Question 1
Lexicology as a science about the vocabulary of the modern Russian language. Sections of lexicology
Lexicology - from Greek. leksis, leksicos - word, expression; logos - teaching. This science examines the vocabulary (lexical) composition of a language in different aspects. Lexicology examines the vocabulary of a language (lexicon) from the point of view of what a word is, how and what it expresses, and how it changes. Phraseology is adjacent to lexicology, which is often included in lexicology as a special section.
Lexicology is divided into general, particular, historical and comparative. The first, called general lexicology in English, is a section of general linguistics that studies the vocabulary of any language, what relates to lexical universals. General lexicology deals with the general laws of the structure of the lexical system, issues of the functioning and development of the vocabulary of the world's languages.
Private lexicology studies the vocabulary of a particular language. Special lexicology deals with the study of issues related to the vocabulary of one language, in our case English. Thus, general lexicology can consider, for example, the principles of synonymous or antonymic relations in a language, while specific lexicology will deal with the peculiarities of English synonyms or antonyms.
Both general and specific problems of vocabulary can be analyzed in various aspects. First of all, any phenomenon can be approached from a synchronic or diachronic point of view. The synchronic approach assumes that the characteristics of a word are considered within a certain period or one historical stage of their development. This study of vocabulary is also called descriptive lexicology. Diachronic, or historical, lexicology (historical lexicology) studies the historical development of the meanings and structure of words.
Comparative or contrastive lexicology deals with the comparison of lexical phenomena of one language with facts of another or other languages. The purpose of such studies is to trace the ways of intersection or divergence of lexical phenomena characteristic of the languages chosen for comparison.
Historical lexicology traces changes in the meanings (semantics) of a single word or an entire group of words, and also examines changes in the names of objects of reality (see below about etymology). Comparative lexicology reveals similarities and differences in the division of objective reality by lexical means of different languages. Both individual words and groups of words can be matched.
Main tasks lexicology are:
*)definition of a word as a meaningful unit vocabulary ;
*)characteristics of the lexical-semantic system, that is, identification of the internal organization of linguistic units and analysis of their connections (semantic structure of the word, specificity of distinctive semantic features, patterns of its relations with other words, etc.).
The subject of lexicology, as follows from the very name of this science, is the word.
Sections of lexicology:
Onomasiology - studies the vocabulary of a language, its nominative means, types of vocabulary units of a language, methods of nomination.
Semasiology - studies the meaning of vocabulary units of a language, types of lexical meanings, and the semantic structure of the lexeme.
Phraseology - studies phraseological units.
Onomastics is the science of proper names. Here we can distinguish the largest subsections: anthroponymy, which studies proper names, and toponymy, which studies geographical objects.
Etymology - studies the origin of individual words.
Lexicography deals with the issues of compiling and studying dictionaries. It is also often called applied lexicology.
The concept of the term “modern Russian literary language”.
Traditionally, the Russian language has been modern since the time of A.S. Pushkin. It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of the Russian national language and the literary Russian language. The national language is the language of the Russian people; it covers all spheres of people’s speech activity. In contrast, literary language is a narrower concept. Literary language is the highest form of existence of language, an exemplary language. This is a strictly standardized form of the popular national language. Literary language is understood as a language processed by wordsmiths, scientists, and public figures.
Question 2
The word is the basic unit of language. Signs of a word. Definition of the word. Types of words. Functions of the word
The word is the basic structural-semantic unit of language, which serves to name objects and their properties, phenomena, relations of reality, and has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features specific to each language. The characteristic features of a word are integrity, distinctiveness and free reproducibility in speech.
Given the complexity of the multifaceted structure words, modern researchers, when characterizing it, use multidimensional analysis and point to the sum of a variety of linguistic features:
· phonetic (or phonemic) design and the presence of one main stress;
· lexical-semantic significance words, its separation and impermeability (impossibility of additional inserts inside words without changing its value);
· idiomaticity (otherwise - unpredictability, unmotivated naming or incomplete motivation);
· Attribution to one or another part of speech.
In modern lexicology of the Russian language, the short definition proposed by D. N. Shmelev seems quite motivated: word- this is a unit of name, characterized by completeness (phonetic and grammatical) and idiomaticity.
There are several types of words. According to the method of nomination, four types of words are distinguished: independent, auxiliary, pronominal, interjections.
Words are distinguished phonetically: single-stressed, unstressed, multi-stressed, complex.
Words are distinguished according to morphological characteristics: changeable, unchangeable, simple, derivative, complex.
By motivation: unmotivated and motivated.
According to semantic and grammatical criteria, words are grouped into parts of speech.
From the point of view of structural integrity, a distinction is made between integral and divisible words.
Semantically, words differ between single-valued and polysemous, absolute and relative, requiring an object and transitive verbs. In a sentence, a word enters into subtle semantic relationships with other words and elements of the sentence (intonation, word order, syntactic functions).
FUNCTIONS OF THE WORD
communicative function
nominative function
aesthetic function
language function
communication function
message function
impact function
INFLUENCE FUNCTION. Its implementation is a voluntary function, i.e. expression of the will of the speaker; the function is expressive, i.e. messages to expressiveness; the function is emotive, i.e. expression of feelings, emotions.
FUNCTION IS COMMUNICATIVE. The purpose of the word is to serve as a means of communication and message;
FUNCTION IS NOMINATIVE. The purpose of a word is to serve as the name of an object;
COMMUNICATION FUNCTION. The main function of language, one of the aspects of the communicative function, consists in the mutual exchange of statements by members of the linguistic community.
MESSAGE FUNCTION. The other side of the communicative function, which consists in conveying some logical content;
FUNCTION IS AESTHETIC. The purpose of the word is to serve as a means of artistic expression;
FUNCTION OF THE LANGUAGE. Using the potential properties of language means in speech for various purposes.
Question 3
Lexical meaning of the word. Structure of lexical meaning
Lexical meaning - the correlation of the sound shell of a word with the corresponding objects or phenomena of objective reality. Lexical meaning does not include the entire set of features inherent in any object, phenomenon, action, etc., but only the most significant ones that help to distinguish one object from another. Lexical meaning reveals the signs by which common properties are determined for a number of objects, actions, phenomena, and also establishes the differences that distinguish a given object, action, phenomenon. For example, the lexical meaning of the word giraffe is defined as follows: “an African artiodactyl ruminant with a very long neck and long legs,” that is, the characteristics that distinguish the giraffe from other animals are listed.
Question 4
Types of lexical meanings
A comparison of various words and their meanings allows us to identify several types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language.
According to the method of nomination, direct and figurative meanings of words are distinguished.
*) The direct (or basic, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. For example, the words table, black, boil have the following basic meanings, respectively:
1. “A piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on high supports or legs.”
2. "The color of soot, coal."
3. “Burgle, bubble, evaporate from strong heat” (about liquids).
These values are stable, although they may change historically. For example, the word stol in the Old Russian language meant “throne”, “reign”, “capital”.
The direct meanings of words depend less than others on the context, on the nature of connections with other words. Therefore, they say that direct meanings have the greatest paradigmatic conditionality and the least syntagmatic coherence.
*) figurative (indirect) meanings of words arise as a result of transferring the name from one phenomenon of reality to another on the basis of similarity, commonality of their characteristics, functions, etc.
So, the word table has several figurative meanings:
1. “An item of special equipment or a part of a machine of a similar shape”: operating table, raise the machine table.
2. “Food, food”: rent a room with a table.
3. “A department in an institution in charge of some special range of affairs”: information desk.
The word black has the following figurative meanings:
1. “Dark, as opposed to something lighter called white”: brown bread.
2. “Taking a dark color, darkened”: black from tanning.
3. “Kurnoy” (full form only, obsolete): black hut.
4. “Gloomy, desolate, heavy”: black thoughts.
5. “Criminal, malicious”: black treason.
6. “Not main, auxiliary” (full form only): back door in the house.
7. “Physically difficult and unskilled” (long form only): menial work, etc.
The word boil has the following figurative meanings:
1. “Manifest to a strong degree”: work is in full swing.
2. “To show something with force, to a strong degree”: seethe with indignation.
As we see, indirect meanings appear in words that are not directly correlated with the concept, but are closer to it through various associations that are obvious to speakers.
Figurative meanings can retain imagery: black thoughts, black betrayal; seethe with indignation. Such figurative meanings are fixed in the language: they are given in dictionaries when interpreting a lexical unit. In their reproducibility and stability, figurative meanings differ from metaphors that are created by writers, poets, publicists and are of an individual nature.
However, in most cases, when transferring meanings, imagery is lost. For example, we do not perceive as figurative names such as pipe elbow, teapot spout, clock ticking, etc. In such cases, we speak of extinct imagery in the lexical meaning of the word, of dry metaphors.
Direct and figurative meanings are distinguished within one word.
According to the degree of semantic motivation, unmotivated meanings are distinguished (non-derivative, primary), which are not determined by the meaning of morphemes in the word; motivated (derivative, secondary), which are derived from the meanings of the generating stem and word-forming affixes. For example, the words table, build, white have unmotivated meanings. The words dining room, tabletop, dining room, construction, perestroika, anti-perestroika, belet, whitewash, whiteness have motivated meanings; they are, as it were, “derived” from the motivating part, word-building formants and semantic components that help to comprehend the meaning of a word with a derived base (Ulukhanov I. S. . Word-formation semantics in the Russian language and the principles of its description M., 1977. P. 100-101).
For some words, the motivation of the meaning is somewhat obscured, since in modern Russian it is not always possible to identify their historical root. However, etymological analysis establishes the ancient family connections of the word with other words and makes it possible to explain the origin of its meaning. For example, etymological analysis makes it possible to identify the historical roots in the words fat, feast, window, cloth, pillow, cloud and establish their connection with the words live, drink, eye, knot, ear, drag (envelop). Thus, the degree of motivation for one or another meaning of a word may not be the same. In addition, the meaning may seem motivated to a person with philological training, while to a non-specialist the semantic connections of this word seem lost.
According to the possibility of lexical compatibility, the meanings of words are divided into free and non-free.
The first ones are based only on subject-logical connections of words. For example, the word drink can be combined with words denoting liquids (water, milk, tea, lemonade, etc.), but cannot be combined with words such as stone, beauty, running, night. The compatibility of words is regulated by the subject compatibility (or incompatibility) of the concepts they denote. Thus, the “freedom” of combining words with unrelated meanings is relative.
Non-free meanings of words are characterized by limited possibilities of lexical compatibility, which in this case is determined by both subject-logical and linguistic factors. For example, the word to win is combined with the words victory, top, but not combined with the word defeat. You can say lower your head (look, eyes, eyes), but you cannot say “lower your hand” (leg, briefcase).
Non-free meanings, in turn, are divided into phraseologically related and syntactically determined.
The first are realized only in stable (phraseological) combinations: sworn enemy, bosom friend (the elements of these phrases cannot be swapped).
The syntactically determined meanings of a word are realized only if it performs an unusual syntactic function in a sentence. Thus, the words log, oak, hat, acting as a nominal part of a compound predicate, receive the meaning “stupid person”; "stupid, insensitive person"; "a sluggish, uninitiative person, a bungler."
V.V. Vinogradov, who first identified this type of meaning, called them functionally syntactically conditioned. These meanings are always figurative and, according to the method of nomination, are classified as figurative meanings.
As part of the syntactically determined meanings of words, there are also meanings that are structurally limited, that is, those that are realized only under the conditions of a certain syntactic structure. For example, the word whirlwind with the direct meaning of “gusty circular movement of the wind” in a construction with a noun in the form of the genitive case receives a figurative meaning: whirlwind of events - “rapid development of events.”
According to the nature of the functions performed, lexical meanings are divided into two types: nominative, the purpose of which is nomination, naming of phenomena, objects, their qualities, and expressive-synonymous, in which the predominant is the emotional-evaluative (connotative) feature. For example, in the phrase tall man, the word tall indicates great height; this is its nominative meaning. And the words lanky, long in combination with the word man not only indicate great growth, but also contain a negative, disapproving assessment of such growth. These words have an expressive-synonymous meaning and are among the expressive synonyms for the neutral word high.
Based on the nature of connections between one meaning and another in the lexical system of a language, the following can be distinguished:
1) autonomous meanings possessed by words that are relatively independent in the language system and denote mainly specific objects: table, theater, flower;
2) correlative meanings that are inherent in words opposed to each other according to some characteristics: close - far, good - bad, youth - old age;
3) deterministic meanings, i.e. those “which are, as it were, determined by the meanings of other words, since they represent their stylistic or expressive variants...” (Shmelev D. N. Meaning of a word // Russian language: Encyclopedia. M., 1979 . P. 89). For example: nag (cf. stylistically neutral synonyms: horse, horse); wonderful, wonderful, magnificent (cf. good).
Question 5
Polysemy in modern Russian language. Direct and derived lexical meaning. Types of name transfer
Polysemy(from the Greek rplkhuzmeYab - “polysemy”) - polysemy, the presence of two or more interrelated and historically determined meanings in a word (unit of language).
In modern linguistics, grammatical and lexical polysemy are distinguished. So, the shape of the 2nd person unit. Parts of Russian verbs can be used not only in their own personal meaning, but also in a generalized personal meaning. Wed: " Well, you'll outshout everyone!" And " I won't shout you down" In such a case, we should talk about grammatical polysemy.
Often, when they talk about polysemy, they primarily mean the polysemy of words as units of vocabulary. Lexical polysemy is the ability of one word to serve to designate different objects and phenomena of reality (associatively related to each other and forming a complex semantic unity). For example: sleeve - sleeve(“part of the shirt” is “a branch of the river”). The following connections can be made between the meanings of a word:
metaphor
For example: horse - horse(“animal” - “chess piece”)
metonymy
For example: dish - dish(“type of utensil” - “portion of food”)
synecdoche
It is necessary to distinguish between polysemy and homonymy. In particular, the word “key” in the meanings of “spring” and “musical sign” are two homonyms.
Question 6
Homonymy in modern Russian language. Types of homonyms. Paronyms and paronomases
(Greek homфnyma, from homуs - identical and уnyma - name), identical-sounding units of language, in the meaning of which (unlike the meanings of polysemantic units) there are no common semantic elements. Word formation and syntactic indicators are not decisive objective criteria for distinguishing homonymy from polysemy. Lexical words arise: as a result of the sound coincidence of words of different origins, for example, “trot” (running) and “lynx” (animal); as a result of a complete divergence in the meanings of a polysemantic word, for example, “peace” (universe) and “peace” (absence of war, hostility); with parallel word formation from the same stem, for example, “troika” (horses) and “troika” (mark).
1. Sometimes words are written differently, but sound the same, due to the laws of phonetics of the Russian language: doc-dog ;cat - code ;rock horn ;pillar - pillar ;lead – carry ;spread - spread(deafening of voiced consonants at the end of a word or in the middle of it, before the subsequent voiceless consonant, leads to a coincidence in the sound of words); to become weak - to become weak ;abide – arrive ;multiply - multiply(reduction uh in an unstressed position determines the same sound of verbs), etc. Such homonyms are called phonetic homonyms, or homophones.
2. Homonymy also occurs when different words have the same sound in some grammatical form (one or more): alley(gerund participle from the verb turn pale)– alley(noun); guilt(offence) – guilt(gender singular noun wine);burners(gas) – burners(a game); ate(verb form There is)- ate(plural noun spruce);braid oblique)– braid(gender plural of noun braid);bark - bark - bark(case forms of the noun barking)– bark – bark – bark(verb inflection forms bark);varnish(t.p. singular noun varnish)– varnishes(short form of adjective tasty);my(pronoun) – my wash);three(numeral) – three(imperative mood of the verb rub). Such homonyms that appear as a result of the coincidence of words in individual grammatical forms are called grammatical homonyms, or homoforms.
A special group of homoforms are those words that have passed from one part of speech to another: directly(adverb) – directly(reinforcing particle); exactly(adverb) – exactly(comparative union); Although(gerund) – Although(concessional alliance) etc. Homoforms also include numerous nouns that arose as a result of substantivization of adjectives and participles. These are, for example, the names of various public catering and retail establishments, which can be read on signs while walking along the city streets: Bakery and pastry shop, Sandwich shop, Snack shop, Dumpling shop, Beer shop, Glass shop, Sausage shop, Canteen, Shashlik shop. The words of this group are distinguished from other homoforms by the fact that when inflected in both singular and plural in all case forms they have a corresponding homoform - an adjective. However a couple: noun, adjective namely homoforms, since the adjective has much more forms: singular masculine and singular neuter.
3. Homographs are words that are spelled the same but have different sounds: roast(dish) - roast(summer), flour(for pies) – flour(torment); soar(in the sky) - soar(in a saucepan); wire(diminutive to wire)- wire(delay, slowdown when doing something); that(gerund participle from the verb hide)– taya(gerund participle from the verb melt) etc. It should be noted that not all scientists classify such words as homonyms, since their main feature - different sounds - contradicts the general definition of homonymy.
4. Finally, the largest and most interesting and diverse group consists of lexical homonyms, or homonyms themselves, i.e. such words that coincide with each other in all grammatical forms and regardless of any phonetic laws: Boer(drilling tool) – Boer(a representative of the people inhabiting South Africa); domino(a game) - domino(fancy dress); rook(boat) - rook(chess figure); scrap(a tool used to break ice, asphalt) – scrap(broken or suitable only for recycling, most often metal objects); sailor suit(sailor's wife) - sailor suit(a striped blouse worn by sailors); mandarin(citrus tree or its fruit) – mandarin(a major official in pre-revolutionary China); interfere(to be a nuisance) – interfere(soup in a saucepan); cartridge(combat) – cartridge(boss), etc.
paronyms noun plural h.
Words that sound similar but differ in meaning.
"advisor" and "advisor"
"base" and "basis"
paronomasia w
A stylistic figure consisting of a punning convergence of words that are consonant but have different meanings.
(paronomasia)
"He's not deaf, but stupid."
Question 7
Ways of appearance of homonyms in a language. Criteria for distinguishing the meanings of a polysemantic word and homonyms
In the process of historical development of the dictionary, the appearance of lexical homonyms was due to a number of reasons. One of them is semantic splitting, the disintegration of a polysemantic (polysemantic) word. In this case, homonyms arise as a result of the fact that initially different meanings of the same word diverge and become so distant that in modern language they are already perceived as different words. And only a special etymological analysis helps to establish their previous semantic connections based on some characteristics common to all meanings. In this way, even in ancient times, the homonyms light appeared - illumination and light - Earth, world, universe.
The divergence of meanings of a polysemantic word is observed in the language not only among native Russian words, but also among words borrowed from one language. Interesting observations are provided by a comparison of the homonymy of the etymologically identical agent - a representative of the state, organization and the agent - the active cause of certain phenomena (both words are from the Latin language).
Homonymy can be the result of a coincidence in the sound of words, for example, to speak “to charm one’s teeth” (cf. conspiracy) and to speak (to speak, to begin to speak).
Many of the derived homonymous verbs are partial lexical homonyms: homonymy of the derived verbs fall asleep from sleep and fall asleep - from pour. The formation of such homonyms is largely due to the homonymy of word-forming affixes.
Modern science has developed criteria for distinguishing between homonymy and polysemy, which help to separate the meanings of the same word and homonyms that arose as a result of a complete break in polysemy.
A lexical method for distinguishing polysemy and homonymy is proposed, which consists in identifying synonymous connections between homonyms and polysemant. If consonant units are included in one synonymous series, then the different meanings still retain semantic proximity and, therefore, it is too early to talk about the development of polysemy into homonymy. If their synonyms are different, then we have homonymy. For example, the word root 1 in the meaning "indigenous" has synonyms original, basic; A root 2 in the meaning of “root question” is a synonym main. The words main and main are synonymous, therefore, we have two meanings of the same word. Here's another example; word thin 1 "in the meaning of "not well-fed" forms a synonymous series with adjectives skinny, puny, lean, dry, A thin 2 - “devoid of positive qualities” - with adjectives bad, nasty, bad. The words skinny, frail, etc. are not synonymized with the words bad, nasty. This means that the lexical units under consideration are independent, that is, homonymous.
A morphological method is used to distinguish between two similar phenomena: polysemantic words and homonyms are characterized by different word formation. Thus, lexical units that have a number of meanings form new words using the same affixes. For example, nouns bread 1 - "cereal" and bread 2 - “a food product baked from flour”, form an adjective using a suffix -n-; Wed respectively: grain shoots And bread smell. Different word formation is characteristic of homonyms thin 1 and thin 2. The first one has derivative words thinness, lose weight, skinny; the second - worsen, deterioration. This convinces us of their complete semantic isolation.
Homonyms and polysemantic words, in addition, have different forms; Wed thin 1 - thinner, thin 2 - worse .
A semantic way of distinguishing these phenomena is also used. The meanings of homonym words always mutually exclude each other, and the meanings of a polysemantic word form one semantic structure, maintaining semantic proximity, one of the meanings presupposes the other, there is no insurmountable boundary between them.
However, all three methods of distinguishing polysemy and homonymy cannot be considered completely reliable. There are cases when synonyms for different meanings of a word do not enter into synonymous relationships with each other, when homonym words have not yet diverged during word formation. Therefore, there are often discrepancies in defining the boundaries of homonymy and polysemy, which affects the interpretation of some words in dictionaries.
Homonyms, as a rule, are given in separate dictionary entries, and polysemantic words - in one, with the subsequent selection of several meanings of the word, which are given under numbers. However, different dictionaries sometimes present the same words differently.
So, in the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S. I. Ozhegov the words put- “to place something, somewhere, somewhere” and put- “to decide, to decide” are given as homonyms, and in the “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language” (MAC) - as ambiguous. The same discrepancy exists in the interpretation of other words: duty- "duty" and duty- “borrowed”; okay- “harmony, peace” and okay"structure of a musical work"; glorious- "famous" and glorious- “very good, cute.”
Question 8
Semantic field. Lexico-semantic group. Hyponymy as a special type of relationship between semantic field units
Semantic field- a set of linguistic units united by some common semantic feature. This is a combination of linguistic units carried out according to content (semantic) criteria.
To organize the field, the dominant in the field is identified.
Dominant- a word that can serve as the name of the field as a whole. The dominant is included in the field.
There are fields synonymous And hyponymic. In a synonymous field, the dominant is included in the field along with other members of this field. If the dominant rises above other elements of the field, then such a field is called hyponymic.
The differential semantic feature is seme.
One of the classic examples of a semantic field is a field of color terms, consisting of several color series ( red – pink – pinkish – crimson ; blue – blue – bluish – turquoise etc.): the common semantic component here is “color”.
The semantic field has the following basic properties:
1. The semantic field is intuitively understandable to a native speaker and has a psychological reality for him.
2. The semantic field is autonomous and can be identified as an independent subsystem of the language.
3. Units of the semantic field are connected by one or another systemic semantic relationships.
4. Each semantic field is connected with other semantic fields of the language and, together with them, forms a language system.
Lexico-semantic group- a set of words belonging to the same part of speech, united by intralinguistic connections based on interdependent and interconnected elements of meaning. So, to the lexical-semantic group of the lexeme Earth words include:
planet - globe - world;
soil - soil - layer;
possession - estate - estate - estate;
country - state - power.
Hyponymy (from the Greek ьрб - below, below, under and bputa - name) is a type of paradigmatic relations in the lexicon that underlies its hierarchical organization: the opposition of lexical units that correlate with concepts, the volumes of which intersect, for example. a word with a narrower semantic content (hyponym; see) is opposed to a word with a broader semantic content (hyperonym, or superordinate). The value of the first is included in the value of the second, for example. the meaning of the word birch is included in the meaning of the word tree.
Question 9
Synonymy in modern Russian. Types of synonyms. Synonym functions
Synonyms are words that sound different, but are the same or very close in meaning: necessary - necessary, author - writer, brave - brave, applaud - clap etc. It is usually customary to distinguish two main groups of synonyms: conceptual, or ideographic, associated with the differentiation of shades of the same meaning (enemy - enemy, wet - damp - wet), and stylistic, associated primarily with the expressive-evaluative characteristics of a particular concept (face - mug, hand - hand - paw) .
A group of synonyms consisting of two or more words is called a synonymous series. There may be synonymous series of nouns (work – labor – business – occupation); adjectives (wet – wet – damp); verbs (run - hurry - hurry); adverbs (here - here); phraseological units (pour from empty to empty - carry water with a sieve) .
In a synonymous series, the leading word (dominant) is usually highlighted, which is the bearer of the main meaning: cloth – dress – suit – outfit .
Synonymous relations permeate the entire language. They are observed between words (everywhere - everywhere), between a word and a phraseological unit (rush - run headlong), between phraseological units (neither this nor that - neither fish nor meat) .
The synonymous wealth of the Russian language includes various types synonyms, For example:
lexical synonyms, i.e. synonymous words;
phraseological synonyms, i.e. synonymous phraseological units;
syntactic synonyms, for example:
1) allied and non-union complex sentences: I learned that the train arrives at six o'clock. - I found out: the train arrives at six o'clock;
2) simple sentences with isolated members and complex sentences: A sandy shore strewn with shells spread out in front of me. - In front of me lay a sandy shore, which was strewn with shells;
3) compound and complex sentences: The messenger did not come, and they asked me to carry the letter. -The messenger did not come, so they asked me to carry the letter.
Exists also a special type of synonyms - contextual synonyms. These are words that are not synonyms in themselves, but become synonyms in a certain context, for example:
A strong wind flies freely over a wide distance... So it picked up thin flexible branches - And trembled leaves, talked, made noise, rushed about emerald scattering in the azure sky.
Synonyms play a very important role in language, because by conveying subtle shades and different aspects of a concept, they make it possible to more accurately express a thought and more clearly imagine a specific situation.
The stylistic functions of synonyms are varied. The common meaning of synonyms allows you to use one word instead of another, which diversifies speech and makes it possible to avoid the annoying use of the same words.
The substitution function is one of the main functions of synonyms. Writers take great care to avoid annoying repetition of words. Here, for example, is how N. Gogol uses a group of synonymous expressions with the meaning “to talk, to converse”: “The visitor [Chichikov] somehow knew how to find his way in everything and showed himself to be an experienced socialite. Whatever the conversation was about, he always knew how to support it: whether it was about a horse farm, he said and about the horse farm; they were talking about good dogs, and here he is reported very sensible comments, interpreted whether regarding the investigation carried out by the treasury chamber, he showed that he was not unaware of the judicial tricks; whether there was a discussion about a billiard game - and in a billiard game he did not miss; did they talk about virtue, and about virtue reasoned he did very well, even with tears in his eyes; about making hot wine, and he knew the use of hot wine; about customs overseers and officials, and he judged them as if he were an official and an overseer.”
Synonyms can also perform the function of opposition. Alexander Blok, in an explanatory note for the production of “The Rose and the Cross,” wrote about Gaetan: “... not eyes, but eyes, not hair, but curls, not mouth, but lips.” The same with Kuprin: “He, in fact, did not walk, but dragged along, without lifting his feet from the ground.”
Question 10
Antonymy in modern Russian language. Semantic classification of antonyms (M. R. Lvova, L. A. Novikova - to choose from). Functions of antonyms
Antonyms are words of the same part of speech with opposite lexical meaning: question - answer, stupid - smart, loud - quiet, remember - forget. They are usually opposed on some basis: day And night - by time, easy And heavy– by weight, up And at the bottom- by position in space, bitter And sweet- to taste, etc.
Antonymy relationships can exist between words (North South), between words and phraseological units (win - lose), between phraseological units (to win - to lose) .
There are also different root and same root antonyms: poor - rich, fly - fly .
A polysemantic word with different meanings can have different antonyms. So, the antonym of the word easy meaning “insignificant in weight” is an adjective heavy, and in the meaning of “easy to learn” – difficult .
Main function antonyms(And linguistic And contextual speech) is an expression of opposition, which is inherent in the semantics of such oppositions and does not depend on the context.
The opposite function can be used for different stylistic purposes:
· to indicate the limit of manifestation of a quality, property, relationship, action:
· to actualize a statement or enhance an image, impression, and so on;
· to express an assessment (sometimes in comparative terms) of the opposing properties of objects, actions, and others;
· to affirm two opposing properties, qualities, actions;
· to affirm one of the opposed signs, actions or phenomena of reality by denying the other;
· to recognize some average, intermediate quality, property, etc., possible or already established between two words of opposite meaning.
Question 11
Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of its origin. Borrowed vocabulary. Adaptation of borrowed vocabulary in modern Russian language
The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has gone through a long development process. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign language sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in ancient times, others - relatively recently.
The replenishment of Russian vocabulary proceeded in two directions.
1. New words were created from word-forming elements existing in the language (roots, suffixes, prefixes). This is how the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.
2. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages as a result of economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.
The composition of Russian vocabulary from the point of view of its origin can be schematically presented in the table.
Borrowed are words that came into the Russian language from other languages at different stages of its development. Reason borrowing are close economic, political, cultural and other ties between peoples.
Getting used to the Russian language, which is foreign to them, borrowed words undergo semantic, phonetic, morphological changes, changes in morphemic composition. Some words (school, bed, sail, loaf, chandelier, club) fully mastered and live according to the laws of the Russian language (that is, they change and behave in sentences like native Russian words), and some retain the features borrowing(that is, they do not change and do not act as agreed words), such as indeclinable nouns (avenue, kimono, sushi, haiku, kurabye).
Stand out borrowing: 1) from Slavic languages (Old Slavic, Czech, Polish, Ukrainian, etc.), 2) from non-Slavic languages (Scandinavian, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Germanic, etc.).
Yes, from Polish borrowed words: monogram, hussar, mazurka, tradesman, guardianship, courage, jam, allow, colonel, bullet, donut, draw, harness; from Czech: polka(dance), tights, robot; from Ukrainian: borscht, bagel, kids, grain grower, schoolboy, chaise.
The words came from the German language: sandwich, tie, decanter, hat, package, office, percentage, share, agent, camp, headquarters, commander, workbench, jointer, nickel, potatoes, onions.
From Dutch borrowed maritime terms: , harbor, pennant, berth, sailor, yard, rudder, fleet, Flag, navigator, boat, ballast.
The French language left a significant mark on the Russian vocabulary. From it, words for everyday use entered the Russian language: suit, jacket, blouse, bracelet, floor, furniture, office, buffet, salon, toilet, chandelier, lampshade, service, broth, cutlet, cream; military terms: captain, sergeant, artillery, attack, march, salute, garrison, sapper, landing, squadron; words from the field of art: stalls, play, actor, intermission, plot, repertoire, ballet, genre, role, stage.
In the last decade, in connection with the development of computer technology, a large number of words have entered the Russian language, borrowed from English: floppy disk driver, converter, cursor, file. Began to be used more actively borrowed words, reflecting changes in the economic and socio-political life of the country: summit, referendum, embargo, barrel, ecu, dollar. |
Loan words are recorded in etymological dictionaries of the Russian language.
Many new words come from other languages. They are called differently, most often - borrowings. The introduction of foreign words is determined by contacts between peoples, which necessitates the naming (nomination) of new objects and concepts. Such words may be the result of innovation of a particular nation in any field of science and technology. They can also arise as a result of snobbery and fashion. There are also linguistic reasons: for example, the need to express polysemantic Russian concepts with the help of a borrowed word, to replenish the expressive means of language, etc. All words, getting from the source language into the borrowing language, go through the first stage - penetration. At this stage, words are still connected with the reality that gave birth to them. At the beginning of the 19th century, among the many new words that came from the English language were, for example, tourist and tunnel. They were defined in the dictionaries of their time as follows: a tourist - an Englishman traveling around the world (Pocket Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Published by Ivan Renofants. St. Petersburg, 1837), a tunnel - in London, an underground passage under the bottom of the Thames River (there same). When a word has not yet taken root in the borrowing language, variants of its pronunciation and spelling are possible: dollar, dollar, dolar (English dollar), for example: “By January 1, 1829, there were 5,972,435 dollars in the Treasury of the United States of North America”1 At this stage It is even possible to reproduce a word in writing in a foreign language. In Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin”: “Before him there is bloody roast beef, / And truffles, the luxury of youth...” (Chapter I, XVI). Let us note that the word truffles, written in Russian, seems to Pushkin to have already mastered the language. Gradually, the word of a foreign language, thanks to frequent use in oral and written form, takes root, its external form acquires a stable appearance, and the word is adapted according to the norms of the borrowing language. This is the period of borrowing, or entering the language. At this stage, the strong semantic (meaning-related) influence of the source language is still noticeable.
At the stage of mastering a foreign word among native speakers of one language, folk etymology begins to take effect. When a foreign word is perceived as incomprehensible, they try to fill its empty sound form with the content of a close-sounding and close-in-meaning native word. A famous example is spinzhak (from the English pea-jacket - jacket) - an unfamiliar word, correlated in the popular consciousness with the word back. The last stage of penetration of a foreign word into the borrowing language is rooting, when the word is widely used among native speakers of the recipient language and is completely adapted according to the rules of the grammar of that language. It is included in a full-fledged life: it can acquire words of the same root, form abbreviations, acquire new shades of meaning, etc.
Question 12
Tracing as a special type of borrowing. Exoticisms and barbarisms
In lexicology tracing paper(from fr. calque- copy) is a special type of borrowing foreign words, expressions, phrases. In the Russian language, there are two types of crippled words: derivational and semantic.
Derivative tracing paper- these are words obtained by “morphemic” translation of a foreign word into Russian. Kalka usually does not feel like a borrowed word, since it is composed of native Russian morphemes. Therefore, the real origin of such words is often unexpected for the person who first learns it. So, for example, the word “insect” is a tracing paper from Latin insectum (in-- on the-, sectum- insect).
Among other word-forming cripples we can note such words as chronicler , painting(from Greek); hydrogen , adverb(from Latin); performance , peninsula , humanity(from German); subdivision , concentrate , impression , influence(from French), skyscraper (English) skyscraper), semiconductor (from English. semiconductor). Rzeczpospolita - literal translation from Latin into Polish of the word Republic and translated into Russian - “common cause”
There is partial tracing: in the word workaholic (eng. workaholic) only the first part of the word is traced.
Semantic tracing paper- these are Russian words that received new meanings under the influence of the corresponding words of another language as a result of literalism in translation. So, for example, the meaning of “to evoke sympathy” of the word touch came from the French language. The origin of the meaning “vulgar, unwitty” in the word flat .
Exoticisms- a group of foreign language borrowings denoting objects or phenomena from the life of another, usually an overseas people. Unlike other barbarisms, due to their persistent ethnic association, ecosticisms, with rare exceptions, are not fully assimilated and usually remain on the periphery of the vocabulary of the language. Close to exoticism are localisms, dialectisms and ethnographisms, which describe the life realities of a subethnic group as part of a larger people (for example, the Széklers (Székelys) and Csangó (people) as part of the Hungarian people). Cooking and music are especially distinguished by their exotic vocabulary (the concepts of baursak, salsa, taco, tam-tam, merengue, etc.)
Exoticisms are, in principle, translatable; in extreme cases, they can be translated descriptively, i.e. using expressions (for example, the English “nesting doll” to describe the Russian concept of “matryoshka”). However, due to the lack of an exact equivalent, their brevity and uniqueness are lost during translation, so exoticisms are often borrowed entirely. Having entered the literary language, for the most part they still remain on the periphery of the vocabulary, in its passive reserve. Exoticism also comes and goes in fashion. In modern print and electronic media, including Russian-language ones, the problem of abuse of exotic vocabulary often arises. Thanks to cinema, some exotic concepts have spread quite widely and are often used in an ironic, figurative meaning (shawarma, hara-kiri, samurai, tomahawk, machete, yurt, wigwam, tent, harem, etc.)
Foreign language inclusions (barbarisms)- these are words, phrases and sentences that are in a foreign language environment. Foreign language inclusions (barbarisms) are not mastered or are incompletely mastered by the language receiving them.
Question 13
Native vocabulary
The words of the original vocabulary are genetically heterogeneous. They include Indo-European, Common Slavic, East Slavic and Russian proper. Indo-European are words that, after the collapse of the Indo-European ethnic community (the end of the Neolithic era), were inherited by the ancient languages of this language family, including the Common Slavic language. Thus, for many Indo-European languages, some kinship terms will be common (or very similar): mother, brother, daughter; names of animals, plants, food products: sheep, bull, wolf; willow, meat, bone; actions: take, carry, command, see; qualities: barefoot, shabby, and so on.
It should be noted that even during the period of the so-called Indo-European linguistic community, there were differences between the dialects of different tribes, which, due to their subsequent settlement and distance from each other, increasingly increased. But the obvious presence of similar lexical layers of the very basis of the dictionary allows us to conditionally speak about a once unified basis - the proto-language.
Common Slavic (or Proto-Slavic) are words inherited by the Old Russian language from the language of the Slavic tribes, which by the beginning of our era occupied a vast territory between Pripyat, the Carpathians, the middle reaches of the Vistula and Dnieper, and later moved to the Balkans and to the east. It was used as a single (so called conventionally) means of communication until approximately the 6th-7th centuries AD, that is, until the time when, due to the settlement of the Slavs, the relative linguistic community also disintegrated. It is natural to assume that during this period there were territorially isolated dialect differences, which later served as the basis for the formation of separate groups of Slavic languages: South Slavic, West Slavic and East Slavic. However, in the languages of these groups, words that appeared during the common Slavic period of development of language systems stand out. Such in the Russian vocabulary are, for example, names associated with the plant world: oak, linden, spruce, pine, maple, ash, rowan, bird cherry, forest, pine forest, tree, leaf, branch, bark, root; cultivated plants: peas, poppy, oats, millet, wheat, barley; labor processes and tools: weaving, forging, flogging, hoe, shuttle; dwelling and its parts: house, canopy, floor, roof; with domestic and forest birds: rooster, nightingale, starling, crow, sparrow; food products: kvass, jelly, cheese, lard; names of actions, temporary concepts, qualities: mutter, wander, divide, know; spring, evening, winter; pale, neighbor, violent, cheerful, great, evil, affectionate, dumb, and so on.
East Slavic, or Old Russian, are words that, starting from the 6th-8th centuries, arose only in the language of the Eastern Slavs (that is, the language of the Old Russian people, the ancestors of modern Ukrainians, Belarusians, Russians), who united by the 9th century into a large feudal Old Russian state - Kievan Rus . Among the words known only in East Slavic languages, names of various properties, qualities, actions can be distinguished: blond, selfless, lively, cheap, musty, vigilant, brown, clumsy, gray, good; flounder, seethe, wander, fidget, start, shiver, boil, chop, sway, while away, rumble, swear; kinship terms: uncle, stepdaughter, nephew; everyday names: gaff, twine, rope, stick, brazier, samovar; names of birds, animals: jackdaw, finch, kite, bullfinch, squirrel, viper, cat; units of counting: forty, ninety; words with a temporary meaning: today, after, now and many others.
Actually, Russian are all words (with the exception of borrowed ones) that appeared in the language after it became, first, an independent language of the Russian (Great Russian) people (from the 14th century), and then the language of the Russian nation (the Russian national language was formed during the 17th century). -XVIII centuries).
Actually, many different names for actions are Russian: coo, influence, explore, loom, thin out; household items, food: top, fork, wallpaper, cover; jam, cabbage rolls, kulebyaka, flatbread; natural phenomena, plants, fruits, animals, birds, fish: blizzard, ice, swell, bad weather; bush; Antonovka; muskrat, rook, chicken, chub; names of the sign of an object and the sign of an action, state: convex, idle, flabby, painstaking, special, intent; suddenly, ahead, seriously, completely, briefly, in reality; names of persons by occupation: driver, racer, mason, fireman, pilot, typesetter, serviceman; names of abstract concepts: summary, deception, circumlocution, neatness, caution and many other words with the suffixes -ost, -stvo and so on.
Question 14
Old Slavonicisms
A special group of borrowed words consists of Old Church Slavonicisms. This is the customary name for words that came from the Old Church Slavonic language, the oldest language of the Slavs. In the 9th century. this language was a written language in Bulgaria, Macedonia, Serbia, and after the adoption of Christianity it began to spread to Rus' as a written, bookish language.
Old Slavonicisms have distinctive features. Here are some of them:
1. Disagreement, i.e. combinations ra, la, re, le in place of the Russian oro, olo, ere, barely (enemy - enemy, sweet - malt, milky - milky, breg - shore).
2. Combinations ra, la at the beginning of the word in place of the Russian ro, lo (work - farmer, rook - boat).
3. The combination of railway in place (stranger - stranger, clothes - clothes, driving - driving).
4. Shch in place of the Russian h (lighting - candle, power - can, burning - hot).
5. Initial a, e, yu instead of Russian l, o, y (lamb - lamb, one - one, young man - taken away).
6. In the Russian language there are quite a lot of morphemes of Old Church Slavic origin: - suffixes eni-, enstv-, zn-, tel-, yn- (unity, bliss, life, guardian, pride);
Suffixes of adjectives and participles: eish-, aish-, ash-, ush-, om-, im-, enn- (kindest, bitterest, burning, running, driven, kept, blessed);
Prefixes: voz-, from-, niz-, through-, pre-, pre- (to give, to vomit, to overthrow, excessively, to despise, to prefer);
The first part of complex words: good, godly, evil, sin, great (grace, God-fearing, slander, fall, generosity).
Many of the Old Slavonic words have lost their bookish connotation and are perceived by us as ordinary words of everyday speech: vegetables, time, sweet, country. Others still retain a stylistic connotation of “sublimity” and are used to give special expressiveness to speech (for example, A. Pushkin’s poem “Anchar” or “Prophet”, M. Lermontov’s poem “The Beggar”, etc.).
Question 15
Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of active and passive stock
Based on frequency, active and passive vocabulary is distinguished.
PHRASEOLOGY, a linguistic discipline that studies stable idiomatic (in the broad sense) phrases - phraseological units; the set of phraseological units of a particular language is also called its phraseology.
Most often, phraseological units are understood as stable phrases of the following types: idioms ( kick your ass ,drink bitter ,lead by the nose ,shot sparrow ,till I drop ,to the fullest); collocations ( pouring rain ,decide ,grain of truth ,pose a question); proverbs ( the quieter you go, the further you'll get ,don't get in your own sleigh); sayings ( It is for you ,grandmother ,and St. George's Day ;the ice has broken!); grammatical phraseological units ( almost ;near ;whatever it was); phrase schemes ( X he is in Africa too X ;to all X's ;X as X).
The term " phraseological unit"In relation to the term "phraseology" as a discipline that studies the corresponding means of language, there is no objection. But it is inaccurate as a designation of the linguistic means themselves, which are the object of phraseology; it is enough to compare the relationships between established terms: phoneme - phonology, morpheme - morphology, lexeme - lexicology (cf. phraseme - phraseology).
In educational and scientific literature, attempts have been made to define the concept of a phraseological object. For example, the following definition is given: “a ready-made whole expression with a known and given value in advance is called phraseological turn, or idiom" Signs of phraseological units: direct meaning, figurative meaning, ambiguity, emotional richness.
Phraseological turnover - This is a reproducible linguistic unit of two or more stressed words, integral in its meaning and stable in its composition and structure.
In this case, the following features are highlighted: reproducibility, stability of composition and structure, constancy of the lexical composition. The presence of at least two words in a unit, stability of word order, impenetrability of most phraseological units.
Question 20
Lexico-grammatical classification of phraseological units
Classification of phraseological units by composition.
One of the most characteristic features of a phraseological unit as a reproducible linguistic unit is the constancy of its composition. Taking into account the nature of the composition of phraseological units (specific features of the words forming them), N.M. Shansky identified two groups of phraseological units:
phraseological units formed from words of free use belonging to the active vocabulary of the modern Russian language: “out of the blue, in an hour a teaspoon, a friend of life, take a look, green melancholy, stand with your chest, take you by the throat”;
phraseological turns with lexical-semantic features, that is, those in which there are words of related use, words that are outdated or with a dialectal meaning: “goosebumps, found a shock, a byword, in the arms of Morpheus, upside down, doted on the soul, fraught with consequences smash into pieces like chickens in cabbage soup.”
5. Classification of phraseological units by structure.
As reproducible linguistic units, phraseological units always act as a structural whole of a composite nature, consisting of words that are different in their morphological properties and are in different syntactic relationships. According to the structure of phraseological units, N.M. Shansky divided into two groups:
Matching offer
Matching word combinations
Phraseological phrases that correspond in structure to the sentence.
Among phraseological units that correspond in structure to a sentence and in meaning, N.M. Shansky distinguishes two groups:
Nominative - phraseological units that name this or that phenomenon of reality: “the cat cried, his hands can’t reach it, the chickens don’t peck, no matter where they look, the trail has disappeared,” acting as some member of the sentence;
Communicative - phraseological units that convey entire sentences:
“happy people don’t watch the clock, hunger is not an auntie, grandmother said in two, they carry water for angry people, their heads are spinning, I found a scythe on a stone, don’t sit in your own sleigh, you can’t spoil the porridge with butter,” used either independently or as part of a structural more complex sentence.
Phraseological phrases that correspond in structure to a combination of words.
N.M. Shansky identifies the following typical groups of combinations
. "adjective + noun"
A noun and an adjective can be semantically equal and both are meaning-forming components: “golden fund, beaten hour, white night, Siamese twins, retroactively.”
The meaning-forming component is the noun, the adjective is used as an insignificant member that has an expressive character: “a garden head, a pea jester, Babylonian pandemonium, green melancholy.”
. “noun + genitive form of the noun”
Such phraseological phrases are equivalent in meaning and syntactic functions to a noun: “an open secret, an apple of discord, a point of view, a gift of words, a palm.” Words in such phrases are semantically equal.
. “noun + prepositional case form of the noun”
These phraseological units are lexico-grammatically correlative with the noun, in all of them the dependent components are unchangeable, and the supporting ones form various case forms and have a strictly ordered order of components: “fighting for life, running on the spot, the trick is in the bag - Czech. ruka je v rukave, caliph for an hour, art for art’s sake.”
. "preposition + adjective + noun"
According to the lexical and grammatical meaning and syntactic use in a sentence, these phraseological units are equivalent to an adverb, their constituent words are semantically equal, the order of the components is fixed: “at the bottom of the barrel, in seventh heaven, with a clear conscience, according to old memory, from time immemorial.”
. “prepositional case form of the noun + genitive case form of the noun”
These phrases can be adverbial or attributive; they fix the order of arrangement of the components of the phraseological unit: “forever and ever, to the depths of the soul, in the costume of Adam, in the arms of Morpheus, in the prime of life, worth its weight in gold.”
. “prepositional case form of a noun + prepositional case form of a noun”
Phraseologisms of this group are equivalent in lexical and grammatical meaning and syntactic functions to adverbs, in them nouns are tautologically repeated, the words forming them are semantically equal, the order of the components is fixed: “from dawn to dusk, from cover to cover, from year to year, from ship to the ball, from young to old.”
. "verb + noun"
Phraseologisms of this group are mainly verbal-predicative and act as a predicate in a sentence; the order of the components and their semantic relationship can be different: “cast a fishing rod, take root, burst into laughter, remain silent, prick up your ears.”
. "verb + adverb"
Phraseological units are verbal and act as a predicate in a sentence; the components are always semantically equal; the order of the components can be direct or reverse: “to see through, to get into trouble, to break into pieces, to go to waste.”
. "gerund + noun"
Phraseologisms of this type are equivalent to an adverb; in a sentence they act as circumstances, the order of the components is fixed: “headlong, reluctantly, folded arms, carelessly.”
. “constructions with coordinating conjunctions”
The components of a phraseological unit are homogeneous members of a sentence, expressed in words of the same part of speech, the order of the components is fixed: “entirely and completely, without a rudder and without sails, here and there, at random, oohs and sighs.”
. “constructions with subordinating conjunctions”
According to the lexical and grammatical meaning, such phraseological units are adverbial, in which the order of the components is fixed; at the beginning there is always a conjunction: “like snow, even a stake on your head, even though the grass does not grow, like two peas in a pod, like a cow’s saddle.”
. "constructions with negation not"
According to the lexical and grammatical meaning, such phraseological units are verbal or adverbial, they perform the function of a predicate or adverbial in a sentence, the components are semantically equal with a fixed order of arrangement: “not sparing the belly, not slurping salty, not timid, not at ease, not of this world "
Question 21
Polysemy and homonymy in phraseology
Most phraseological units are characterized by unambiguity: they have only one meaning, their semantic structure is quite monolithic, indecomposable: a stumbling block is “obstacle”, to have one’s head in the clouds is “to indulge in fruitless dreams”, at first glance - “at first impression”, to be perplexed - “to cause extreme difficulty, confusion,” etc.
But there are phraseological units that have several meanings. For example, the phraseological unit wet chicken can mean: 1) “a weak-willed, ingenuous person, a weakling”; 2) “a person who looks pitiful, depressed; upset about something”; fool around - 1) “do nothing”; 2) “behave frivolously, fool around”; 3) "do stupid things."
Polysemy usually arises in phraseological units that have retained partially motivated meanings in the language. For example, the phraseological unit baptism of fire, which originally meant “first participation in battle,” began to be used in a broader meaning, indicating “the first serious test in any matter.” Moreover, polysemy is easier to develop in phraseological units that have a holistic meaning and are correlated with phrases in their structure.
Modern language is characterized by the development of figurative, phraseological meaning of terminological combinations: specific gravity, center of gravity, fulcrum, birthmark, bring to the same denominator, etc.
Homonymous relations of phraseological units arise when phraseological units of identical composition appear in completely different meanings: take word 1 - “to speak at a meeting on one’s own initiative” and take word 2 (from someone) - “to receive a promise, an oath from someone in anything."
Homonymous phraseological units can appear in a language if figurative expressions are based on different signs of the same concept. For example, the phraseological unit let the rooster in the meaning - “start a fire, set fire to something” goes back to the image of a fiery red rooster, reminiscent of a flame in the color and shape of the tail (a variant of the phraseological unit - let the red rooster); The phraseological unit let (give) a rooster in the sense of “make false sounds” was created on the basis of the similarity of the singer’s voice, breaking on a high note, with the “crowing” of a rooster. Such homonymy is the result of a random coincidence of components that form phraseological units.
In other cases, the source of phraseological homonyms becomes the final break in the meanings of polysemantic phraseological units. For example, the meaning of the phraseological unit tiptoe - “walk on the tips of your toes” served as the basis for the appearance of its figurative homonym walk on tiptoe - “to curry favor, to please someone in every possible way.” In such cases, it is difficult to draw the line between the phenomenon of polysemy of phraseological units and homonymy of two phraseological units.
Special mention should be made of the so-called “external homonymy” of phraseological units and free phrases. For example, the phraseological unit soap your neck means “to teach (someone), punish”, and the semantics of the free combination soap your neck is completely motivated by the meanings of the words included in it: You need to do it well soap your neck child to wash off all the dirt. In such cases, the context suggests how one or another expression should be understood - as a phraseological unit or as a free combination of words that appear in their usual lexical meaning; for example: A heavy and strong fish rushed... under the shore. I began bring it out into the open(Paust.). Here the highlighted words are used in their literal meaning, although the metaphorical use of the same phrase has also become entrenched in the language - bringing the phraseology to the surface.
However, since free phrases are fundamentally different from phraseological units, there is no reason to talk about homonymy of such expressions in the exact meaning of the term: this is a random coincidence of linguistic units of different orders.
Question 22
Synonymy and antonymy in phraseology
Phraseologisms that have a similar or identical meaning enter into synonymous relationships: smeared with the same world - two boots of a pair, two birds of a feather; There are countless numbers - at least a dime a dozen, that the sand of the sea is like uncut dogs. Like lexical units, such phraseological units form synonymous rows, which may include corresponding lexical synonyms of the same row; cf.: to leave with a nose - to leave in the fool, to deceive, to avert [someone's] eyes, to rub glasses on [someone], to take on a gun and: to deceive - to fool, to deceive, to bypass, to deceive, to deceive, to fool. The wealth of phraseological, as well as lexical, synonyms creates enormous expressive capabilities of the Russian language.
Phraseological synonyms may differ from each other in stylistic coloring: leave no stone unturned - bookish, inflict reprisals - commonly used, cut like a nut - colloquial, set pepper - colloquial; far away - commonly used, in the middle of nowhere - colloquial. They may not have semantic differences: a shot sparrow, a grated roll, but they may differ in shades of meaning: distant lands, where Makar did not drive his calves; the first means “very far”, the second means “to the most remote, remote places where they are exiled as punishment.”
Phraseological synonyms, like lexical ones, can also differ in the degree of intensity of the action, the manifestation of the attribute: shed tears - shed tears, drown in tears, cry your eyes out (each subsequent synonym names a more intense action compared to the previous one).
Some phraseological synonyms may repeat some components (if phraseological units are based on different images, we have the right to call them synonyms): game not worth it candles - made of sheepskin not worth it , set bath - set pepper, hang head - hang nose, drive dogs - drive quitter.
Phraseological variants should be distinguished from phraseological synonyms, the structural differences of which do not violate the semantic identity of phraseological units: don't hit face down in the dirt - don't hit face down in the dirt throw fishing rod - abandon fishing rod; in the first case, phraseological variants differ in the grammatical forms of the verb, in the second - in the so-called “variant components”.
Phraseological units that are similar in meaning but differ in compatibility and are therefore used in different contexts are also not synonymized. Thus, phraseological units with three boxes and chickens do not peck, although they mean “a lot,” are used in speech differently: the first is combined with the words slander, babble, promise, the second - only with the word money.
Antonymic relations in phraseology are less developed than synonymous ones. The antonymy of phraseological units is often supported by antonymic connections of their lexical synonyms: seven spans in the forehead (smart) - can’t invent gunpowder (stupid); blood with milk (ruddy) - not a drop of blood in the face (pale).
A special group includes antonymic phraseological units that partially coincide in composition, but have components that are opposed in meaning: with a heavy heart - with a light heart, not one of the brave ten - not one of the cowardly ten, turn your face - turn your back. Components that give such phraseological units the opposite meaning are often lexical antonyms (heavy - light, brave - cowardly), but can receive the opposite meaning only as part of phraseological units (face - back)
Question 23
Semantic classification of phraseological units by V. V. Vinogradov
V.V. Vinogradov, also basing his classification on various types of stability, as well as motivation, identified three main types of phraseological units:
*)Phraseological adhesions or idioms - these include phraseological units in which no motivation can be traced. They act as equivalents to words. Examples of phraseological adjuncts or idioms include such expressions as headlong, upside down, etc.
*) Phraseological unities - phraseological unities include motivated phraseological units that have a common inextricable meaning that arises as a result of the merging of the meanings of the components, for example: bend into a ram's horn, give a hand, etc. In this group V.V. Vinogradov also includes phrases-terms: nursing home, exclamation point, etc.
*)Phraseological combinations - these include phrases that include a component that characterizes a phraseologically related meaning that manifests itself only within a strictly defined range of concepts and their verbal meanings.
These restrictions are created by the laws inherent in a particular language, for example: to goggle, but you cannot say: to goggle; refuse flatly, but one cannot say flatly agree, etc. [Vinogradov, 1986].
Classification V.V. Vinogradova is often criticized for the fact that it does not have a single classification criterion. The first two groups - fusion and unity - are distinguished on the basis of the motivation of the phraseological unit, and the third group - phraseological combinations - is distinguished on the basis of the limited compatibility of the word.
N.M. Shansky adds one more to the above types of phraseological units - phraseological expressions. By them he understands phrases that are stable in composition and control, which are not only articulated, but also consisting of words with a free meaning; for example, you love to ride, you love to carry sleds, the spool is small, but expensive, etc. [Shansky 1964]
The selection of phraseological expressions seems quite logical, because While maintaining their direct meaning, these lexical combinations are distinguished by a very high degree of stability.
Lexicology (from the Greek lexikos - related to the word), a section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language, its vocabulary. The subject of study of L is the following aspects of the vocabulary of a language: the problem of the word as the basic unit of language, types of lexical units, the structure of the vocabulary of a language, the functioning of lexical units, ways of replenishment and development of vocabulary, vocabulary and extra-linguistic reality. The lexical composition of the language is heterogeneous. It distinguishes categories of lexical units on different grounds: by sphere of use - commonly used and stylistically marked vocabulary, used in certain conditions and spheres of communication (poetic, colloquial, vernacular, dialectisms), by historical perspective (neologisms, archaisms); by origin (borrowings), active and passive vocabulary. An important aspect of L is the study of words in their relation to reality, since it is in words, in their meanings, that the life experience of a collective in a certain era is most directly fixed. In this regard, issues such as vocabulary and culture are considered.
^ The lexical meaning of a word is the semantic content of the word, equally understood by people speaking a given language. It establishes a connection between a word and the object, phenomenon, concept, action, quality it calls. Lexical meaning reveals the principle by which it is possible to determine properties common to a number of objects, and also establishes the differences that distinguish a given object (open woodland - “sparse, not continuous forest”, general - forest, and different - rare). Lexical meaning consists of many components (components). The lexical meaning of words is explained in explanatory dictionaries. L. Z. is characterized by subject orientation: words point to things and name them; therefore L. Z. is also called the real meaning of the word. L.Z. can be concrete and abstract, general (common nouns) and individual (proper). Proper names, like pronouns, in contrast to common nouns (concrete and abstract), name objects that differ in their subject attribution. The generalization function is an essential property of L.Z.L.Z. is not identical to the concept, although both of them have the function of reflection and generalization.
A lexeme is a significant word; it points to objects and denotes concepts about them; it is capable of acting as a member of a sentence and forming sentences.
Grammatical meanings differ from lexical ones in three main properties:
1. Grammatical meanings differ from lexical ones in their relation to the word and the structure of the language. Unlike the lexical meaning characteristic of a particular word, the grammatical meaning is not concentrated in one word, but, on the contrary, is characteristic of many words of the language.
2. The second difference between grammatical meanings and lexical ones is the nature of generalization and abstraction. If lexical meaning is associated with a generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena of objective reality, their name and expression of concepts about them, then grammatical meaning arises as a generalization of the properties of words, as an abstraction from the lexical meanings of words. For example, the shapes table, wall, window group words (and not objects, phenomena and concepts about them). Grammatical meanings are expressed during word formation, inflection and construction of combinations and sentences.
3. The third difference between grammatical meanings is their relationship to thinking and objective reality, that is, to the world of things, phenomena, actions, ideas, ideas. If words are a nominative means of language and, as part of specific phrases, express human knowledge, then the forms of words, phrases and sentences are used to organize thought and its design.
Phraseology and classification of phraseological units.
Phraseology is a linguistic discipline that studies stable idiomatic phrases - phraseological units; the set of phraseological units of a particular language is also called its phraseology.
Phraseologisms should be distinguished from free phrases.
The most important property of phraseological units is their reproducibility. They are not created in the process of speech, but are used as they are fixed in the language. Phraseologisms are always complex in composition and are formed by combining several components. The components of a phraseological unit are not used independently and do not change their usual meaning in phraseology (blood with milk - healthy, ruddy). Phraseologisms are characterized by constancy of meaning. In free phrases, one word can be replaced by another if it makes sense. Phraseologisms do not allow such a replacement (the cat cried - you cannot “say the cat cried”). But there are phraseological units that have options: spread your mind - spread your brain. However, the existence of variants of phraseological units does not mean that words can be replaced in them.
Phraseologisms that do not allow any variation are absolutely stable phrases. Most phraseological units are characterized by an impenetrable structure: the inclusion of new words in them is not allowed. However, there are also phraseological units that allow the insertion of individual clarifying words (soap your head - lather your head thoroughly). In some phraseological units, it is possible to omit one or more components (go through fire and water /and copper pipes/). Phraseologisms differ in the degree of cohesion: cannot be divided (to beat the head); less cohesion (making mountains out of molehills); weak degree of cohesion. Phraseologisms are characterized by stability of grammatical structure; the grammatical forms of words usually do not change in them. Most phraseological units have a strictly fixed word order. 4 types of phraseological units: phraseological unity - a phraseological turn with a metaphorical figurative meaning, having a homonym - a free combination of words (soap your head - scold and lather your head with soap). Phraseological combination is a phraseological phrase characterized by reproducibility and holistic meaning arising from the meanings of its constituent words (question mark, win). Phraseological fusion - idiom - phraseological phrase, the meaning of which is figurative, holistic and does not depend on the meanings of the words included in it, often outdated (get into trouble, eat the dog). Phraseological expressions or established phrases - sentences with a rethought composition (don’t have 100 rubles, but have 100 friends).
Etymology and internal form of the word.
Etymology (from the Greek truth and word) is a branch of linguistics that studies the origin of words.
The subject of etymology as a branch of linguistics is the study of the sources and process of formation of the vocabulary of a language and the reconstruction of the vocabulary of the language of the ancient period.
The purpose of the etymological analysis of a word is to determine when, in what language, according to what word-formation model, on the basis of what linguistic material and with what meaning the word arose, as well as what historical changes in its primary form and meaning determined the form and meaning known to the researcher. Reconstruction of the primary form and meaning of a word is the subject of etymological analysis.
Words of any natural language can be - according to their origin - divided into the following groups: original words, i.e. words inherited from the ancestor language (large group); words formed using existing (or existing) word-formation means in the language; words borrowed from other languages; artificially created words; words that arose as a result of various “language errors”.
The internal form of a word is the motivation of the lexical meaning of a word by its word-formation and semantic structure. V.F. reveals some feature of the object on the basis of which the name originated. The objective properties of objects and their awareness are decisive when naming. Since V.F. indicates only one attribute of an object and concept, then the same object, the same concept can have several names.
V.F. is present in a word at the moment of its creation. In the course of historical development, a process of semantic simplification occurs, as a result of which words with a lost V.F. appear - unmotivated words.
The loss of V.F. is associated with a change in the morphemic structure of the word, its phonetic and semantic changes. An increase in the number of unmotivated words occurs as a result of de-etymologization and borrowing of words. De-etymologization is a historical change in the word-formation structure and meanings of words, which leads to the severing of connections between related words and the formation of unmotivated derivative stems, which act in modern language as new (independent) roots.
A forgotten V.F. of a word can be revived again with the formation of new words that revive it, or with special attention to it. The phenomenon of the so-called is associated with the facts of the revival of the V.F. word. folk etymology. This is false etymologization, i.e. establishing an internal form for a word that it does not have. Borrowed words are often subject to false etymologization: morphemes of the native language are installed in them.
27. Homonyms and their varieties.
Homonyms and their varieties.
Homonymy (from the Greek nomos - identical, onima - name) is a coincidence in the sound and spelling of words that have different meanings, outwardly reminiscent of polysemy.
However, the use of a word in different meanings does not give grounds to talk about the appearance of new words each time, while with homonymy, completely different words collide, coinciding in sound and spelling, but having nothing in common in semantics (marriage in the meaning of “matrimony” and marriage - spoiled products; the first is formed from the verb “brother” using the suffix “k”, its homonym noun “marriage” was borrowed from the German language).
Together with homonymy, related phenomena related to the sound and graphic aspects of speech - homophony and homography - are usually considered. Homophones are words that sound the same but are spelled differently (onion - meadow). Homographs are words that are the same only in writing, but differ in pronunciation. Homographs usually have stress on different syllables (circles - circles). Homoforms - when only individual forms of words coincide (verse - verb and verse - noun). Actually, homonyms, which can fall into different groups: genuine homonyms, words that sound the same, have the same phoneme composition and morphological composition, but have different origins from two words that previously did not match in sound (onion - plant and onion - weapon). Such homonyms arise in a language either when words are borrowed, or as a result of the operation of phonetic laws in their language. Those cases when the same words are formed from the same roots or bases independently of each other, in the same part of speech, and with the same inflection (cabbage roll - blue paint and cabbage roll - food). BUT: Laika is a breed of dog and Laika is a type of soft leather - this is a case of obvious polysemy. There may also be cases when the same word is borrowed at different times, with different meanings (gang - a gathering of bandits and gang - brass band). A special type of homonymy is the case of conversion, when a given word passes into another part of speech without changing its morphological and phonetic composition (evil is a short adjective, evil is an adverb and evil is a noun). The most difficult cases are those where polysemy diverges so much that it becomes homonymous. As a rule, in these cases, the difference in lexical meaning is supported by a difference in grammatical connections (to insist - to achieve the fulfillment of something and to insist - to prepare an infusion; the undesirable form in both cases is to insist, but one verb requires a direct object, and the other cannot have it, so these are two different words).
28. Synonyms. Their definition and classification (conceptual, stylistic)
Synonyms (from the Greek eponymous) are words of the same part of speech that have completely or partially coinciding meanings. The unit of semantic comparison of lexical synonyms is the elementary meaning of the word. Therefore, a polysemantic word can be included in several synonymous series (or paradigms) at once. The members of each series are identified semantically and stylistically relative to the dominant of the series, i.e. words that are semantically simplest, stylistically neutral: “tall – tall – long – lanky”
According to the degree of synonymy (identity, proximity of meanings and ability to replace each other), synonyms are divided into complete (strike - strike) and partial (line - dash).
Taking into account the semantic and stylistic differences of synonyms, they are divided into several groups. Synonyms that differ in shades of meaning are called semantic (youth - youth, red - crimson - scarlet). Synonyms that have the same meaning but differ in stylistic coloring are called stylistic. These include: synonyms belonging to various functional styles of speech (newlyweds /official style/ and young people /colloquial/); synonyms belonging to the same functional style, but having different emotional and expressive shades (smart - brainy / with a touch of rudely familiar /). Synonyms that differ both in meaning and in their stylistic coloring are called semantic-stylistic (wander - wander - stagger - wander). The most important condition for the synonymy of words is their semantic proximity, and in special conditions - identity. Depending on the degree of semantic proximity, synonymy of words can manifest itself to a greater or lesser extent. Synonymy is most pronounced when there is semantic identity of words (linguistics - linguistics). Conceptual synonyms differ from each other in lexical meaning. This difference is manifested in the varying degrees of the designated attribute (frost - cold), in the nature of its designation (crimson - purple - bloody), and in the volume of the expressed concept (banner - flag) and in the degree of connectedness of the lexical meaning (black - black)
When establishing synonymous relations, it is necessary to take into account the synchronicity of the lexical units under consideration. For example, the words “wanderer” and “tourist” do not form a synonymous series: they belong to different historical eras.
Lexicology is a science that focuses on the vocabulary of a particular language. It has its own laws and categories. This science deals with various aspects of words, as well as their functions and development.
Concept
Lexicology is a science that studies the vocabulary of a language and its features. The subject of this section of linguistics is the following:
- Functions of lexical units.
- The problem of the word as a basic component of language.
- Types and types of lexical units.
- Structure of the vocabulary of the language.
This is not a complete list of what lexicology studies. This science deals with the issues of replenishment and expansion of the vocabulary, and also examines the connections and contradictions between lexical units.
Object of study
The word and its meaning are the basis for many sciences. These issues are dealt with by morphology, as well as various areas of word formation. However, if in these sciences words are a means of studying grammatical structures or studying various models for different variants of word formation, then what lexicology studies is used directly to understand the specifics of the words themselves. Lexical units are considered not just as a collection of letters and sounds, but are an integral system that has its own connections, functions, categories and concepts. This is the object of study of lexicology. She considers not individual words, but the entire vocabulary as something whole and inseparable.
This approach has its own characteristics. This allows us to categorize not only words, but also stable phrases that have a certain analytical role.
Word problem
Lexicology of the modern Russian language focuses on the object and subject of its study. Since a word is considered as a certain unit that has connections between its form and content, it is considered in three main aspects:
- Structural. The form of the word, its structure and constituent components are studied.
- Semantic. The meaning of lexical units is considered.
- Functional. The role of words in speech and in the general structure of language is explored.
If we talk about the first aspect, then lexicology is a science that establishes specific criteria for determining the difference and identity of individual words. To do this, lexical units are compared with phrases, and an analytical structure is developed that allows one to establish word invariants.
As for the semantic aspect, this is dealt with by a separate science - semasiology. It studies the connection between a word and a specific object. This is important for lexicology. She studies the word and its meaning, as well as its individual categories and types, which allows us to distinguish such concepts as monosymy (univocality) and polysymy (ambiguity). Lexicology also studies the reasons that lead to the appearance or loss of a word's meaning.
The functional aspect considers a lexical unit as an object that is associated with other similar elements and builds an entire system of language. The important role here is the interaction of vocabulary and grammar, which, on the one hand, support and, on the other, limit each other.
Concept of vocabulary
Lexicology considers words as a system that consists of several subsystems. Lexical units form groups that are different in volume, form and content. This is part of what lexicology studies. Vocabulary is studied simultaneously in two aspects: as group relations between individual units and their correct arrangement in relation to each other. Thanks to this, vocabulary can be divided into separate categories. For example, homonyms, paronyms, synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, etc.
Additionally, almost any branch of linguistics, including Russian or English lexicology, studies larger groupings of words, which are called fields. This is usually built on the basis of the core of the field, for example, a certain number of keywords, and the boundaries themselves, which are various paradigmatic, semantic, grammatical or other types of relationships with given lexical units.
Sections of lexicology
Like any other science, lexicology has its own system of disciplines that are responsible for certain aspects of its object and subject of study:
- Semasiology. Deals with the meanings of words and phrases.
- Onomasiology. Study the procedure for naming objects and phenomena.
- Etymology. Explores the origins of words.
- Onomastics. Deals with proper names. This applies to both people's names and place names.
- Stylistics. Study the meaning of words and expressions of a connotative nature.
- Lexicography. Deals with ways of organizing and compiling dictionaries.
- Phraseology. Explores phraseological units and persistent expressions.
Sections of lexicology have their own categories, as well as the object and subject of study. In addition, there are some types of this science. In particular, we are talking about general, particular, historical, comparative and applied lexicology. The first type is responsible for the general patterns of vocabulary, including its structure, stages of development, functions, etc. Private lexicology deals with the study of a specific language. The historical type is responsible for the development of words in connection with the history of the names of objects and phenomena. Comparative lexicology studies words to identify relationships between different languages. The latter type is responsible for processes such as speech culture, translation features, linguistic pedagogy and lexicography.
Categories of lexical items
The vocabulary of any language is diverse and heterogeneous. Accordingly, categories are identified that have their own distinctive features and characteristics. Russian lexicology foresees the following subtypes:
- By scope: commonly used words and lexical units that are used in special situations (science, poetry, vernacular, dialects, etc.).
- According to emotional load: neutral and emotionally charged units.
- According to historical development: neologisms and archaisms.
- According to its origin and development: internationalisms, borrowings, etc.
- In terms of functionality - active and passive lexical units, as well as occasionalisms.
Given the constant development of language, the boundaries between words are unclear, and they can move from one group to another.
Problems
Like any other science, lexicology deals with solving certain problems. Modern experts highlight the following:
- Frequency of words in the text.
- The difference between lexical units in writing and in spoken language.
- Possibilities of words that allow you to create new names for objects and phenomena.
- Changing vocabulary meanings.
Science also studies the combinability of words at different levels: semantic and lexical.
Ways to replenish your vocabulary
Lexicology deals with the study of nomination options. This refers to various ways and methods of expanding vocabulary. For this purpose, both the internal resources of a particular language and the use of lexical units from other languages can be used. There are the following ways to replenish vocabulary:
- Word formation is the creation of new words.
- Constructing new meanings for existing words: polysemy, transfer of meanings, etc.
- Formation of persistent phrases.
- Borrowing.
These methods are typical for any language, but in each specific case they have their own characteristics and distinctive features.
Methods
For its needs, lexicology uses general linguistic research methods. These include:
- Distribution. Responsible for determining the scope of a lexical unit, the number of meanings, etc.
- Substitution. Studies the phenomena of synonymy and variation of words.
- Component method. Responsible for splitting lexical units into individual components, and also deals with their general structure.
- Transformation. It is used in the process of word formation to determine the main component of a word.
- It is used to determine the frequency of use of lexical units, as well as to calculate their semantic, paradigmatic and other types of connections.
Information obtained using these methods is also used in other sciences, including psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, as well as a number of social disciplines.
The term "lexicology" is made up of two Greek elements: lexis (lexis) and logos (logos). Both meant “word” in ancient Greek. Thus, lexicology is a word about a word, or the science of words. The vocabulary of a language is the totality of all words and their equivalent phrases (phraseological units).
Sections of lexicology
1. Onomasiology - studies the vocabulary of a language, its nominative means, types of vocabulary units of a language, methods of nomination.
2. Semasiology - studies the meaning of vocabulary units of a language, types of lexical meanings, and the semantic structure of the lexeme.
3. Phraseology - studies phraseological units.
4. Onomastics is the science of proper names. Here we can distinguish the largest subsections: anthroponymy, which studies proper names, and toponymy, which studies geographical objects.
5. Etymology - studies the origin of individual words.
6. Lexicography - deals with issues of compiling and studying dictionaries.
7. The focus of the study of lexicology is the word.
Token
Having become familiar with the types of words presented in the language, one can introduce another concept presented in lexicology, namely, the concept of a lexical word, or lexeme. A lexeme is a significant word that points to objects and denotes concepts about them. A lexeme is capable of acting as a member of a sentence and forming sentences; it can be simple (a lexeme is a word) and compound (a lexeme is a compound name, for example: a railway, a holiday home). In this understanding, function words and forms of words are not included in the concept of “lexeme”.
How do the terms lexeme and word relate?
In some cases they denote the same fact of language. So a person is both a word and a lexeme; in, would. From are words, but not lexemes. The sentence “Man is a friend to man” contains three words, but two lexemes. Consequently, the term lexeme diverges from the term word. The latter names both the function word and the form of the word. Word forms that differ only in grammatical meaning are not considered separate lexemes (kot - kota - kotu - cat). They form a paradigm, that is, a system of word forms of one lexeme.
The lexical meaning of a word is the content of the word, reflecting in the mind and consolidating in it the idea of an object, property, process, phenomenon, and so on. This is the correlation established by our thinking between a sound complex and an object or phenomenon of reality, which is designated by this complex of sounds.
The carrier of lexical meaning is the stem of the word. The meaning of a word reflects the general and at the same time essential characteristics of an object, learned as a result of people’s social practice. Lexical meanings can be concrete and abstract, general (common nouns) and singular (proper).
Word problems in language
Shcherba wrote in one of his last articles: “Really, what is a word? I think that it will be different in different languages. It follows from this that the concept of a word does not exist at all.”
This issue is covered differently by Smirnitsky, who in his article “On the Question of the Word” wrote that “the word acts not only as the basic unit of vocabulary, but also as the central nodal unit of language in general.” When presenting material about words, we will adhere to precisely this point of view.
The linguistic encyclopedic dictionary (M., 1990) gives the following definition of the concept of a word:
The word is the basic structural-semantic unit of language, serving to name objects and their properties, phenomena, relations of reality, possessing a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features specific to a given language.
The most important features of a word
A word, like any other unit of language, according to Smirnitsky, has two important features:
1) It has not only an external (sound) side, but also an externally expressed meaning (semantic or emotional content).
When considering the question of the two-sidedness of a word, we should dwell on the very nature of this connection between the sound of a word and its meaning.
The connection between the sound and meaning of a word is, in principle, conditional, arbitrary, or unmotivated. So, for example, there is no inherently obligatory connection between the meaning table and the sound Tisch. As is known, in different languages the meaning table is associated with different sound complexes: in English. table, in Russian Table, in it. Tisch. The principle of convention applies to simple, indecomposable units; completely, actually to morphemes.
As for more complex formations, in them, in addition to the principle of convention (since complex formations include simple units), the principle of motivation comes first. Correlating with the concept of motivation is the term “internal form of a word,” which refers to the motivation of the lexical meaning of a word by its word-formation and semantic structure. The internal form of the word reveals some attribute of the object on the basis of which the name originated. For example, the redstart bird once amazed a person with its unusually bright, seemingly burning tail. This symptom that struck a person was the basis for the name of this bird. Of course, the feature that forms the basis of the name is not always so bright and impressive. It is usually much calmer: a candlestick is what is under the candle, and a thimble is what is put on the finger - a finger, a snowdrop, a flower that appears in the spring, when there is still snow on the fields.
2) The word appears not as a work created in the process of speech, but as something that already exists and is only reproduced in speech.
By the way, morphemes also satisfy the above requirements, and therefore can rightfully be considered units of language. It should also be noted that proverbs, sayings, aphorisms and generally various sayings, reproduced again and again as whole units, also act, according to Smirnitsky, as units of language, since they already exist in the language and are only reproduced in speech. But the sentence then is not, according to Smirnitsky, a unit of language.
It is necessary to dwell on the issue of the salience of a word in the flow of speech. In certain cases, certain phonetic moments serve to highlight a word, to delimit it from neighboring words. So, for example, the lack of emphasis on a full-valued unit that has a substantive meaning in Germanic languages is usually an indicator that we are dealing with only part of the word, for example. English Railway, blackboard, German. Eisenbahn, Schwarzbrot, where the lack of emphasis on -way, -board, -bahn, -brot shows that these units in these cases do not represent separate words, but are only components of words. Such phonetic moments, capable of expressing the difference between a word and part of a word, should be considered only as some additional, auxiliary means of highlighting a word. Why? The fact is that with such a selection, the word is treated as if it were only a sound segment. Meanwhile, a word, as a unit of language, is a formation that has both a sound side and a semantic side. The main signs of the distinctiveness and completeness of a word should be sought based on the understanding of the word as the basic unit of the vocabulary of a language and, at the same time, a unit that is capable of grammatical change and grammatical combination into sentences, into coherent meaningful speech with other units of the same order.
The changeability of a word presupposes a certain form of it: since the same word changes, something basic, actually vocabulary, lexical, stands out in it, remaining the same with various changes in the word, and, on the other hand, something additional, variable, belonging together however, not to a given specific word, but to a known class or category of words, abstracted from specific words - grammatical, associated with the use of the word in various works of speech. Thus, the basic, lexical meaning of the word turns out to be supplemented, complicated by certain grammatical meanings, which are materially expressed in external, sound differences between individual varieties - the grammatical forms of the word: this gives the word a certain formality.
Words turn out to be grammatically, both morphologically and syntactically, designed, in a certain way adapted to their joint functioning in coherent, meaningful speech. This formalization of the word gives it a certain completeness, which makes it quite easy to isolate it from speech.
The internal integrity of the word (whole form) of the word is revealed in comparison with the structure of the phrase. In contrast to words as completely formed formations, phrases can be defined as separately formed formations. This can be illustrated with the following examples. If we compare the language education das Schwarzbrot and the language education das schwarze Brot, which includes the same root elements as the first education, then it is easy to see that they, while denoting the same object of objective reality and not significantly different in their meaning, are fundamentally different in its relation to the grammatical structure, in its design. This difference lies in the fact that in the first language formation - a word - both components are formalized once, while in the second language formation - a phrase - there is an independent grammatical design for each component. In other words, the formation of Schwarzbrot is completely formed, and the formation of das schwarze Brot is separately formed.
The integrity of the word itself expresses a certain semantic integrity: it emphasizes that a given object or phenomenon is thought of as one, special whole, even if the complexity of its structure is noted or its individual features are highlighted. So, speaking das Schwarzbrot, we pay main attention to the object denoted by this word, although we mean its individual aspects: a) bread, food product and b) the quality of this product in color. On the contrary, if we say das schwarze Brot, individual aspects of the designated phenomenon come to the fore, and through the perception of individual aspects of this object or phenomenon, the object or phenomenon itself as a whole is realized.
Semantic structure of a word- semantic structure of the basic unit of vocabulary (see Word). S. s. With. manifests itself in its polysemy (see) as the ability, with the help of internally related meanings, to name (denote) various objects (phenomena, properties, qualities, relationships, actions and states). The semantic structure of an unambiguous word is reduced to its seme composition (see Seme) .
The simplest unit (element) of the semantic structure of a polysemantic word is its lexical-semantic variant (LSV), i.e. with a lexical meaning (see), associated with other lexical meanings by certain relationships, the main of which are hierarchical: the expression of subordination of dependent lexical meaning from the south to the main thing. In S. s. With. lexical-semantic variants are related to each other due to the commonality of the internal form (see Internal form of a word), their mutual motivation, and deducibility from each other.
Therefore, in dictionaries, each preceding LSV determines the interpretation of the subsequent one, for example. circle ^ “part of the pchoskosgn, limited by the circle, as well as the circle itself” ~^- circle± “object in the shape of a circle” (rescue, rubber circle), [circle-) “closed area, within the outlined boundaries of the cut there is fulfillment and differentiation something" (range of responsibilities, interests, issues)], [circle "a group of people united by common interests, sanilamn" (circle of acquaintances, friends; in one's circle)], [circle "a social group of people primarily engaged in intellectual, creative work "(wide circles of the public, literary, journalistic circles; about diplomatic circles: in the circle of scientists, specialists)], etc. Here, hierarchically, the main LSV is the circle in the content of which the internal form is most manifested; all other LSVs of the word circle are metaphorically connected with this LSV (by similarity of form). At<ггом представление о круге присутствует в толковании значений всех ЛСВ слова и внутренне связывает их в единое целое. Основанием для выделения главного и частных значений (или иначе: главного и частных ЛСВ) служит различный характер взаимодействия слова в таких значениях с контекстом, т. е. фрагментом текста, необходимым и достаточным для определения того или иного значения слова. Главное значение в наименьшей степени обусловлено контекстом. Слово в главном (первом в словарях) значении является семантически наиболее простым по своему содержанию (ср. вода\ "прозрачная бесцветная жидкость") и обладает в силу этого самой широкой н свободной сочетаемостью с другими лексическими единицами. Все прочие значения слова (его ЛСВ) выступают как частные. В частных значениях по сравнению с главным слово в значительно большей степени обусловлено контекстом, присоединяет к себе его элементы и является в силу этого семантически более сложным (напр., вода2 "минеральный, газированный, фруктовый напиток", т. е. вода+содержащая минеральные соли; насыщенная газом; приготовленная из фруктов), при атом характеризуется ограниченной, избирательной сочетаемостью: минеральная, сельтерская, газированная, фруктовая вода.
The main meaning is called the primary semantic function of the word, and the particular meanings are its secondary semantic functions.
Along with the usual dictionary meanings (main, particular) in S. p. With. the general meaning is distinguished as its invariant (from the Latin invarians - unchanging), opposed to variant meanings: this is a coinciding part of the content of all meanings (LSV) of a word, something constant, unchangeable in them. It stands out like a common factor in algebra: ab + ac + ad = = a(b + c + d), is an extremely generalized and semantically simple content and represents a linguistic abstraction useful for the semantic analysis of linguistic units. The relationship of the meanings of a word to its general meaning [i.e. e. to the general content of all its variants] allows us to establish their semantic hierarchy according to the degree of proximity to it: the central, dominant meanings turn out to be semantically the simplest, the peripheral ones - more complex and therefore further removed from the general (invariant) meaning of the word than the first. In S. s. With. certain values (LSV) may die out. For example, the meaning of “beautiful” in the common Slavic adjective red (cf. Red Square) was historically original, the main one in the word formed from the same stem as the word beauty. In the meaning of color, the word red began to be used later, in the era of the separate existence of the Eastern Slavs. languages. This meaning has become the main one in S. s. s, leading to its partial restructuring. At the same time, S. s. With. is constantly enriched with new meanings, since a word is a unit of an “open” lexical system, for example. the meaning of “a person who swims in open water in winter” in the word walrus (cf. walrus section), “effective attacking player in football, hockey” in the word scorer (cf. best scorer of the season), etc.
All words are divided into word-formation motivated (derivatives) and unmotivated (non-derivatives)). Word-formatively motivated are words whose meaning and sound are determined in the modern language by other words of the same root (motivating, or producing). Motivated words are recognized as being formed from motivating words: table - table ‘small table’, white - belet ‘become white, whiter’. The meaning and sound of word-formative unmotivated words (table, white) are not determined in the modern language by other cognate words; they are not recognized as formed from other words.
A motivated word is connected with another word with the same root or with several words with the same root through relations of word-formation motivation. Motivation is a relationship between two words of the same root in which the meaning of one of them is either determined through the meaning of the other (house - house 'small house', strength - strong man 'man of great physical strength'), or is identical to the meaning of the other in all its components, except for the grammatical meaning of a part of speech (walk - walking, daring - daring, bold - boldly), or completely identical to the meaning of another with a difference in the stylistic coloring of these words (knee - razg. kolenka).
Words with the same root, devoid of the named properties (house and house), are not in a relationship of motivation with each other.
One of the two cognate words connected by the relations of word-formation motivation is motivating, and the other is motivated. The motivation of a word is determined by four rules that apply in the following cases:
The compared words with the same root have different lexical meanings, and in their stems, in addition to the root, a different number of sound segments are isolated (the stem of one of them may be equal to the root). In this case, the motivated word is the word whose base is longer by any sound segment, which is recognized as a word-forming affixal morph (see § 16): forest - forest-ok, stand - stand.
The compared words of the same root have different lexical meanings, and their stems contain the same number of sound segments. In this case, motivated is a word that is semantically more complex, the meaning of which is determined through another word compared with it: chemistry - chemist ‘chemistry specialist’, artist - artist ‘woman artist’.
The meanings of the compared cognate words are identical in all their components, except for the grammatical meaning of the part of speech. In this case: a) in pairs “verb - noun denoting the same action” (draw - drawing, exit - exit, creak - creak) and “adjective - noun denoting the same attribute” (brave - courage, graceful - grace , blue - blue), regardless of the length of the stems of the words being compared, the noun is motivated; b) in the “adjective - adverb” pair, the motivated word is the word whose stem is longer by any segment - the word-forming affixal morph (see paragraph 1): cf. today - today-sh-y and bold-y - bold-o, where -o is part of the stem (suffix).
Note. The exception to the rule formulated in paragraph 3a is: 1) pairs of words consisting of a noun that does not have a suffix with the meaning of action, and a verb with the suffix -nicha-, -stvova-, or -ova-/-irova-/- izirova-/-izova-: in such pairs, the verb is motivated, since in modern language, with the help of these suffixes, verbs are easily formed from nouns with the meaning of action, and nouns with the meaning of action are not formed from such verbs without the help of a suffix: focus - to play tricks, blasphemy - blaspheme, salute - salute, repair - repair, terror - terrorize; 2) pairs consisting of a noun ending in -stv(o) and an adjective in which -stv- is followed by the suffix: courage - courageous, ignorance - ignorant.
One of the words in a motivational relationship is stylistically neutral, while the other has some stylistic connotation. In this case, regardless of the length of the stems of the compared words, the stylistically colored word is motivated: ship - ship (colloquial), individual - individual (colloquial).
A motivated word differs from a motivating word by certain word-formation means. Affixal morphs (most often), as well as cutting off part of the stem, a fixed order of components and a single emphasis on one of the components in additions and splices (for more details, see § 31) act as word-forming means for motivation.
Lecture 5
Lexicology, phraseology
The word as the main nominative unit of language, its differential features.
Lexical meaning of the word and concept.
Lexical system of language.
The concept of phraseological units Types of phraseological units.
Lexicology as a branch of linguistics.
Lexicology(gr. lexis– word + logos- doctrine) is a section of linguistics that studies the word as a unit of the vocabulary of a language (vocabulary) and the entire lexical system (vocabulary) of the language. The term vocabulary (gr. lexikos– verbal, dictionary) serves to designate the vocabulary of a language. This term is also used in narrower meanings: to define a set of words used in one or another functional variety of language (book vocabulary) in a separate work (lexicon “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign”); you can talk about the vocabulary of a writer (Pushkin’s vocabulary) and even one person (The speaker has a rich vocabulary).
Lexicology studies the patterns of functioning and development of the vocabulary of a language, develops principles of stylistic classification of words, norms of literary word usage in its relationship with vernacular, issues of professionalism, dialectisms, archaisms, neologisms, normalization of lexicalized phrases.
Lexicology can be descriptive, or synchronous(gr. syn - together + chronos - time), then it explores the vocabulary of the language in its modern state, and historical, or diachronic (gr. dia - through + chronos - time), then its subject is the development of the vocabulary of a given language. There are also general lexicology, which examines the vocabulary of different languages, identifies general patterns and the functioning of their lexical systems, and private lexicology, which studies the vocabulary of one language. Subject comparative Lexicology is the vocabulary of one language in comparison with other languages in order to discover similarities and differences.
All branches of lexicology are interconnected: data from general lexicology is necessary when studying the vocabulary of a particular language to understand the deep essence of lexical units, their connection with the cognitive structures of consciousness; many lexical phenomena require historical commentary that clarifies the features of their semantics and use; information from comparative lexicology helps to understand many features and patterns of functioning of the vocabulary of a particular language, such as the commonality of lexical composition, borrowing, interference, and others.
Lexicology occupies an equal place among other linguistic disciplines and is inextricably linked with them, for example, with phonetics: units of lexicology are signs of the connection established by our thinking between complexes of sounds of human speech and what these complexes are called in the surrounding world, the nomination of objects of reality. Among the linguistic disciplines, lexicology is most closely related to grammar. In order to accurately determine the meaning of a word, its paradigmatic and syntagmatic connections with other words, its role in the text, need to know grammatical status of this word (part of speech, general categorical meaning, basic morphological features and syntactic function), in turn, the general categorical meaning of one or another part of speech is realized in the private lexical meanings of specific words as units of vocabulary. The formation of many grammatical forms of a word directly depends on the features of its lexical meaning, for example, short forms and forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives. The compatibility of words in phrases and sentences also depends on the characteristics of these words as lexemes.