His Majesty, they have been printed and are still being printed." 7. In the Peter the Great era in Russian The language included numerous foreign words, largely preserved in our time. These were words to express new concepts in science and technology, in military and naval affairs, in administration, in art, etc. Since the time of Peter the Great, they have existed in our language such foreign words as algebra, optics, globe, apoplexy, lancet, compass, cruiser, port, corps, army, guard, cavalry, attack, storm, commission, office, act, rent, project, report, tariff and many others . The borrowing of these words was a progressive phenomenon; these words enriched the Russian literary language. The development of Russian life required the designation of new concepts, and it was natural to take these designations (words) from those languages where they already existed, from those peoples from whom the then backward Russia learned. 8. But in the Petrine era, the newly-minted “Europeans” began to stupidly get carried away with the use of foreign words in Russian speech, cluttering it with foreign words without meaning and needlessly. This fashion for foreign words was a negative, ugly phenomenon; it especially spread among aristocrats who spent a long time abroad, who saw their ideal in the dandies and dandies of European capitals and who, by their foreignness, expressed isolation from the people and disdain for them. Peter had a sharply negative attitude towards cluttering speech with foreign words, especially since it often led to the inability to understand what was written; he wrote, for example, to his ambassador Rudakovsky: “In your communications you use a lot of Polish and other foreign words and terms, behind which it is impossible to understand the matter itself: for this reason, from now on you will write all your communications to us Russian language, without using foreign words and terms." 9. Peter’s transformative activity in the field of literary language was most clearly and, so to speak, materially manifested in the reform of the alphabet. Peter abolished the Church Slavonic alphabet and replaced it with a new, so-called civil one. The reform consisted of , that a number of Church Slavonic letters and icons were removed altogether, and the rest were given the appearance of Western European letters. Church Slavonic alphabet preserved only in the church books themselves. The reform of the alphabet did not take place without resistance from the inert zealots of antiquity, and it is no coincidence that back in 1748. famous writer and scientist of the 17th century. VC. Trediakovsky, a younger contemporary of Peter I, dedicated big essay protection new alphabet. Trediakovsky perfectly understood the meaning of the alphabet reform: “Peter the Great,” he says, “didn’t leave him without putting his efforts into the shape of our letters. Seeing only the red (i.e. beautiful) seal in European books, he tried and "We should also make ours similar... This very first seal was beautiful: round, measured, clean. In a word, completely similar to the one used in French and Dutch printing houses." The alphabet reform expressed, on the one hand, a break with Church Slavism, and on the other, the Europeanization of the literary language. These were two sides of the same process. 10. Concern for the accessibility of the literary language, for the understandability, “intelligibility” of published books, especially translated ones, permeates the entire literary activity Peter and his staff. But this concern, of course, does not mean the broad masses of the people, but the new intelligentsia that Peter raised. One should not attribute truly democratic significance to the reforms of Peter, who built a state of nobles and merchants. It is curious, however, that, preoccupied with carrying out political, religious and moral propaganda among the people, Peter and his colleagues for the first time in the history of Russian society clearly raised the question of publishing books specifically “for the people,” about a mass popular language. 11. Feofan Prokopovich argued, for example, that “the ultimate need is to have certain short and a simple person intelligible and clear little books, which would contain everything that is sufficient for the instruction of the people"; he considered the existing "little books" of this kind to be unsuccessful, because "the writing is not colloquial and is not intelligible for the simple." Peter himself, addressing the synod regarding the publication of the catechism, he indicated: “To simply write, so that the villager would know, or for two: for the villagers it is simpler, and in the cities it is more beautiful for the sweetness of the hearing." 12. The literary language of the Petrine era in relation to phonetic and grammatical rules was still a motley, disorganized picture. But, connected with the living Russian language, as everything is established greater unity in the living language itself, primarily in the language of Moscow, later developed a harmonious system of norms, which was finally enshrined for the first time in Lomonosov’s grammar. Peter's language was a national literary language in the sense that it was based on the Russian language (and not Church Slavonic), but it was a national language that was in the period of construction and organization, because it did not yet have established phonetic and grammatical normal

With the coming to power of Peter I and his relatives in 1689, the life of the country at first seemed to turn back. All reforms of Sophia-Golitsyn were stopped. Everything that was done by the previous government was criticized and ridiculed. The Naryshkins stuck to the old days. The country was practically ruled by the tsar's mother, N.K. Naryshkina, and her closest relatives. These were opponents of innovation, poorly educated, hardened people. A long stay in the village of Preobrazhenskoye, far from big Moscow politics, did not do them any good. But the new rulers quickly mastered the old art of plundering the state treasury and dividing up profitable positions. Hungry for power, they enriched themselves uncontrollably. The Miloslavskys, their relatives and friends were mercilessly pushed aside. Places in the Boyar Duma, in the orders, and voivodeship positions were divided between the Naryshkins and Lopukhins—relatives of the young tsar’s wife and their friends.

What about Peter? In the first years of his reign, he did almost nothing state affairs. At the age of seventeen, he plunged headlong into his former amusements, fortunately now the formidable shadow of his opponents did not hang over him. He still devotes a lot of time to his “amusing” shelves.

Military affairs is increasingly becoming his first and all-consuming passion. But his games are becoming more serious. The “amusing” soldiers grow up together with the king.

Next to him, his comrades Alexander Menshikov, the future Generalissimo, Gabriel Golovkin, the future Chancellor of Russia, Fyodor Apraksin, the future admiral, commander of the Russian Fleet, A. M. Golovin, the future Commander-in-Chief, walk through life in dense rows. Russian army. All of them are capable, bright people, and most importantly, unconditionally devoted to Peter, ready to go into fire and water at his one word. Some of them belonged to the noble elite, but the majority were of simple, or even “mean” origin, which did not at all bother the young king, who valued people primarily for their business qualities. But some representatives of the older generation also stood next to Peter, sharing his views and fervor. Among them was V.V. Golitsyn’s cousin, Prince B.A. Golitsyn, who became his closest adviser and assistant in the first years of Peter’s reign.

More and more often, Peter organizes maneuvers and reviews, improves the weapons of his soldiers, and attracts foreign officers to train them. He himself earnestly masters military affairs - he learns to shoot rifles and cannons, beat military shot on a drum, dig trenches, and place powder charges under fortress walls.

On Lake Pereyaslavl near Moscow, by order of the Tsar, several warships are built, and together with his comrades-in-arms, he masters the art of seamanship and the art of naval combat.

Already in these years, the passion for the sea, which he knew about only by hearsay from sailors in the German settlement, the passion for creating a fleet and driving sea vessels became Peter’s second strong passion.

He forces his associates to do all this, who, before becoming generals and admirals, go through all the hardships of soldier and sailor service with the tsar. Thus, together with the tsar, a whole layer of capable army and naval officers, newly trained, armed and uniformed soldiers matured, and the foundations of a new Russian army and navy were laid.

With each passing month, the “amusing” regiments begin to resemble regular European military units more and more. Dressed in new comfortable short caftans, in jackboots instead of heavy boots, with triangular hats on their heads, armed and equipped according to the latest technology of the time military equipment, the “amusing” regiments become, essentially, the core of the future Russian regular army.

During these same years, Peter’s third passion developed, which subsequently runs through his entire life - a passion for physical labor and handicrafts. From his youth, he acquired an interest in creative work: he worked as a carpenter, joiner, and became interested in blacksmithing. Over time, he mastered the lathe, and turning various useful objects from wood became his favorite pastime. The king himself could make a table and chairs, participate with an ax in his hands in the construction of a ship, and could forge a good-quality saber, anchor or plowshare from metal.

Left to his own devices for many years in the village of Preobrazhenskoye, Peter never received a systematic education. Naturally inquisitive, capable, grasping everything new literally on the fly, he now casually continues to fill gaps in knowledge, uses every opportunity to learn something new and useful. More and more often he spends time in the German Settlement, meeting there with interesting, experienced people - foreign military specialists, craftsmen, engineers, traders. He is close friends with the Scottish general Patrick Gordon and the Swiss Franz Lefort. If the thoughtful, thorough Gordon was a storehouse of military knowledge for him, then Lefort, a cheerful fellow and an expert on European morals, introduced him to the world of European customs and traditions.

He eagerly makes acquaintances in the houses of the inhabitants German settlement with books - and not only with fiction, but also with manuals on military affairs, astronomy, and medicine. At the same time, Peter quickly masters languages - German and Dutch - and sometimes communicates with the inhabitants of the settlement in their native language. There, in the house of the wine merchant Mons, Peter falls in love with his beautiful daughter, Anna. The beginning of the romance binds Peter even more to a new way of life for him. He is literally fascinated by these friendly, well-mannered people, clean houses with tiled roofs, with flower beds under the windows, and neat paths strewn with sand. Here begins his first comprehension of Europe and the rejection of old Russian life with its palace Kremlin intrigues, boyar squabbles, dirt and disorder of Moscow streets, hidden hatred and fierce envy of people towards each other. All this leads to discord in the family, where the heir to the throne has already been born - Tsarevich Alexei. The mother is also dissatisfied, since her beloved “Petrusha” is moving further and further away from the old Moscow, Kremlin tower life that is dear to her heart.

This rejection sometimes takes strange forms. As if mocking the old Russian order, the old system of government, Peter creates clownish masquerade authorities for his entourage - “the most humorous and most drunken council” headed by the “pope”, for the position of which he appointed his former mentor, a drinker N. Zotov. Peter also introduced the clownish position of “prince Caesar” - as if official head Russian state, to which he appointed the old boyar Yu. Romodanovsky. A drunken company of participants in the “cathedral,” led by the Tsar, often appeared on the streets of Moscow, surprising and frightening the inhabitants.

But the days passed, Peter grew up. In the summer of 1693, with his comrades, he went to Arkhangelsk - the only Russian port at the mouth of the Northern Dvina, which, alas, froze during the long winter. The charm of the sea, the passion for navigation, the construction of a real “big” fleet irresistibly pulled him to the North.

For him, this trip became the second “discovery of Europe” after the German Settlement.

In Arkhangelsk there were English, Dutch, and German merchant ships in the roadstead. The foreign offices and warehouses located here came to life. The city was filled with multilingual European dialect. Peter easily went into the houses of foreign traders, skippers, sailors, shipbuilders, visited ships, and went out on a yacht on the open sea. He was shocked by everything he saw. From then on, the sea and maritime affairs captivated him even more. In his life, a genuine cult of the ship and the fleet arises. Sometimes writing down his dreams, Peter later noted: “... I had a dream: a ship in green flags, while they entered Pomerania: that I was on a galleon (type of ship - A.S.), on which the masts and sails were out of proportion.” . Accustomed to the logic and beauty of ship equipment, the king, even in his sleep, was surprised at the violation of naval orders. There were many such records. After the founding of St. Petersburg, he will tell his household: “Whoever wants to live with me should go to the sea often.”

In Arkhangelsk, he orders Dutch specialists to build a ship, and lays the first two Russian frigates at a local shipyard.

Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina died in 1694. Peter had a hard time experiencing the death of his mother. He locked himself in the wards and did not go out to people for several days, not wanting to show his weakness. When he came out of his imprisonment, he was already an independent ruler. Behind him there was no longer his mother - his long-term protection and support.

We have been tracing the history of civil Russian spelling since 1708, from the time Peter I issued a decree to print “Geometry” and other civil books in “newly invented Russian letters.” Peter I personally took part in the development of the new font. The director of the Moscow printing house, Fyodor Polikarpov, said the following about this: “With his tireless diligence, he deigned to invent the abecedalus, or alphabet, which is still in effect in all kinds of civil matters.”

Starting with V.K. Trediakovsky, they believed that the reason for the invention of the civil alphabet (with a simpler and rounder outline of letters than in the church Cyrillic alphabet) was the desire to liken the Russian script to the Latin one, and only in our time it has been established that the new script was created in Russia by Russian wordsmiths in based on a drawing of a handwritten civil letter from the late 17th - early 18th centuries. and Latin antiqua2 font.

After some improvements, Peter I introduced a new civil font by law. On January 29, 1710, he approved a sample of the alphabet, writing on it with his own hand: “These are the letters to print historical and manufacturing (technical - V.I.) books. And those that are blackened, should not be used in the books described above.” This historical alphabet with the handwritten notes of Peter I had the title “Image of ancient and new Slavic printed and handwritten letters.” In it, old (church) and new “civil” letters were given in comparison.

Improving the alphabet, Peter I initially excluded some letters of the church Cyrillic alphabet. The excluded letters included: - "earth" (the letter "zelo" was retained), - "fert" ("fita" was retained), - "xi", - "psi", - "omega", - "izhitsa", and also ligature - "from". However, later, Peter I restored some of these letters, it is believed, under the influence of the clergy. In 1735, according to a decree of the Academy of Sciences, the letters “xi” and “Izhitsa” were again excluded from the alphabet from among the letters restored by Peter I, but in 1758 “Izhitsa” was again restored (it was used in certain borrowed words).

In the alphabet of 1710, the letter e (reverse)1 was additionally introduced (to distinguish it more sharply from the letter “is”) and instead of “small yus” - a new form of the letter i (iotated a), which, as researchers note2, existed already in the second half of the 17th century in civil cursive writing.What was also new was that with the introduction of the civil alphabet, lowercase and uppercase letters were established in the alphabet for the first time, existing together (in the church Cyrillic alphabet there were only capital letters),

And yet the civil script introduced by Peter I did not represent new system letters I just received further development system of Slavic-Russian Cyrillic writing. The new font received the name “civil” because, in contrast to the previous font used to type church books, secular books were typed and printed.

The creation of a civil font by Peter I constituted an era in the development of Russian culture. It was also important that when developing the civil alphabet, accent marks (or strength, as they were called then), and abbreviation marks (titles) were excluded. Instead of the alphabetic designation of numbers, Arabic numerals were introduced, which greatly facilitated arithmetic operations.

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Peter's era (1700-1730). This is the beginning of the formation of the Russian literary language. The Petrine era in the history of our people is characterized by significant reforms and transformations that affected statehood, production, military and maritime affairs, and the life of the ruling classes of the then Russian society. These transformations revolutionized the consciousness and habits of Russian nobles and industrialists, and it is natural to look for their reflection in the development of the Russian literary language.

1) Changed alphabet.

2) The emergence of mass printing

3) Introduction of norms of speech etiquette.

4) Changing the internal essence of language.

Peter's era - the last stage of functioning book Slavic language in Russia, from now on his fate is connected only with the confessional sphere. The language of the Peter the Great era was characterized by further democratization due to its rapprochement with living colloquial speech, which was due to socio-economic and political changes in the life of Russian society in the 17th and 18th centuries. During this period, a type of written language was created, called the civil mediocre dialect, in which elements of the book Slavic language, the old command language and everyday speech of the 18th century coexist. The use in the literature of the Peter the Great era of all those actually existing at that time linguistic units led to linguistic and stylistic diversity written monuments, where everyday means of expression (dialectal, colloquial, colloquial) were used along with book ones. The Petrine era is characterized by borrowing foreign language vocabulary and tracing - translation of foreign terms into Russian. There is a noticeable desire of philologists and writers to regulate the use of various language units, to determine the phonetic, grammatical and lexical norms of the language.

Conclusion: In the ancient era, the Russian literary language begins to be used in all spheres of communication - written and oral, the dialect of the city of Moscow becomes a universal standard language, on the basis of which the language of the nation is formed.

Political disruption, change in the social structure of the state, democratization state power, increased foreign contacts lead to the formation of a language that can be called a mediocre vernacular.

The convergence of book language and living spoken language, sharp logic, opposition (which was relevant for the Slavic language) which are mixed. This process receives a bright external manifestation (reform of the Russian alphabet). Occurs during 1708-1710.

Citizen - ABC

Geometry - first book

Conclusion: the language of the Peter the Great era for us reading these texts seems motley and combining incompatible things.

An explosion of foreign language borrowings, a huge influx of foreign words (and an outflow of foreign words in 20-30 years).

Groups of words are the most active for penetration.

Everyday vocabulary (luggage, chest of drawers, coffee, bandage).
Terms of literature and art (ballet, concert, symphony).
Military vocabulary (army, governor, artillery).
Administrative vocabulary (governor, amnesty, minister).
Scientific vocabulary (axiom, algebra, geometry).
Social and political vocabulary (constitution, nation, patriot).
Technical and professional vocabulary (workbench, factory, manufactory).

Conclusion: redundancy and insufficiency collide.

The main conclusion of the Petrine era:

8) Destruction of the book-Slavic type of the Russian language.

9) Further democratization of the literary Russian language with lively colloquial speech.

10) Creation of a new special language that lasted 30 years.

11) Connection of the unconnected: penetration within one text, diversity.

13) After the 30s, people began to strive to clean up the Russian language.

Alphabet reform: brought the Russian printed font closer to European standards, eliminated unused letters - xi, psi, small and large yusy, doublet letter zelo; the letter acquires a rounded, simple outline; the superscripts and numeric values of the letters have been abolished. Contributed to the widespread spread of literacy in Russian society. The main significance of the graphic reform was that it removed “the veil of “holy writ” from literary semantics”, providing great opportunities for revolutionary changes in the sphere of the Russian literary language, it opened a wider path for the Russian literary language both to styles of living oral speech and to the assimilation of Europeanisms that surged at that time from Western languages.

The Westernizing tendencies of the Peter the Great era are expressed not only in the borrowing of many words to designate new objects, processes, concepts in the sphere state life, everyday life and technology, but also affect the destruction of the external forms of the church book and social everyday language by such barbarisms for which there was no direct need. Western European words attracted people like fashion. They bore the special stylistic imprint of innovation. They were a means of breaking away from the old traditions of the Church Slavonic language and the Old Testament everyday vernacular.

The very unusualness of the phonetic connections in the borrowed words seemed to hint at the possibility and necessity of a new structure of the literary language, corresponding to the appearance of the reforming state. There was a fashion for foreign words both in everyday life and in the official language of the Peter the Great era.

Some of the Europeanized nobles of that time almost lost the ability to correctly, normally use the Russian language, developing some kind of mixed jargon. This is the language of Prince B.I. Kurakin, author of “The History of Tsar Peter Alekseevich”: “At that time, the named Franz Yakovlevich Lefort came into extreme favor and confidentiality of amorous intrigues.”

Peter I condemned the abuse of foreign words.

The use of foreign words was an external symptom of a new, “European” style of speech. A peculiar feature of the business, journalistic language of the Peter the Great era is striking, the technique of duplicating words: next to a foreign word there is its Old Russian synonym or a new one lexical definition, closed in brackets, and sometimes simply joined by explanatory conjunction or (even the union and). The educational significance of this technique appears against the background of the general government tendency to involve the broad masses of society in a new political system. And in laws, and in journalistic treatises, and in technical translations of the early 18th century. up to the 40s. one notices this duality of word usage, this parallelism of Russian and foreign words. For example: “the admiral, who controls the vanguard (or the front formation) of ships, belongs to”, “the housekeeper (house manager)”...

Strengthening Western European influences and new sources of them.

In the Russian literary language of the early 18th century, phenomena arise that indicate attempts to create new forms of national Russian expression, closer to Western European languages and indicating a broader influence European culture and civilization.

The Polish language still retains for some time the role of supplier of scientific, legal, administrative, technical and secular everyday words and concepts for high society. Many Polonisms are borrowings from a previous era. Polish culture continues to be an intermediary through which the baggage of European concepts and the load of French and German words comes to Russia. However, the number of transfers from Polish language decreased because increased familiarity with Latin and Western European languages in general allowed us to strengthen the translation directly from the originals, bypassing Polish mediation.

Polish influence begins to yield in strength to German influence. The Polish and Latin languages, in some of their forms already quite deeply embedded in the system of Russian book and colloquial speech of the upper classes, create an appetizing background for the further Europeanization of the Russian literary language, for the development of abstract concepts in its semantic system. The Latin language played a huge role in the process of developing abstract scientific, political, civil, and philosophical terminology of the 18th century.

The importance of translations in the process of Europeanization of the Russian literary language.

The intensified translation activity of the Peter the Great era, directed towards socio-political, popular science and technical literature, led to a convergence of the constructive forms of the Russian language with the systems of Western European languages.

New life, expanding technical education, a change in ideological milestones - all this required new forms of expression. New intellectual demands of society were satisfied by translating into Russian concepts developed by Western European languages, or by using dictionary borrowings.

True, at the beginning of the 18th century, the influence of Western European languages on the Russian literary language was still external, shallow: it was expressed more in the assimilation of word names, in the borrowing of terms and in the replacement of Russian words with foreign language equivalents than in independent development European system abstract concepts.

Elements of the same verbal fetishism that have been preserved in the attitude of Russian society towards Church Slavonic language, were transferred to the terminology, vocabulary and phraseology of Western European languages.

The translation of special technical and scientific terminology in that era was fraught with almost insurmountable difficulties, since it assumed the presence of internal semantic relationships and correspondences between the Russian language and Western European languages. But even experienced translators could not overcome the resistance of the language material. The Russian language still lacked semantic forms for the embodiment of concepts developed by European science and technology, European abstract thought.

studopedia.org - Studopedia.Org - 2014-2018 (0.002 s)…

The assertion that there was no written language in Rus' before Cyril and Methodius is based on one single document - the “Tale of Writing” by the monk Khrabra, found in Bulgaria.

There are 73 copies from this scroll, and in different copies, due to translation errors or scribe errors, completely different versions of the key phrase for us. In one version: “the Slavs before Cyril did not have books”, in the other - “letters”, but at the same time the author indicates: “they wrote with lines and cuts.” It is interesting that Arab travelers who visited Rus' back in the 8th century, that is, even before Rurik and even more so before Cyril, described the funeral of one Russian prince: “After the funeral, his soldiers wrote something on a white tree (birch) in honor of the prince, and then, mounting their horses, they departed.” And there are many examples that the Slavs had a letter, but today let's look at when the ancient Slavic alphabet and began to represent the church and the so-called “civil” alphabet.

“The Civil Alphabet with Moral Teachings,” published in 1710, is the first official Russian civil alphabet. The creation of the alphabet, also known as the “ABC of Peter the Great,” was aimed at simplifying the Russian alphabet.

Let’s first consider the official version of the reform, and then draw conclusions about what this reform has achieved.

Civil font (Amsterdam alphabet; civil alphabet or “citizen”) is a font introduced in Russia by Peter I in 1708 for printing secular publications as a result of the first reform of the Russian alphabet (changes in the composition of the alphabet and simplification of the letters of the alphabet).

The prerequisite for the creation of a civil font was the fashion for the Latin alphabet, which spread among educated Russian people in the 1680-1690s. The civil font became a compromise between supporters of traditions and those who sought to borrow Western culture as completely as possible.

On the first edition of the ABC on January 29, 1710, in the hand of Peter it is written: “With these letters to print historical and manufacturing books. And those that are underlined [meaning the Cyrillic letters crossed out by Peter], those [in] the above books should not be used.”

Peter's reform of the Russian typographical font was carried out in 1708-1710. Its goal was to bring the appearance of Russian books and other printed publications closer to what Western European publications of that time looked like, which were sharply different from the typically medieval-looking Russian publications, which were typed in Slavic font - semi-ustav. In January 1707, based on sketches supposedly made personally by Peter I, the draftsman and draftsman Kulenbach, who was at the army headquarters, made drawings of thirty-two lowercase letters Russian alphabet, as well as four capital letters(A, D, E, T). Full set font characters in three sizes based on Kulenbach’s drawings were ordered in Amsterdam from the printing house of the Belarusian master Ilya Kopievich; At the same time, fonts based on these designs were ordered in Moscow, at the Printing Yard.

As is clear from Peter's letters, in June 1707 he received samples of medium-sized fonts from Amsterdam, and in September - prints of a trial set in large and small sized fonts. A printing press and other printing equipment were purchased in Holland, and qualified typographers were hired to work in Russia and train Russian specialists.

Alphabet edited personally by Peter

By the end of 1707, three invited Dutch typographers (a wordsmith, a typesetter and a printer), together with a typeface, a printing press and other supplies, had already reached Moscow and began work. On January 1, 1708, Peter signed a decree: “... craftsmen sent by the land of Galana, the city of Amsterdam, book printing... to print the book Geometry in the Russian language in those alphabet... and print other civil books in the same alphabet in the new alphabet...”. The first book typed in the new font, “Geometry Slavenski Zemmerie” (geometry textbook), was printed in March 1708. Others followed.

Alphabet edited personally by Peter

Closer in graphics to Western European, the new font was conceived to simplify typographic typesetting in printing presses, manufactured in Western Europe. The new - civil - font was intended for printing secular publications: official publications and periodicals, technical, military, scientific, educational and fiction literature. In addition to the introduction of a new design of letters, the composition of the alphabet was also revised: superscripts and some doublet letters of the semi-character were excluded, the letter E was legalized, European (Arabic) numerals were approved instead of letter designations for numbers, punctuation and the use of capital letters in the set were streamlined. The use of the half-rut was limited to the sphere of liturgical literature. Sometimes Peter's reform is also credited with the introduction of the letters U and Z, but this is not entirely true: we can only talk about declaring one of the styles that were used earlier as the main one. Thus, I was introduced instead of Ѧ (small yus).

Alphabet edited personally by Peter

Peter I approved the new civil alphabet and civil font (Russian Orthodox Church continued to use the Church Slavonic alphabet). As a result of Peter's reform, the number of letters in the Russian alphabet was reduced to 38, their style was simplified and rounded. The use of capital letters and punctuation marks was also streamlined, and Arabic numerals began to be used instead of alphabetic numbers.

Alphabet edited personally by Peter

The first book printed in the new civil font was published on March 17, 1708. It bore the title: “Geometry of the Slavic Landscape” (geometry textbook). Peter did not provide for the letter “I”; its functions were performed by a combination of letters – “and” decimal and “a”.

“Geometry Slavonic Land Measurement” is the first book typed in civil font.

The new civil font finally came into use by the middle of the 18th century, when it became familiar to the generation that learned to read and write from it.

And it existed unchanged until the reform of 1918.

Old Church Slavonic font, which before the reform was used in official publications and everyday life, they began to call it Church Slavonic. They are still used in church practice to this day.

conclusions: And so, 1. “thanks to the transition to a new civil font, it has become easier to read, which means it has become easier to train and prepare educated specialists, to convey government information to the still illiterate population more quickly and in a timely manner. The secular character has also invaded education, and the exact sciences have begun to compete with theological disciplines...” this is what our official says historical science, but let's look at China and Japan; their hieroglyphic writing did not prevent them from developing in the field of exact sciences. So what's with this statement? official historians you can argue.

2. Decrees of Peter I on the collection of manuscripts and printed books:

The Great Sovereign indicated: in all monasteries located in the Russian state, inspect and take away ancient letters of merit and other curious original letters, as well as historical books, handwritten and printed, whatever is needed for news. And according to that great sovereign’s personal decree, the governing Senate ordered: in all dioceses and monasteries, and cathedrals, previous letters of grant and other curious letters are original, as well as historical handwritten and printed books review and rewrite for governors and vice-governors, and voivodes, and send those census books to the Senate.

From all the dioceses and monasteries, where about what according to the inventories are curious, that is, ancient years on charters and on paper, church and civil chroniclers, sedate, chronographs and other similar things, that where such are found, take to Moscow to the Synod, and for the news of these describe and leave those lists in the library, and send the original ones to the same places from which they will be taken, as before, and at the same time announce to the authorities of those dioceses and monasteries, so that they declare those curious books without any concealment, since those books have only been written off, and the genuine ones will be returned to them as before. And to look after and pick up such books, send messengers from the Synod

We all know that all the collected books and manuscripts disappeared after they were collected. But if some books and manuscripts have survived, they are now difficult to read, since the rules and letters when writing them were different. A good example is “Arithmetic” by L.F. Magnitsky. (1703), which was written according to old rules and in Old Slavic script.

Magnitsky L.F. "Arithmetic" (1703).pdf (https://vk.com/doc394061523_46…

In the comments to the post “OLD RUSSIAN LENGTH MEASURES” Alexey wrote:

Why do we need to know ancient measures? Of course, you need to know the history of your family and country, but why modern world these measures?

I answer:

If we do not know the ancient measures of length, the old letters, the old rules of writing, then we will know the history and data that were written quite recently, and this history differs from that which is written in ancient books and manuscripts. Mauro Orbini in his work refers to the manuscript of Eremey the Russian, which are strikingly different from the data official history. But if any of you now finds his manuscript, it will be a piece of writing for you, since it is written in the old style or will be considered as an old Greek book.

For those who are interested in both measures of length and the old rules, I offer the following books on writing:

“Civil ABC with morals” (1710).pdf

“Ecclesiastical and civil alphabet, with brief notes on spelling” (1768).pdf

“ABC for teaching Votish children to read in their dialect (According to Glazovsky)” (1847).pdf

“Civil ABC with morals” (1877).pdf

“Civil ABC with the moral teachings of Peter” (1877).pdf

3. While studying dysgraphia, I came across data that in countries with hieroglyphic writing there is practically no dysgraphia, and in countries where the alphabet is short, about 20 letters, its percentage is very high. I think this has to do with the imagery of the writing. When writing, a person with hieroglyphic writing has many more images in his head (each letter is an image), but in English and other short alphabets there are fewer of these images. It’s not for nothing that they say education; the ancestors knew that a child had to have many images in his head. However, this reform and reduction of the alphabet is not progress in education, but most likely regression, since there is a reduction in images in the child’s head.